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Contents
0.1

Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.2

Calculus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.3

Linear Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.4

Number theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.5

Abstract Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

0.6

Additional Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10

0.7

Set theory, cardinality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

0.8

Graph theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11

0.9

Combinatorics and Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

0.10 Real analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

0.11 Metrics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
0.12 Complex analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
0.13 Practiced problems: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

0.1

Polynomials

Remark: Polynomial graph and roots

Given some roots of a polynomial, we also always know where the polynomial goes to at x +, , a
condition which helps shape the curve in important ways
Theorem: Polynomial Division Algorithm
Given polynomials p(x), d(x) 6= 0, r(x), there exist unique q(x) s.t. p(x) = q(x)d(x) + r(x), where r(x) degree
less than d(x) degree. q(x) is called quotient, r(x) is remainder.
Theorem: Remainder/Factor theorem
k is a root of p(x) = 0 i.e. p(k) = 0 iff (x k) is a factor of p(x)
Theorem: Fundamental Theorem of Algebra
Every polynomial of degree n can be written as the product of n unique, 1st degree factors, with varying
multiplicity.
Theorem: Rational Roots Thm
For polynomials with integer coefficients, then all rational roots will be of the form fc0 /fcn or factor of c0 over
factor of cn .
Property: Conjugate Pairs of Polynomial Roots
If coefficients are all rational, then irrational roots come in irrational conjugate pairs
If coefficients are all real, then complex roots come in complex conjugate pairs
Property: Sum and Product of p(t) roots
For monic polynomial equation: xn + cn1 xn1 + ... + c1 x + c0 = 0,

sum of roots=cn1
product of roots=(1)n c0
Remark: Root of odd order polynomial
Every odd order polynomial has at least one root: check x approach infinity. Check derivative for more possible
roots.
GRE: log is natural log!
it is!

0.2

Calculus

Remarks: Split the integral into two intervals

Can be done if the function is continuous on both intervals, else, use limit approach
Remark: if lim f (n)
then all the lower power derivatives and the function approaches in the limit.
Remark: Greens theorem
H
RR
For counterclockwise oriented closed loop interval, P dx + Qdy =
Qx Py dA, if it doesnt simplify to a
constant, do the double integral!
Theorem: Brouwers fixed point thm
Every continuous function on a convex compact set of Euclidean set mapped onto itself has at least one fixed
point. 1D case: on [0, 1], 0 6 f (x) 6 1, continuous, has a fixed point use intermediate value thm on f (x) x
Remark: cylindrical and sphere integration Jacobii
In cylindrical and spherical coordinates, the Jacobian gives
(
sin2
dxdydz =
r

Remark: Jacobian and Wronskian

"
f1
x1
~
Jacobian of f (x1 , x2 ) is
f
2

x1

f1
x2
f2
x2


while Wronskian of f1 (x), f2 (x) is

ddd
drd

(1)

#
function components arranged in the rows

f1 f2
orders of derivative arranged in the rows
f10 f20

Remark: Vector products and zero

If two vectors perpendicular, then their dot product is zero;
If two vectors colinear then their cross product is zero, since the sin between them is zero.
Remark: LHopital to find limits!
For those exponential sequence that is indeterminate, converting it into a function and apply LHopital rule
almost always works!
Remark: differentiate ax
We will have ax ln a
Remark: Torus equation
(r a)2 + z 2 = 1 in cylindrical coordinates represent a torus.
Remarks: Convergence tests for series
ratio test works for multiplicatively increasing series.
comparison test works for familiar series like harmonic series, power etc
integral test works for easily integrated series, construct a bigger integral to show divergence, a smaller to

show convergence
alternating series test suffice to show the limit of the term vanishes.

0.3

Linear Algebra

Properties: Determinant

det is row/column linear, multiply a row by a constant will multiply the det by a constant.
if a row or column is zero, then determinant is zero.
if two row/col same, then det = 0.
Q
det (TRIANGULAR) = diag.
det(AB) = det(A) det(B) if A,B conformable
det = 0 if row/column linearly dependent
Q
det(A) = , are eigenvalues, with multiplicity.
det(AT ) = det(A).
det(A1 ) = 1/det(A).
det(cA) = cn det(A).
matrix with 2 identical col or row yields zero det.
det([~a + 3~b, ~b, ~c]) = det([~a, ~b, ~c]) + det([3~b, ~b, ~c]) = det([~a, ~b, ~c]) + 0. i.e adding col to another doesnt change det
Leibniz formula.
swapping rows introduce a negative sign to the determinant.
Laplace expansion: minor=determinant of the smaller matrix, cofactor=(1)i+j minor, Adjugate= [cof (aij ]T .
A1 =

AdjA
det(A) .

another way to calculate determinant: attach 1 to n-1 column to the end, add n products of n diagonals and
subtract products of n off diagonals.only works for 3by3??
Memory: 2D inverse

1


a b
d b
1
= det
c d
c a
Remark: Cramers rule to find xi without solving the whole system
i)
t
If det(A) not zero, thenxi = det(A
det(A) where Ai has i h column replaced by vector b
Def n: L,U triangular
Upper or Lower triangular means the non-zero entries are at the Upper or Lower halves of the matrix. LU is
preserved by matrix multiplication
Def n: Idempotent matrix
if M M = M . Idempotent matrix is identity matrix or singular.
Def n: Scalar Matrix
If A = kInn where I is the identity matrix, then A is a scalar matrix

Remark: How to verify these horses are black

List the definition of being Black and check to see if any arbitrary horse matches the definitions.
Def n: Vector Space
A vector Space is a set of vectors that is closed under component-wise addition and scalar multiplication. Some
immediate consequence:
0 must be in the vector space.
Null space and Span space are natural vector spaces associated with linear equations.
Remark: When does ~x in A~x = ~b form a vectors space?
Answer: iff ~b = ~0 , and the result space is Null Space.
Remark: Vectors (in a Matrix) can form the column/row space
Every Span of a set of vectors is a vector space. The dimension of the space is determined by the rank of the
matrix constructed by the vectors. When matrix is involved, column and row space are possible, moreover, the
two has identical Rank, since both are equal to the rank of A(every linearly independent rows maps to a L.I
column).
Remark: Linear Independence and k1 v1 + k2 v2 + k3 v3 + ... = 0
vectors are Independent if the linear combination equation has only trivial solution.
vectors are dependent if a non-trivial or not all zero solution is found.
if one of the vectors is ~0, then these vectors must be dependent, since theres always a non-trivial coefficient
for the zero vector.
Qcolumn vectors are independent for triangular matrix that has no zero on the diagonal. Why? det(T RI) =
tri 6= 0
if number of column vectors exceed the row number, then they are dependent.
Remark: sum of cols equal sum of rows



a b
For 2 by 2 matrices, if sum of cols equal sum of rows, the matrix has the form:
. This matrix, when
b a
n-by-n has eigen value a b with multiplicity n 1 and nb b + a with multiplicity of 1. So when a = b or
a = b nb matrix is singular
Remark: Rank of A
The rank or maximum number of independent vectors of of a matrix. It doesnt matter if its row vectors or
column vectors, since rank(CS(A)) = rank(RS(A)) = rank(A).
Remark: Determine whether b is in CS(A)
Ax = b has solution, then b is in CS(A);
AT x = b has sol, then b is in RS(A); column vectors after row reduction is NOT a basis for column space, do
the transpose and then row reduce. The column that contain the pivots of the reduction are guaranteed to be
independent. Though other combinations are also possible
Remark: Linear Transformation
Linear transformation is a function between vector spaces that has linear property.
Every linear transformation is a matrix multiplication(standard matrix representative), and every matrix
multiplication can be viewed as a linear transformation.
T : Xm,n Ym0 ,n transforms a m by n matrix, through a m0 by m matrix to a m0 by n matrix.
if m = m0 linear transformation is linear operator
if n=1, we have transformation on vectors, and the form of matrix A depends on which basis were using.
nullity of kernel is the dimension the nullspace of A; rank of range is the dimension of column space of A
Rank plus Nullity thm nullity(T)+ rank(T)=dim(domain T), if domain is a matrix, the dim is the total
# of entries.
linear operator is a bijection iff det(A) 6= 0
linear transformation is onto iff rank(T ) > m
linear transformation is 1-1 iff nullity(T ) = 0 (trivial kernel!)
Remark: the following are equivalent for n by n matrix A
4

det(A) = 0
A1 doesnt exist
A has zero eigenvalue
Ax = 0 has non trivial solution
Ax = b has no solution or infinitely many solution
rank(A) < n

vector/space
Remark: Eigenvalue/
P
T r(A) = Q
det(A) =
if zero vector is added to the set of eigenvectors, we have eigenspace of a specific eigenvalue.
Ei (A) = null(A i I)
each distinct eigenvalue takes a 1 dimensional eigenspace,eigenline! A eigenvalue with multiplicity n takes a
n or less dimensional eigenspace!
the full list of eigenvalues of A is called the spectrum of A.
if A has as eigenvalue and x as corresponding eigenvector, then A1 has 1 , x as eigenpair, and A2 has
2 , x as eigenpair
If M has 1 , 2 as eigenvalue, then M n has n1 , n2 as eigenvalue
Theorem: Cayley-Hamilton Theorem
Every square matrix satisfies its own characteristic equation. If p() = det(A I), then p(A) = 0
Remark: The following are true


0 1
A2 = 0 ; A = 0, c.eg:
0 0


1
0
2
A = I ; A = I, c.eg:
0 1

 
1 0
1
1
A = A ; A = I or A = I c.eg
,
0 1
0
products of triangular matrix is still triangular

1
1

Remark: matrix transpose

(A + B)T = AT + B T
(AB)T = B T AT
(A1 )T = (AT )1
det(A) = det(AT )
Preserves eigenvalue
Remarks: Similar matrices
A, B similar iff, B = P 1 AP , for some invertible P
similar matrix share determinant, rank, trace, char polynomial, eigenvalue(not necessarily eigenvector),
inverses of similar matrices are similar
adding a common matrix to a pair of similar matrix produces another similar matrix

0.4

Number theory

Remarks: Divisible by n?
divisible by 4 iff the number formed by last two digits divisible by 4
divisible by 6 iff divisible by both 2 and 3
divisible by 7 has no simple tests
divisible by 8 iff the number formed by last three digits divisible by 8
divisible by 9 iff the sum of all digits is divisible by 9
5

Remarks: factors
Every three consecutive integers, if two is even, then 4 divides one of the even integer
every three consecutive integer has 3 divides one of them
fermats little theorem can give ap , ap1 has p as divisor to the power
Remark: Euclidean Algorithm
gcd(a, b) = gcd(b, r) where r is the remainder of a divided by b. In practice, repeatedly divide and stop when
remainder is zero, the last 0 b0 is gcd. This method is good for large integers; for small integers, use prime
factorization.
Remarks: gcd existence equality
For a pair of integer a, b there exist integers x, y s.t. ax + by = gcd(a, b). If n is divisible by a, b, c, d and all of
them are relatively prime to n, then n is divisible by their product abcd. Pf: by gcd equality.
Remark: Diophantine Equations ax+by=c
Step1: Check if solution exist, or check if d = gcd(a, b)|c.(Euclidean or prime factorization)
Step2: Form a pre solution (x0 , y0 ) s.t. ax0 + by0 = d by back tracing Euclidean Algorithm
Step3: Form particular solution (x1 , y1 ) = dc (x0 , y0 ) s.t. ax1 + by1 = c, or guess directly.
Step4: Form full solution x = x1 + db t, y = y1 + ad t. Note that the periodicity is finer than just a or b (divided
by d).
This problem can be simplified to Congruence equation!
Remarks: Congruence
mod(n) unless noted otherwise
a congruent b modulo n iff they have the same remainder after division by n.
Congruence is a relation: a b, b c a c
simplification rules: If a b, then for any c, a c b c mod n, ac bc
If a1 b2 , a2 b2 , then a1 a2 b1 b2 mod n, a1 a2 b1 b2
cancellation rule: If ab ac mod n, then b c mod
change the modulo.

n
gcd(a,n) ,

if a, n relatively prime, then cancel without

Fermats little theorem: Let p be prime and a integer, then if p - a, then ap1 1 mod p, for any a, ap a
mod p
Remark: Congruence Equation ax c mod b
This provides an alternative to Diophantine equation using modular arithmetic:
Step1: Check if solution exist, or check if d = gcd(a, b)|c
Step2: reduce a to 1 by adding 0 b mod b and cancelling common factor(watch the change in modulo)

0.5

Abstract Algebra

Remarks: The following is true

(Zn , ) is not a group(assume n not prime), but a monoid, elements that divides n have no inverses.
(Zp , ) is a group, by gcd existence theorem.
(Q {0}, ) is a group
Remarks: Matrix Groups
The set of all n-by-n matrix with Real entries form an additive group, denoted by Mn (R). The set of all n-by-n
matrix with non-zero determinant forms a multiplicative group called general linear group GL(n, R). Replace
with Q, C we still have a group, but not Z, we would have a monoid. A special subset of GL which has 1 as
determinant forms a multiplicative group called special linear group SL(n, R). Note that we can replace R
with Z and still get a group! This is guaranteed by gcd existence theorem(not to mention Q etc).

Remark: multiplicative group of nth roots of Unity

2
Un = {z C : z n = 1} This group is cyclic and generated by the complex number e n i , a fan in the complex
plane. Sum of roots is always zero.
Remark: Cyclic and Abelian
Cyclic implies Abelian!! Why? Convert to generator. But not vice versa(Klein Four of only order 2 elements
and identity).
Remark: Subgroup
nontrivial proper subgroup of Zn , the addition modulo n group, cannot have generators of Zn otherwise
subgroup will be Zn itself. But a group generated by a non generator will always form a nontrivial proper
subgroup!
hai means {an : n Z}
Every element of finite group G generate a cyclic subgroup of G, and the order of that element is the order of
the subgroup. This subgroup is also the smallest subgroup that contains that element.
Q
A set of elements {ai } G are called generators if G can be generated by ani i , ni Z
Lagrange ThmThe order of a subgroup of finite group G must be a divisor of the order of G.What about
the converse?
If G is finite Abelian, every divisor has a subgroup of that order.
If G is finite cyclic, every divisor d has a UNIQUE, CYCLIC subgroup of that order, and one generator is
am ; m = n/d, every element generate a subgroup: am has order n/gcd(n, m), note if m, n r.prime, it is the
generator of G.
For general group of order n, if a prime p|n then a subgroup of order p exists: this is Cauchy Thm. In fact,
there is a subgroup for every prime factor of n up till its highest power: this is Sylows 1st Thm. Note that
combination of different prime factors is not guaranteed.
Remark: Symmetry group, Permutation group, Dihedral group
symmetry group on n letters Sn is the group of n! elements, each is a function map between {1, 2, 3, ...},
under function composition.
Permutation Group is any subgroup of Sn . Note permutation map is not commutative in general.
Cycle Notation of permutation Here is an example: on n letters of 4 length, = (1623) means mapping 1
to 6, 6 to 2, 2 to 3, while all other elements are mapped to themselves.
Every permutation can be expressed as a cycle or a composition of cycles. (1352)(256) = (1356)
Two cycles are disjoint if they have no elements in common at all. e.g. (123) and (456)
Disjoint cycles commute; non-disjoint cycle usually dont.
Every permutation can be written as composition of disjoint cycles.
Transpositions are cycles of length 2.
Every cycle and hence permutation can be written as transpositions:(a1 , a2 , a3 , ....an ) = (a1 an )(a1 an1 )...(a1 a3 )(a1 a2 ).
Such transpositions are not unique
Permutations order is the lcm of the lengths in its disjoint cycles notation
A permutation is always even or always odd: identity is always even(Pf: induction, 4 cases of a pair of
transpositions, shuffle a until the cycles doesnt fix a). number of even perm=number of odd perm.
All even permutation on Sn forms a group called Alternating Group on n letters An , which has order n!/2.
Odd perms cant form a group since identity is not there.
Dihedral Group Dn is a special type of symmetry subgroup: permutation of rigid motion, i.e rotation and
reflection. On a regular n-tagon, there is Dn of order 2n elements.

Remark: Isomorphic
G1
= G2 , then the groups share all algebraic structural properties: order, subgroup order, cyclic, abelian, #
of sol to x2 = y
Remark: Homomorphism,types
a function from G to G0 that preserves binary operation (a 1 b) = (a) 2 (b) is a homomorphism. A homomorphism that is 1-1 is monomorphism, that is onto is epimorphism(upon),that is bijective is isomorphism,
that maps to G itself is endomorphism. An isomorphism that maps to G is automorphism.
Remark: Homomorphism
Homomorphism : G G0
maps identity element to identity, but also map something else(kernel) to identity as well. Thus it homomorphism doesnt necessarily preserve order.
for homomorphism between cyclic groups, the order of the image must divide the order of the preimage!
The image of is (G),
Kernel is always a subgroup in G, image is always a subgroup in G0
Order of Kernel and Image must divide order of G and order of G0 (if both finite)
Does not necessarily preserve elements order(finite): c.e.g trivial homomorphism. But must map to an element
whose order divides images order!!!
maps inverse to inverse
preserves subgroup: if H 6 G then (H) 6 (G) 6 G0 ; if H 0 6 G0 , then 1 (H 0 ) 6 G
if the domain is cyclic with generator g, then every homomorphism can be expressed as a ak for some
integer k.
a homomorphism is monomorphism(1-1) iff kernel is trivial.
Def n: Normal subgroup
A subgroup N of G is normal if gng 1 N for all n N, g G. In other words, a normal subgroup is invariant
under conjugation with any element of the group: gN = N g for every g G. The corresponding concept in
rings is two-sided Ideal.
Def n: Inner Automorphism induced by a G
For fixed a G, a : G G, (g) = aga1 is an automorphism, called inner Automorphism induced by a.
Inn(G) is the collection of all Inner Automorphisms. Aut(G) is the collection of all Automorphisms. Inn(G)
Aut(G). Further, Inn(G) is a subgroup of Aut(G), both under the operation of function composition. These are
groups of functions! If G is Abelian, Inn(G)={i } the identity map
Remark: Some observations
Every group with order less than or equal to 5 is Abelian
theres only two kinds of groups with 4 elements, Z4 , K4
Every group of order 1, 2, 3, 5 is isomorphic (to Z1 , Z2 , Z3 , Z5 )
Every non-trivial homomorphism on a group of prime order p is of order p, thus monomorphic. Pf: Lagrange
Thm+ kernel is subgroup
(R, +)
= (R+ , ) under the exponential function!
a infinite group can be isomorphic to one of its proper subgroups, e.g. (nZ, +)
=, 6 (Z, +). But finite ones
cannot.
order of an element in G must divide order of G, if finite.
The image of a generator of a group/ring, fully describes the image of the homomorphism in question! If its
identity, then homomorphism is trivial map.
Remarks: Classification of finite Abelian Groups
Primary Decomposition(prime powers) and Invariant Decomposition(one divides the next) of Abelian group
with order p5 q 3 :
Primary: each distinct prime factors can freely combined in its power. Do not double count p2 p3 q 3 and p3 p2 q 3 .
Listing the higher powers to the right is helpful for invariant decomposition
Def n: Ring and Field
Ring is a distributive fusion of Abelian addition group and multiplication semigroup (multiplication identity

ppppp
pppp2
pp2 p2
ppp3
pp4
p2 p3
p5
7

qqq
qq 2
q3

and inverse not necessary). Note addition and multiplication are actually generic binary operations. If the
multiplication semigroup is instead a monoid, then we have ring with unity. If multiplication commutes, we
have commutative ring, If S is a subset of ring R and S satisfies the condition of a ring, then R is a subring.
Cancellation of zero, or ab = 0 a = 0 or b = 0 dont necessarily hold in rings, if it does, and the ring is
commutative with unity, then we have an integral domain.
Rings cant have a well defined multiplication group, since 0 can not have inverse. But if everything else has
inverse in the ring, then we have a division ring. Every division ring has cancellation property. In a division
ring, every linear equation can be solved with inverses, hence the name. A commutative division ring is a field,
which is always a integral domain. A non-commutative division ring is a strictly skewed field
Remark: Rings properties
A positive integer n is called characteristic of ring if nr = 0 for every r in the ring, if such n doesnt exist,
characteristic is 0. Zn has characteristic n.
by distributive property, r1 nr2 = nr1 r2 , where nr = r + r + ... + r n times
0 r = 0 where 0 is additive identity.
r1 r2 = 0 doesnt imply one of them is zero. e.g. take 2 ,4 in addition modulo 8 ring.
if r1 , r2 6= 0, and r1 r2 = 0 then r1 is called left zero divisor, r2 is right zero divisor.
if r1 r2 = 0 does imply one of them zero, and ring is commutative with unity, then we have integral domain.
a ring element r is nilpotent if there exist a positive integer n such that rn = 0, the additive identity. Integral
domains cant have nilpotent elements.
For a commutative ring, sum of nilpotent elements are nilpotent. This doesnt hold for non-commutative ring
like M (R), take A = [0, 1; 0, 0] and B = [0, 0; 1, 0]A + B = [0, 1; 1, 0] the identity oscillator matrix. Further, in
the ring of n-by-n matrix, if a matrix determinant is non-zero, it cant be nilpotent.
for a cyclic ring of order n, or a ring of finite order n, the characteristic of the group is n. Since the order of
every element in the ring must divide n.
Remark: Ring Homomorphism
Ring Homomorphism R R0 preserves both binary operations.
Kernel of the homomorphism on ring R maps to the additive identity of R0 . Additive identities must be
preserved, though more may be mapped to the kernel.
Kernel and image are always subring, in fact, kernel is an ideal subring in R.
additive inverse in R is preserved over to R0 .
A commutative ring whose characteristic is prime p has Frobenius endomorphism, namely, : (a) = ap ,
is a ring homomorphism, whose kernel is the nilpotents of R, note we have (a + b)p = ap + bp on this ring.
there is a addition group homomorphism in every ring homomorphism but not vice versa: a addition group
homomorphism may exist((n) = 2n), but not ring homomorphism, a multiplication group homomorphism may
exist, but not ring homo(e.g. : GL GL(A) = det(A) doesnt preserve addition).
Def n: Ideal subring
I is Ideal subring if rx, xr I for all r R, x I, Ideal subring to ring is like normals subgroup to group. Ideal
subring is Invariant under multiplication of any element in the ring.
{0} and R are two necessary ideals of any ring R.
Remark: Integral Domain

integral domain is a commutative ring with unity and has no zero divisors.
cancellation law holds: ab = ac, a 6= 0 b = c
an = 0 a = 0
ab = 0 a = 0 or b = 0
In ring Zn , zero divisors are non-zero elements that is not r.prime to n.
The ring of continuous function is NOT integral domain: let part zero part non-zero functions!
Zp is integral domain! along with C, R, Z
the ring of real coefficient polynomial is an Integral Domain.
the ring of function mapping R toR is not an integral domain, consider the pointwise zero nature.
Def n: Division Ring
Unit is a ring element that has multiplicative inverse in the ring. Unity is a unit, but not vice versa. Unit
occurs in pairs. Z has 1, 1 as units. Z5 has1, 2, 3, 4 4 units. IF an elements inverse is itself, then it contributes
1 unit. If every non-zero element is a unit, then ring is called Division Ring.
Remarks: Field
A commutative division ring is called a Field.
Finite integral domain is Field! Since rn = 1 for every non-zero element in a ring of order n, we must have
inverse.
all fields, or commutative division rings, are integral domains!

Zp Kis a Integral domain finite field, along with R, Q, C, Q( 2). In fact K = [a, b; b, a], a, b R is commutative in multiplication, contains all non-zero inverse, and isomorphic to C, K is a Real version of strictly skew
field(non commutative) known as real quaternions:H = [a, b; b, a] : a, b, C
Experience:
How zeros does 100! end in? Observed that the number of prime factor 2 far exceeds that of factor 5, Thus
every 5 will be turned into 10. Thus, just count wisely the number of 51 , 52 , 53 ... in 100!
Watch for cyclic or Abelian groups, they have nice subgroup behavior.
Product of any ring can not be integral domain! Since (0, 6= 0) (6= 0, 0) = (0, 0) but both are non zero
element.
For Za Zb Zc , it always has abc number of elements, but the generator {(1, 1, 1)} can generate at most
lcm(a, b, c) elements, so this group is cyclic iff lcm(a, b, c) = abc or a, b, c relatively prime.
a group of order n is cyclic iff it has a element of order n, the generator.
for simplification problems, just use given step by step and see where you land.
Count how many homomorphism exist between two groups: 1. For cyclic group, suffice to check generator.
2. not all mapping is valid, check if elements order is preserved! 3. trivial homomorphism always exists: every
element is mapped to identity.
For Z1 1 field, we have closure in Multiplication. But 0 cant be included! so every non-zero element has
x10 = 1 not x11

0.6

Additional Topics

Def n: Sentence
Is a logical expression which can be either true or false
Remark: Collection/ family of sets
To avoid set of sets, use collection or family of sets
Remark: supersets, subsets
A B, A is subset, B is superset
Remark: function of sets
f (A B) = f (A) f (B)
these are not true: f (A B) = f (A) f (B), ceg: let A, B disjoint
false: f (A) = f (A), ceg: non-surjective function
false: f (A B) = f (A) f (B) ceg:f (A) not injective and has one element in the intersection mapped to the
10

same image as one outside.

0.7

Set theory, cardinality

Remark: Cardinalityaleph 0 =i0 beth null:

Q, Z is countable 0
Algebraic numbers(roots of integer coefficient polynomial equations, radicals and Q) is countable.
countably infinite union of countable sets is countable.
finite Cartesian product of countable sets is countable.
card(2A ) >card(A)
card(R) = c=card(2Z ) > =card(Z)
Remark: Cardinality of the continuum c=i1 :
R, the good old reals
any finite Euclidean Space Rn : cn = c
intervals (a, b), [a, b] in R.
open/closed balls in Rn
finite products of R
countably infinite products of countable or finite sets: 0 0 = c
complex plane C
irrationals and transcendental numbers.
cantor set
P(Z) power set of any countably infinite set: 20 .
all possible sequence whose co-domain is {0, 1}, or Z or R, the cardinality is respectively 20 , 0 0 , and c0 . note
the first one is the indicator function, and the resulting sequence is isomorphic to power set of the positive
integers, thus has c. Making each base bigger wouldnt change cardinality.
all functions from Z to R, this is isomorphic to all sequences. c
all polynomials with real coefficients
all continuous functions from R to R
all finite subsets of R and Rn . This set is 6 all finite sequences to R, which is 6 all infinite real sequences,
which has c. On the other hand, just the subset singletons has already cardinality of the continuum.
Remark: Cardinality bigger than continuum, i2 :
P(R) the power set of reals:2c
the indicator function defined on R, same as the power set of reals:2c
RR the set of all functions from reals to reals, same as indicator function. cc
the set of all functions from Rm to Rn
all Lebesgue measurable sets M , same as the power set

0.8

Graph theory

Remarks: Graph Theory

A finite set of vertices and edges is called graph. Number of edges connected to a vertex is called degree of
the vertex. two vertex if called adjacent if there is a edge connecting them. A sequence of adjacent vertices
from starting vertex to ending vertex is called path. A path that ends at starting vertex without repeating any
edges is a circuit. Length of path is the number of edges traversed in the path. If the length of a path is 1,
then the path is a loop. Two vertices are connected if there is a path between them. A graph is complete if
there is an edge between every point.
Remark: Incidence matrix adjacent matrix
Incidence matrix is a matrix whose rows represent vertices of a graph and whose column represents the edges
of the matrix.adjacency matrix has both rows and columns representing vertices and is always symmetric.

11

0.9

Combinatorics and Probability

Remarks: Combinatorics
put k balls freely into n holes: C(n + k 1, k)
Pigeon hole principle: 1. put k balls into nk holes, one of the holes must have more than 1 balls.2. Color
k balls with c colors, then for every k 6 (k 1)/c + 1 there is k balls of same color.
Remarks: Probability and statistics
For coin and dice tossing, identify the equally likely events and use ordered results to avoid missing and double
counting. For A or B event, use 1 P (A)P (B)
assign 6 students equally to 3 tasks:total type is C62 C42 C22 . This accounts for the possible different combination
C2C2C2
of tasks. Compared dividing 6 students into 3 equal unlabeled groups 6 P 43 2
3

Rules: Probability
Let A, B Event set, then
P (A B) = P (A) + P (B) P (A B)
P (A B) = 1 P (Ac )P (B c )
A, B independent iff P (A B) = P (A)P (B)
A, B c independent iff A, B independent.
if A, B events mutually disjoint, then P (A B) = P (A) + P (B), i.e P (A B) = 0
1 = P (A) + P (Ac )
law of total probability P (A) = P (A B) + P (A B c )
Binomial distribution mean and variance: = np, V = npq
Remark: Normal standard deviation
0.5 20%
1 34%
1.5 43%
2 48%
3 49.9%
Remarks: Expectation,
Variance
R
E=P
= xf (x)dx, average weighted by density function.
E = R xp(x) for discrete case.

V = (x )2 f (x)dx sum of square average weighted by density function.

P
V = (x )2 p(x) discrete case
V = E(x2 ) E 2 (x)

0.10

Real analysis

Remark: Lebesgue Measure

Lebesgue Measure() of a Lebesgue measurable set M M in R, measure the infimum of the length of the
possible countable open covers. Most sets in practice is Lebesgue measurable: M M iff (A) = (A M ) +

hX
i
[
(Ac M ), where (A) , inf
(bi ai ), A
(ai , bi )
i=1

i=1

Remark: Lebesgue Measure

Finite sets, countably infinite set all have measure zero: they can be encased in open covers whose length
approach zero in the limit.
If M is a finite union of disjoint intervals then the Lebesgue measure is the length of the interval.
If M1 M2 then, (M1 ) 6 (M2 )
Remark: Lebesgue Measurable functions
A function is Lebesgue integrable if every open set O in R, has inverse image that is Lebesgue Measurable.

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Continuous functions are all Lebesgue measurable, characteristic (or step) functions on measurable sets are
Lebesgue Measurable.
Theorem: Lebesgue Measurable theorem
If a sequence of Lebesgue integrable functions fn f , for every x X except at almost everywhere, at or
some points whose union measures zero. Alternatively, there exist a sequence of monotonically increasing step
functions that converges to a given non-negative measurable function for every x.
Remark: Lebesgue Integrable
A step function is s = ai Ai . A step function defined on measurable sets is Lebesgue integrable if a = 0
(Ai ) < . RLet the P
integrand function be the limit of a sequence of step functions sn s = f the Lebesgue
integral is sd =
ai (Ai ) , If some (A0 ) , then it must be the case that a0 = 0, in this case, define
a0 (A0 ) = 0, i.e force 0 = 0.

0.11

Metrics

Examples: metrics
discrete metric: d(x, y) = 0 if x = y, 1 else, is a metric
taxicab, d(x1 , x2 ) = |x2 x1 | + |y2 y1 | is metric
d
is a metric
let d be metric, then d0 = 1+d
p
0
d = (d) is a metric
d0 = d2 is NOT a metric
d(x, y) = | log( xy )| for positive x, y is a metric
d(f, g) = max(f (x) g(x)) is a metric
[0,1]

d0 = 3d is a metric
2
Concave
up function of metric (f (d) = d ) is less likely to satisfy triangle inequality; concave down functions
(f (d) = d) is more likely.
Hamming distance defined on strings of 0 and 1 is a metric

0.12

Complex analysis

Remark: Complex variables

z is real iff z = z,
|z|2 = zz
Arg(z) is the principal argument btw (, ), arg(z) is any argument.
to solve compelx equationz n = w, use exponential form, with 2k written out.
Generalized logarithm: ln(z) = ln(|z|ei(+2k) ) = ln(|z|) + i arg(z)
Principal Log: Ln(z) = Ln(|z|) + iArg(z), convert number to exponential form and follow usual rules.
Generalized
z w = ew ln(z) , principal if use principal angle

exponential:
note that a b 6= ab in general for complex numbers.
complex sin and cos are defined in similar fashion as sinh and cosh.
a complex function f (x + iy) = u + iv is differentiable iff the limit exist as h approach to z at any direction.
a complex function differentiable on O must satisfy Cauchy Riemann Equation: ux = vy , uy = vx This
automatically demands that u, v must be harmonic on O or satisfies Laplace Equation.
Its easier for complex function to be analytic: if f (z) is differentiable at some z0 and a open neighborhood
containing z0 then f (z) is analytic at z0 . Being analytic for Real functions requires direct proof of infinite
differentiable everywhere.
a complex function is entire if its analytic everywhere.
Complex Line Integral: like normal line integrals, or use Fundamental theorem of calculus.
Cauchy Theorem If f (z) is analytic on a simply connected open-set D, then any line integral along a closed
path in D is zero
Moreras Theorem if f (z) continuous on simply connected open set D, and any line integral along closed

13

path is zero, then f (z) is analytic.

Cauchys integral, derivative formula for analytic complex functions: f (n) (z0 ) =

n!
2i

H
C

f (z)
(zz0 )n+1 dz,

where

n = 0 for function value. Knowing the value of the function on the curve gives function and derivative values at
all interior points!
n
P
zi = 0 so the sum of all nth root is zero. This can be shown with the fact that all the roots
if zin = 1 then
i=1

can be generated by the first root and the fact that geometric series works in complex sequence.
Remark: Complex Variable cont.
Cauchys Function/Derivative Inequality, for analytic function f (z) construct a circle of radius r around
a target point z0 , and let M denote the maximum on the circle, then: |f (n) (z0 )| 6 n!M
r n . Idea:, apply Cauchys
Inequality on the circle.
Liouville Theorem If an entire function is bounded, the it is a constant function.
The Maximum Principal, Let O be an open connected subset of the complex plane and let f be analytic
function, then either |f | is constant on O, or it achieves maximum on boundary of open set O.(There cant be
meaningful maximum absolute value on a analytical open set)
For analytic function within a disk with no singularities, we can write its Taylor series, valid for

p
1
lim n |an |non-zero and finite

lim
|an |
n+

n
p
|z zo | < R =
lim n |an | = 0
n+

0
lim n |an | finite
n+

Remarks: Singularities, Laurent Series

If f (z) is not analytic at at point z0 , but analytic at some other point on every punctured plane without z0 ,
then z0 is a singularity, if f is analytic at every point for some punctured plane, then z0 is isolated singularity.
Laurent series is usually obtain from Taylor series(Power series agrees with Taylor series), which works only

P
P
within radius of convergence, we need Laurent Series, f (z) =
an (z z0 )n +
an (z z0 )n , the coefficients
n=1

n=0

will be obtained by cheating the disk: to write the expansion for |z| > 10, go for 10/|z| < 1, and cast the original
function in terms of 10/|z|. Note we can write the Taylor series expansion for this case, combined this with
partial fraction and derivative trick.
to write the Laurent Series around z = a, use substitution.
If the function is entire, write Taylor directly is possible, even for cos(1/z 2 )

0.13

Practiced problems:

The domain of a linear transpose can be a matrix m n, in this case, the dimension of this domain is mn!
2nd derivative test,2D
2
Calculate the determinant of Hessian Matrix at critical point: det(x0 , y0 ) = fxx fyy fxy
:
det< 0, saddle,
det= 0, inconclusive
det> 0, max or min, simple check with fxx
lim f /g = 1 doesnt imply lim f g = 0. Limit may not even exist to begin with, counter e.g: f = x2 +2, g =
xx0

xx0

x2 + 1 as x .
N M = I the identity implies M and N are inverses and invertible.
I
Greens theorem A counterclockwise closed curve C with enclosed domain D and ~v = hP, Qi, then
C

ei = ei(+) can be used to simplify negative angle

14

ZZ

(Qx Py )

~v d~r =
D

 power series works for complex numbers! use to your advantage.

homomorphism doesnt necessarily preserve order; isomorphism does!
if the domain is cyclic with generator g, then every homomorphism can be expressed as a ak for some integer
k.
when writing isomorphic classification of finite of Abelian group, be organized! or you will miss one or two!
factorials ending in zeros problem, an additional zero is added every 51 increment on the factorial. BUT, every
52 number, 2 zeros are added at a step, every 53 increment, 3 zeros are added at a step.
d(x, y) = (x y)2 is not metric, since it doesnt satisfy triangle inequality. d0 =
a metric
P n!

nn is a big converging series.

d
d+1

is a metric whenever d is

In Rn , if every continuous function defined on K is bounded, then K compact.

Left ideals and right ideal must NOT be two-sided ideals, plain definition. A commutative ring can only have
two-sided ideals, all one-sided ideals will be obliterated.
So if a ring R has only 2 ideals(one-sided or both-sided), then it must be the two trivial ideals, so every principal
ideal hri is R; this happens if every principal ideal has 1, the multiplicative identity. Thus R has unity and
every principal must include a1 in order to assimilate 1 in the ideal. Otherwise there will be some principal
that dont have 1, and thus not R. So it must be a division ring.
order of matrix is the size m-by-n, or simply n for square matrix
T

conjugate transpose A = A , take complex conjugate and then transpose. A, A have the following
properties: (A + B) = A + B ; (AB) = B A ; (rA) = rA ; (A ) = A; If A is square then det(A) =
det(A ); tr(A) = tr(A ); (A )1 = (A1 ) ; The eigenvalues are complex conjugates; a triangular normal matrix
must be diagonal(this can be seen through the diagonal entries)
Normal Matrix iff AA = A A; Hermitian Matrix iff A = A ; Unitary iff A = A1
symmetry matrix if AT = A. If A, B are symmetry matrix, then AB is symmetry matrix iff A and B
commute in matrix multiplication.
det = 0 still need to check rank of matrix! Can be anything less than n, the order of matrix.
watch for minus sign in (a ) when finding characteristic equation.
(a + b + |a b|)/2 = max(a, b)
Negate For every s, there exist r, s.t. f (r) > 0 implies f (s) > 0:
there exist s, such that for every r, f (r) > 0 and f (s) < 0
differentiable implies continuity! lim

x0

f (x)
x

= L doesnt mean L = 0, take f = x(x + 1)!

orthogonal vectors are linear independent with each other. check v1 , v2 = 0 to see if orthogonal.
if graph is symmetrical around x = 1/2 Function value is the same while slope is opposite at mirror locations!
given 3 vertex, its possible to form 3 or 0 parallelograms.
P xn
P n

nx both have radius of convergence of |x| < 1

n and
polynomials with even integer degrees in the usual ring of polynomial with real coefficients are not a subring,
because we dont have additive closure for equal but opposite highest order term coefficients(ax4 + x and
ax4 ).

15

 if a continuous function is defined on entire real line, then the image of (0, 1), f ((0, 1)) must be bounded!
to find the intersection of y = x1 2 and y = 2x , calm the fuck down, draw the curves, and compare slopes.
uniformly continuous gives |f (x) f (y)| < E|x y|, which implies derivative is bounded, if f differentiable
mutually orthogonal vectors form a basis of the vector space, hence the number of them is same as the dimension
of the space itself.
integer radian is dense on the unit circle: but all irrational radians will not be hit by an integer radian.

16