Click the links below to see explanations and examples of each connector type.

Sentence connectors
(Between-sentence)

Conjunctions
(Within-sentence)

Subordinators
(Phrase linkers)

Prepositions

However,...
Nevertheless,...
Nonetheless,...
On the other hand,...
In contrast,...
Conversely,...
On the contrary,...
Alternatively,...
Instead,...

but
yet
nor
albeit

Although..., ...
(even) though..., ...
While..., ...
Whereas..., ...

In contrast to + noun, ...

Contrary to..., ...
Unlike..., ...
Despite..., ...
In spite of..., ...
Notwithstanding..., ...
Instead of..., ...

HOWEVER (kuitenkin)
"However" is the most common of the contrastive sentence connectors and can serve two different
fuctions.
It can
1. introduce conflict or a problem that contrasts with the situation, facts or viewpoints presented in
earlier sentences, or
2. signal that the contrast introduced in the second sentence is somehow surprising or
unexpected in light of what was said in the first sentence.

INTRODUCING A PROBLEM:
By far, the most important use of "however" is to introduce a problem in a Situation-Problem-Solution
pattern. In this pattern, the writer begins by describing the "good" or positive side (benefits, advantages)
of the present situation, and then goes on to present the problems (drawbacks, disadvantages). This
positive-to-negative ordering is the mirror opposite of that used with "nevertheless". The SituationProblem-Solution pattern forms the basis for structuring abstracts and introduction sections in research
articles. This is an important function in academic writing, where writers are attempting to justify their
choice of research topic.

Situation ( + )

Problem ( - )

Sampling techniques developed for attribute inspection have traditionally been designed on the basis of
perfect human inspection. However, studies in human factors have shown that human inspection is not
error free.
Earlier research ( + )

Criticism ( - )

The prototype training program proved to be successful in improving inspection accuracy. However, it
did not show significant improvements in inspection speed.

INTRODUCING SURPRISE:
Both "however" and "nevertheless" have a concessive effect in that they can introduce a sentence that
not only contrasts with a previous sentence, but also seems surprising or unexpected in view of what
has been stated earlier in the first sentence. "However" orders positive information before negative,
whereas "nevertheless" is used with the opposite ordering, negative before positive.

Positive ( + )

Negative ( - )

All major studies of the greenhouse effect have concluded that sea level and precipitation will change
significantly. However, most engineers and planners implicitly assume that these changes will not
occur.
Negative ( - )

Positive ( + )

Most engineers and planners implicitly assume that these changes will not occur. Nevertheless, all
major studies of the greenhouse effect have concluded that sea level and precipitation will change
significantly.

Only those sentences that can be contrasted using the concessive sentence connectors "however" or
"nevertheless" can also be re-worded to combine with:

concessive subordinators ("although", "even though" "though")

concessive prepositions ("despite", "in spite of").

Concessive subordinator:
Although all major studies of the greenhouse effect have concluded that sea level and precipitation will
change significantly, most engineers and planners implicitly assume that these changes will not occur.
Concessive preposition:
Despite numerous studies showing that sea level and precipitation will change significantly , most
engineers and planners implicitly assume that these changes will not occur.

Although "however" usually comes at the beginning of the sentence, it can also occur before the verb
or, less frequently, at the end.

Beginning:
However, most engineers and planners assume that these changes will not occur.
Before main verb:
Most engineers and planners, however, assume that these changes will not occur.
At the end: (rare)
Most engineers and planners assume that these changes will not occur, however.

NEVERTHELESS / NONETHELESS (siit huolimatta, silti)

Both "nevertheless" and "nonetheless" have the same basic concessive meaning as "however": They all
introduce a sentence that gives information which is unexpected or surprising in light of information
given in a previous sentence. Unlike "however", which is based on a positive-to-negative ordering of
information, "nevertheless" and "nonetheless" require an opposite ordering of information, negative-topositive.
Notice how reversing the order of the negative and positive sentences in the example below not only
requires different sentence connectors but also changes the final focus. The first example stresses that
the climate may already be changing, whereas the second sentence stresses "the difficulty of detecting
the changes.

Negative ( - )

Positive ( + )

On a global scale, there is increasing evidence that the Earth's climate is changing due to human
influence. The high natural variability of the Mediterranean climate make both the detection of climate
change and attribution of its cause very difficult. Nevertheless, observations suggest that climate may
already be changing in the region.
Positive ( + )

Negative ( - )

Observations suggest that climate may already be changing in the Mediterranean region. However, on
a global scale, there is increasing evidence that climate is changing due to human influence. The high
natural variability of the Mediterranean climate make both the detection of climate change and
attribution of its cause very difficult.

The sentence that comes before nevertheless needs not necessarily need to be in the negative form. It is
sufficient that the first sentence is simply a fact, event or situation that has a negative impact. Notice in
the example below how the sentence in the grammatical negative form ("produces no greenhouse

gases") is in fact a positive effect, whereas that in the positive form ("highly toxic radioactive wastes") is
actually the negative effect of the process. Thus, it is evaluation of the effect, rather than the actual
grammatical form, that is important in determining whether "nevertheless" might be used instead of
"however".

Negative ( - )

Positive ( + )

Nuclear fission produces highly toxic radioactive wastes. Nevertheless, it produces no greenhouse
gases.
Positive ( + )

Negative ( - )

Nuclear fission produces no greenhouse gases. However, it does produce highly toxic radioactive
wastes.

In popular magazine and newspaper texts, the same meaning is often conveyed by the more informal
"still", yet, "just the same" or "despite this problem".

Informal:
While missing data poses substantial problems for generating an accurate trend over the past 100-plus
years, it is noteworthy that global temperature has increased during the past three decades, a period
when coverage has hovered near 80 percent. Still, the amount of bias resulting from missing data is
unknown.
Formal:
While missing data poses substantial problems for generating an accurate trend over the past 100-plus
years, it is noteworthy that global temperature has increased during the past three decades, a period
when coverage has hovered near 80 percent. Nevertheless, the amount of bias resulting from missing
data is unknown.

Like "however", "nevertheless" and "nonetheless" the sentences could be rewritten using:

concessive subordinators ("although", "even though" "though")

concessive prepositions ("despite", "in spite of").

Concessive sentence connector:

Nuclear wastes can have half-lives of more than 1000 years and thus present a clear danger to future
generations. Nevertheless, Finland has decided to build yet another nuclear power plant.

Concessive subordinator:
Although nuclear wastes can have half-lives of more than 1000 years and thus present a clear danger
to future generations, Finland has decided to build yet another nuclear power plant.
Concessive preposition:
Despite the clear danger that nuclear wastes present to future generations, Finland has decided to
build yet another nuclear power plant.

ON THE OTHER HAND (toisaalta)

Use "on the other hand" to contrast two different views (underlined below) of a single issue or problem.
Note that although these two views may represent opposites, they do not contradict or cancel each other
out. "On the other hand" can sometimes also include the meanings of "in contrast" conversely and
alternatively

Problem
(Is global warming real?)

VIEW 1
Fossil fuel companies

VIEW 2
Insurance industry

Fossil fuel companies have worked

relentlessly to convince the American public
that global warming is a 'Chicken Little'
fantasy. The insurance industry, on the
other hand, knows that global warming is
real because hurricanes, cyclones, and
floods between 1990 and 1995 cost the
industry about fifteen times as much as such
events had cost in the 1980s.

Only those sentences using the adversative sentence connectors "on the other hand", "in contrast" or
"conversely" can also be re-worded to combine with adversative subordinators ("while", "whereas") and
adversative prepositions ("unlike", "in contrast to").

Adversative subordinators:

While Fossil fuel companies have worked relentlessly to convince the American public that global
warming is a 'Chicken Little' fantasy, the insurance industry knows that global warming is real
because hurricanes, cyclones, and floods between 1990 and 1995 cost the industry about fifteen
times as much as such events had cost in the 1980s.

Fossil fuel companies have worked relentlessly to convince the American public that global
warming is a 'Chicken Little' fantasy, whereas the insurance industry knows that global warming is
real because hurricanes, cyclones, and floods between 1990 and 1995 cost the industry about
fifteen times as much as such events had cost in the 1980s.

Adversative prepositions:

Adversative preposition:
Unlike Fossil fuel companies, which have worked relentlessly to convince the American public that
global warming is a 'Chicken Little' fantasy, the insurance industry knows that global warming is
real because hurricanes, cyclones, and floods between 1990 and 1995 cost the industry about
fifteen times as much as such events had cost in the 1980s.
In contrast to Fossil fuel companies, which have worked relentlessly to convince the American
public that global warming is a 'Chicken Little' fantasy, the insurance industry knows that global
warming is real because hurricanes, cyclones, and floods between 1990 and 1995 cost the
industry about fifteen times as much as such events had cost in the 1980s.

IN CONTRAST / BY CONTRAST (sit vastoin, sen sijaan)

Unlike the other contrastive sentence connectors, these two sentence connectors ("in contrast" and "by
contrast") contrast a single feature (underlined below) in two different things (red below). Note,
however, that the feature in the first thing is usually the opposite of that compared in the second thing.

Surface temperatures

The Moon

The Earth

-18C

+15C

The average surface temperature of the

moon, about the same distance as the Earth
from the Sun, is -18C. The moon, of
course, has no atmosphere. By contrast,
the average surface temperature of the
Earth is +15C. This heating effect is called
the natural greenhouse effect.

Only those sentences that can be contrasted using the adversative sentence connectors "in contrast" or
"conversely" can also be re-worded to combine with adversative subordinators ("while", "whereas") and
adversative prepositions ("unlike", "in contrast to").

Adversative subordinators:

While the average surface temperature of the moon is -18C, the average surface temperature
of the Earth is +15C.
The average surface temperature of the moon is -18C, while the average surface temperature
of the Earth is +15C.

Adversative prepositions:

Adversative preposition:
Unlike the moon with an average temperature of -18C, the Earth is able to maintain an
average surface temperature of +15C.
In contrast to the moon with an average temperature of -18C, the Earth is able to maintain an
average surface temperature of +15C.

CONVERSELY (knteisesti, toisaalta)

Use "conversely" to contrast the relationship between two related features in the same situation,
process, or facts from opposite points of views (shown in red and blue). These features, often
expressed as pairs of opposites such as hot-cold, increased-decreased, fast-slow, high-low or smalllarge, appear in reverse orders in the two sentences. Thus, "conversely" indicates that two events or
situations are related to each other, but that opposite things occur or are true in each case. This ordering
of information can be expressed as follows:
[if (A = true), then (B true)]. Conversely, [if (A true), then (B = true)].
Note in the example below how "conversely" clearly signals an inverse relationship of cause-effect
between the two features temperture and sea levels.

Ocean level fluctuations

RELATIONSHIP 1

RELATIONSHIP 2

colder temperature

warmer temperature

Ocean levels have always fluctuated with

changes in global temperatures. During ice
ages when the earth was 5C colder than
today, much of the ocean's water was frozen
in glaciers, and the sea level was often more
than 100 meters below its current level.
Conversely, during the last interglacial period
(120,000 years ago) when the average
temperature was 1-2C warmer than today,

the sea level was about 6 meters higher than

today.
lower sea level

higher sea level

Don't confuse "conversely" with "on the other hand", which is used to contrast two different sides of a
situation or argument, but not sides that are opposites or inversely related to each other, as does
"conversely".

INSTEAD (sen sijaan)

Use "instead" to replace or substitute one action with another. When "instead" comes at the beginning
of a sentence (with a comma), it tends to be often used after a negative sentence.

Situation 1 ( - )

Situation 2 ( + )

Without the natural greenhouse effect, temperatures would be much lower than they are now, and
life as known today would not be possible. Instead, thanks to greenhouse gases, the earths average
temperature is a more hospitable 15C.

"Instead" can also come without a comma after the conjunctions "and" and "or".

Situation 1 ( - )

Situation 2 ( + )

Although the U.S. signed an agreement known as the Kyoto Agreement in 1997, in 2001 the new U.S.
government rejected the approach of cutting its emissions of carbon dioxide and instead called for a
more balanced approach toward reducing carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases.
Scientists have still not been able to answer the question of whether climate change is gradually
melting the rest of the world's glaciers and ice caps, or instead is adding snow to them.

Don't confuse "Instead" with "on the other hand" and "alternatively". While "on the other hand" is used to
contrast two different sides of a situation or argument, "instead" replaces one thing with another. Unlike
"alternatively", "instead" does not offer any choice of actions, but instead simply excludes or eliminates
one possible 'line of action'.

ON THE CONTRARY(pinvastoin)

Use "on the contrary" to disagree with an idea or to dispute the "truth" of a widely-held view. In the first
sentence, the writer contradicts this viewpoint using a negative form (no, not, nothing),
and the second sentence then supports this opposite view with evidence or correct facts, expressed in
the positive form.
In the example below, notice how the first sentence contradicts the "wrong" view that 'Carbon dioxide is
a pollutant' with a negative form (not), while the second sentence supports this view with the
"correct" view expressed in the positive form.

Negative ( - )

Positive ( + )

Carbon dioxide (CO2) is not a pollutant. On the contrary, it makes crops and forests grow faster.
Economic analysis has demonstrated that more CO2 and a warmer climate will raise GNP and thus
average income.

ALTERNATIVELY (vaihtoehtoisesti, toisaalta)

Use "alternatively" when there is a choice, or you intend to suggest an action different from that
mentioned in a previous sentence. This sentence connector occurs most frequently with "can" or "could",
and can also follow "or" (often without a comma).

Nanoparticles can enter damaged cells and release enzymes that

initiate the cells auto destruct sequence, known as apoptosis.
Alternatively, they can release enzymes to try to repair the cell and
return it to normal functioning.

Contrastive connectors can be grouped into four grammatical

classes, as shown in the box below.

Sentence connectors (traditionally called sentence

adverbs) occur at the beginning of a sentence to link one
sentence containing a cause with the effect or result in
another one.
Conjunctions (also known as adverbs and co-ordinate
conjunctions) are those signposts that function within a
single sentence to link causes with effects.
Subordinators (also known as subordinate conjunctions)
usually combine with full clauses; however, they can also
be used with noun phrases when the main clause has a
"human" subject. Subordinators mainly differ from the
other signposts in that they help to move the stress to
ideas expressed in the main clause.

Prepositions combine with noun phrases and gerunds (ing) forms to contrast ideas within the same sentence.

CAUSATIVE CONNECTORS
Causative connectors help guide the reader to see logical
connections and can be grouped into five grammatical classes, as
shown in the box above.

sentence connectors commonly occur at the beginning

of a sentence, are typically separated from the rest of the
sentence by a comma, and introduce a result or effect
that logically follows from causes or reasons given in the
previous sentence.
In contrast, subordinators, prepositions, verbs, and
special nouns function within a single sentence and can
signal either reason/cause or result/effect relations.
Click below on a class or individual connectors to see explanations and examples.

Sentence
connectors

Subordinators

Prepositions

Verbs

Nouns

Thus
Therefore
Hence
Consequently
As a result
As a consequence
For this reason
Accordingly

since
because
as
in that

because of
due to
as a result of
as a consequence
of
owing to
On account of

leads to
results in
causes
contributes
to

The cause of
The reason for
The effect of

results from
arises from
stems from

a result of
a consequence
of
the effect of

THUS (siten, nin, niinp)

The adverb 'thus' is the most common of the sentence connectors. The main functions of this connector
are best described in terms of its location in the sentence.
BEGINNING OF SENTENCE
At the beginning of a sentence (followed by a comma), 'thus' can have four different functions. Similar to
the other causative connectors in this group, it can be used to link reasons with results, with the
meaning of "For this reason" or "Because of this/that". However, the real differences are seen in its use to
introduce conclusions inferred from evidence, present a general summary of information listed in earlier
sentences, and to express the means for accomplishing an action.

1.

Results ("for this reason", "Because of this/that")

Use 'thus' (followed by a comma) at the beginning of a sentence to introduce a result in a general
way. This function has the same meaning as therefore ("so", "for this reason" or "because of
this"):

The term "polymer" is derived from the Greek "poly", meaning "many", and "mer",
meaning "parts". Thus, polymers are substances made of "many parts".
(Reason

2.

Result)

Drawing Conclusions ("This means that")

Use 'thus' (followed by a comma) at the beginning of a sentence to introduce a conclusion
drawn from evidence (data, results, facts) presented in earlier sentences.

Table 1 reveals that Costa Rica has far better health indicators than other low
income countries. The infant mortality rate is over four times lower and the life
expectancy significantly higher. Thus, from this data we can conclude that Costa
Rica is significantly healthier than other low income countries.
(Evidence

3.

Conclusion)

Summarizing ("In other words")

Use 'thus' (followed by a comma) at the beginning of a sentence to present a summary that
restates your main idea (often introduced in a topic sentence).

Much work still remains in the battle against water pollution [topic sentence].
When the Clean Water Act was enacted more than a quarter of a century ago, the
country faced a water pollution problem of crisis proportions, epitomized by rivers
so contaminated by toxic industrial wastes that they actually caught fire. Although
progress has been made in cleaning up some waters, 40% of our rivers, lakes,
and estuaries are still too polluted for safe fishing or swimming. Moreover, 47
states have even issued health warning urging only limited consumption of fish
from their waters due to contamination caused by mercury, PCBs, chlordane,
dioxins, and DDT. Thus, although U.S. waterways may no longer be catching fire,
they remain unacceptably dirty.

Summary (Details

4.

Summary)

clarifying examples ("for example")

Use 'thus' (followed by a comma) at the beginning of a sentence to present examples that help to
illustrate a concept.

The amount of organic material that can rot in sewage is measured using the BOD
(biochemical oxygen demand). BOD is the amount of oxygen required by microorganisms to decompose the organic substances in sewage. Thus, the more
organic material there is in the sewage, the higher the BOD.
Summary (Definition

5.

Examples)

Expressing 'Means' ("in this way", "by so doing")

The original meaning of 'thus' is "in this way", "by doing this" or "in so doing". Notice in the
examples below how easily "in this way" can be replaced by 'thus'.

Informal:
Connectors help reinforce the logic of your writing by signalling the relationship
between your ideas. In this way, connectors act as the glue that binds the
components of your argument or discussion into a unified, coherent, and
persuasive whole.

Formal:
Connectors help reinforce the logic of your writing by signalling the relationship
between your ideas. Thus, connectors act as the glue that binds the components
of your argument or discussion into a unified, coherent, and persuasive whole.

WITHIN SENTENCE

Unlike the other sentence connectors, only 'thus' can be used to signal a means-result (keino-seuraus)
relation. Typically, the first part of the sentence states an action, which is then linked by 'thus' as the
means for producing the end-result given in the first part of the same sentence.

Many governments intend to reduce their reliance on imported oil [result]

by developing new energy-efficient transportation technology [means].
(Result

Means)

In the example below, notice how using 'thus' allows you to change the order of the information in the
sentence. (See also the unit on information ordering)

and + this:
Many governments intend to develop new energy-efficient transportation
technology [means] and thus reduce their reliance on imported oil [result].
(Means

Result)

Resultative -ing clause:

Many governments intend to develop new energy-efficient transportation
technology [means], thus reducing their reliance on imported oil [result].
(Means

Result)

Let's now take a look at these two common ways of using 'thus' between elements in a single sentence.

6. AND + THUS
Use 'thus' after "and" (without a comma) to introduce a result achieved by means of an action
stated in the first part of the same sentence. Notice how easily 'thus' can replace the more
informal "in this way".

Informal:
Connectors signal the relationship between your ideas and in this way act as the
glue that binds the components of your argument or discussion into a unified,
coherent, and persuasive whole.

Formal:
Connectors signal the relationship between your ideas and thus act as the glue
that binds the components of your argument or discussion into a unified, coherent,
and persuasive whole.

Positioning "thus" within the sentence

Like other adverbs, 'thus' (and the other sentence connectors) is typically positioned around the
verb according to the type and structure of the verb. (For example, see "also")

Before the main verb:

In 1623 Wilhelm Schickard built the first mechanical calculator and thus became
the father of the computing era.

After the verb "to be":

The French government banned wine made from American grape varieties
because it tasted like raspberries and was thus offensive to the palate.

After modal auxiliary verbs (e.g., can, may, should):

New findings have suggested that the earth's climate system is inherently
unstable, and that global warming could thus precipitate dramatic climate
changes.

7. Resultative clauses
Use 'thus' in Resultative -ing clauses (also called -ing clauses of result) to introduce the result
of an action within a single sentence. These clauses are very common in formal written English.
They are separated from the reason by a comma and the verb is always in the gerund (-ing)
form.

Connectors signal the relationship between your ideas and thus act as the glue
that binds the components of your argument or discussion into a unified, coherent,
and persuasive whole.
Connectors signal the relationship between your ideas, thus acting as the glue
that binds the components of your argument or discussion into a unified, coherent,
and persuasive whole.

An alternative to using 'thus' is to use the more formal adverb 'thereby'.

Improvements in environmental impact are achieved by utilizing nanostructure

particulates in coatings, thus eliminating the requirement for toxic solvents.
Improvements in environmental impact are achieved by utilizing nanostructure
particulates in coatings, thereby eliminating the requirement for toxic solvents.

THEREFORE (siksi, siis)

'Therefore' is the second most frequently used causative connector. Like 'thus', 'therefore' tends to occur
more frequently at the beginning of sentences, separated by a comma from the subject of the sentence.
1.

Results ("Because of this/that")

Use 'therefore' to introduce a result that can be deduced, inferred, or concluded by a process of
logical reasoning from information presented earlier.

Opponents of Embryonic Stem cell research believe that human life begins as
soon as an egg is fertilized, and they consider a human embryo to be a human
being. Therefore, they consider any research that requires the destruction of a
human embryo to be morally wrong.
(Reason

2.

Result)

Solutions ("In response to this problem")

Use 'therefore' when the reason is stated as a problem or need, and the result offers a solution
to this problem.

Coal currently provides 30% of the energy in Europe. However, EU carbon

emissions limits may greatly affect the coal industry in the near future. Therefore,
many agencies are developing "clean coal" technology in an attempt to allow
increased coal use in the future.
(Problem

Solution)

Justifying aims and methods

'Therefore' also tends to be more commonly used than the other causative connectors as a way
to justify both aims as well as the choice of materials and methods used in research.

Aims:
In space applications, electrolytic cells powered by solar cells have been used to
produce hydrogen and oxygen for various purposes. When not needed, hydrogen
has been released into space. An alternative approach would be to convert
hydrogen and oxygen into drinking water for use by astronauts inside the space
lab. Therefore, the aim of this work was to develop a reaction system to convert
explosive mixtures of hydrogen and oxygen completely and safely to condensed
water

Methods:
Uncompressed audio, even at extremely poor quality, can consume as much as
64Kbps. This is well beyond normal modem dial-up speeds. Therefore, we used
GSM 6.10 compression the same compression used for cell phones to make
information available to students with only dialup connectivity.

HENCE

Use 'hence' at the beginning of a sentence, separted by a comma, as a more formal equivalent of
'therefore'. Although both introduce deductions logically derived from reasons, 'therefore' places

more emphasis on the final deduction (for this reason...), whereas 'hence' emphasizes the
reasons leading up to the deduction (from this it logically follows that...).

Nano is the Greek prefix meaning one billionth or .000000001. Hence,

nanotechnology involves science at the smallest level and has been called
"molecular manufacturing" because it "involves manipulating matter on an atom by
atom or molecule by molecule basis to attain desired configurations.

When used as a sentence connector, hence links one sentence with another. However, hence
also has a special function in introducing bare noun phrases (underlined in the examples below).
Note that in these cases, no comma is required if hence follows the word 'and'.

The electricity supply industry is the major consumer of fossil fuels and hence the
major source of carbon dioxide emissions in the UK.
Fuel cells convert gaseous fuels into DC electricity by an electrochemical process.
There are no moving parts, hence no noise and vibrations.

CONSEQUENTLY

Unlike the preceding sentence connectors, consequently does not imply a deduction, but rather a
result that is consistent with reasons presented earlier.

Examples:
During the Precambrian era around 4600 to 544 million years ago, only the
simplest life existed. There were virtually no organisms producing shells.
Consequently, few fossils are found in Precambrian rocks.
Economic growth and population pressure, especially since the industrial
revolution, have greatly increased the amount of carbon emitted into the
atmosphere from fossil fuels and terrestrial biomass, by deforestation and other
land use changes. The processes which remove carbon from the atmosphere

have not increased proportionately. Consequently, atmospheric concentrations of

carbon dioxide have risen to levels which are unprecedented in the recent
geological history of the earth.

AS A RESULT

Similar to consequently, as a result is used to introduce a conclusion or result arising because

of an earlier action or event stated in preceding statemenmts..

The presence of "greenhouse" gases in the atmosphere changes the natural

radiation balance of the Earth. Heat radiation (infra-red) emitted by the Earth is
concentrated at long wavelengths and is strongly absorbed by greenhouse gases
in the atmosphere, such as water vapour, carbon dioxide and methane. As a
result, the surface temperature of the globe is around 85 C warmer than it would
be if there were no atmosphere. This is called the natural greenhouse effect.

AS A CONSEQUENCE

'As a consequence' is similar to, though less common than, 'as a result' and 'consequently'.
However, as a consequence differs in that it tends to be associated with negative results.

In the United States, after refiners began using MTBE in cleaner reformulated
gasolines (RFG), we found that its use contaminated thousands of public drinking
water supplies. It is now the second most commonly found pollutant in the
environment and as much as one-third of our groundwater supplies may be
affected. As a consequence, policy makers at both the state and federal level are

now doing everything possible to eliminate MTBE use in gasoline as quickly as

possible.

Some websites have "hard-coded" their text and background colours and as a
consequence these websites will not reflect the changes you have just made.

FOR THIS REASON

Because hydrogen is the simplest element, it will leak from any container, no
mater how strong and no matter how well insulated. For this reason, hydrogen in
storage tanks will always evaporate, at a rate of at least 1.7 percent per day.

Atmospheric convection can also create clear-air turbulence&151;the bumpiness

we sometimes experience on aircraft flights. Ascending and descending parcels of
air, especially below fluffy clouds (themselves the result of convective processes),
can cause a choppy ride. For this reason, passenger aircraft tend to fly above
most of the turbulence, at the top of the troposphere or in the lower stratosphere,
where the atmosphere is stable and the air is calm.

ACCORDINGLY

The Bush Administration initially felt that there was insufficient evidence to support
the theory of climate change or to link human activity to climate change.
Accordingly, President Bush announced early in 2001 that he would not ratify the
Kyoto Protocol on curbing greenhouse gas emissions.

The EU recognises that improving the efficiency and reducing the cost of hydrogen production
is the key to the wider adoption of fuel-cell technologies and accordingly has suggested that
a high level of attention and effort is paid to this area.

ADDITIVE CONNECTORS

Additive connectors can be grouped into four grammatical classes,

as shown in the box below.

Sentence connectors commonly occur at the beginning of

a sentence, are physically separated by a comma to mark
their special role, and show the relationship between that
sentence and previous sentences.
Prepositions combine only with noun phrases and gerunds
(-ing) forms to link the current sentence with earlier ideas.
The category 'other linkers' includes adverbs, co-ordinate
conjunctions, and non-finite clauses that function to join
ideas within a single sentence.
Special adjectives indicate that another example of
something mentioned earlier is about to follow.
Click the links below to see explanations and examples of each connector type.

Sentence connectors
(Between sentences)

Prepositions
(Within sentence)

Other linkers
(Within sentence)

Adjectives
(Within sentence)

Moreover,...
In addition,...
Furthermore,...
Further,...
Additionally,...
Likewise,...
Similarly,...

In addition to..., ...

..., as well as...
Similar to..., ...
Like..., ...

and
also
as well
..., with... -ing
..., as + [auxiliary verb]
not only... but also
both... and

(an)other
(a) further
(a) similar

MOREOVER

Moreover is usually used to introduce the second of two points that argue for a certain viewpoint. The
second item supports and reinforces the claim introduced by the first item. Although the connectors
moreover, in addition and furthermore seem to be interchangeable in many cases, moreover differs from
the other two in that it tends to follow and support a previous negative evaluation (shown below in red).
Note how the writer uses moreover to add a second point that adds extra support to the writer's unstated
argument that hydrogen is unsuitable as a fuel source for transportation.

All prototypes of hydrogen-powered cars have depended upon compressed hydrogen. However,
because of its low density, compressed hydrogen will not give a car as useful a range as gasoline.
Moreover, a compressed hydrogen fuel tank would be at risk of developing pressure leaks
either through accidents or through normal wear, and such leaks could result in
explosions.

When not supporting a "negative" claim, moreover can act like furthermore to add a second point to an
argument. However, furthermore indicates the expansion of an already existing idea without introducing a
new concept, while moreover would tend to introduce a new topic linked to and supporting the old one.
Note in the following example how this text could have been expressed using enumerators.

The worldwide problem of contamination around mining sites is significant. Acid mine drainage, for
example, is a threat to ground- and surface water near mines. It occurs when metal-sulfide ores
are exposed to air and water and the sulfide is transformed to sulfuric acid. Moreover, metals
such as zinc are toxic and can leach into groundwater and contaminate wells and other drinking
water supplies.
With enumerators:
The worldwide problem of contamination around mining sites is significant. Acid mine drainage, for
example, is a threat to ground- and surface water near mines. It occurs when metal-sulfide ores
are exposed to air and water and the sulfide is transformed to sulfuric acid. A second major
threat is posed by metals such as zinc. these metals are toxic and can leach into groundwater and
contaminate wells and other drinking water supplies.

Like furthermore, moreover can also be used to expand on an already existing idea without introducing a
new topic (see also given-new information): Note in the following example how both moreover and
furthermore could have been used.

New materials developed through nanotechnology will meet the strength, weight, and thermal
stability requirements of space planes, rockets, space stations, and high-speed aircraft. Moreover,
/ Furthermore, nanotechnology will permit the ultra-miniaturization of space systems and
equipment, including the development of smart, compact sensors; miniscule probes; and
microspacecraft.

FURTHERMORE
You can use Furthermore when you want to add another point to a list of two or more items in support of
an argument. Contrast this with moreover, which typically introduces the second in a list of only two
points. Furthermore also differs from moreover in that furthermore indicates the expansion of an existing
idea without introducing new concepts, while moreover tends to introduce a new topic in support of the
old one (see also given-new information).

The benefits of hydrogen fuel cells are just reaching the mindset of the mainstream political and
energy world. Because Hydrogen releases no air pollution or greenhouse gases, it offers the
greatest potential for a clean energy not-so-distant future. Hydrogen fuel can be generated from
renewable energy sources such as wind and solar power which have little or no greenhouse gas
emissions. Furthermore, changing over to hydrogen fuel would help bolster the job market,
and help jumpstart an economy based on sustainability, rather than destruction and
depletion of resources and national lands. On average, renewable energy creates 4.5 times as
many short term construction jobs and 8 times as many long term operations and maintenance
jobs than natural gas based electricity production.

Note how the above example could just as easily be expressed using enumeration:

The benefits of hydrogen fuel cells are just reaching the mindset of the mainstream political and
energy world. First, because Hydrogen releases no air pollution or greenhouse gases, it offers the
greatest potential for a clean energy not-so-distant future. A second benefit is that Hydrogen fuel
can be generated from renewable energy sources, such as wind and solar power, which have little
or no greenhouse gas emissions. A third benefit is that changing over to hydrogen fuel would
help bolster the job market and help jumpstart an economy based on sustainability, rather
than destruction and depletion of resources and national lands. On average, renewable
energy creates 4.5 times as many short term construction jobs and 8 times as many long term
operations and maintenance jobs than natural gas based electricity production.

FURTHER
Although less common than the three Between-sentence connectors listed above, further, like moreover,
is used to introduce the second of a pair of statements, in which the second, like in addition, does not
support a claim, but simply describes or adds details about a topic introduced previously in the text.
Further demands parallelism

Greenhouse gas emissions , as well as local and regional pollutants, could be reduced
through more efficient use of energy and increasing the share of lower carbon-emitting fossil
fuels, advanced fossil-fuel technologies and renewable energy technologies. Further,
greenhouse gas concentrations in the atmosphere can be reduced by enhanced uptake of
carbon through, for example, reforestation, slowing deforestation, and improved forest, rangeland,
wetland, and cropland management.

LIKEWISE
Although less formal than similarly, Likewise can be found in academic texts, especially when the writer
wishes to emphasize the similarity between two methods, states or situations.

Many users of WAP (Wireless Access Protocol) technology fear that their phones could be
infected by a virus, as the system allows them to access the Internet through a cell phone.
However, such infection is impossible since executable code cannot be downloaded through
WAP pages. The only files that can be downloaded are images which are provided by the server,
but never actually stored on the phone. Likewise, it is not possible for this information to spread
from phone to phone as the connection is between phone and server and never directly between
two handsets.

ADDITIONALLY
This connector is similar to in addition, though less common and less formal than in addition. Typically,
additionally is used to describe extra features offered in a product, service, or technical solution.

AudioX3 converts audio files in batches directly between Windows Media, MP3, AIFF, and Wave
format. Additionally, it copies tracks from an audio CD to the hard disk.

SIMILARLY

Use similarly when stating that there is a correspondence between the way that two things happen or are
performed. Note in the example below how important parallel forms are for using this connector.

Vitamin B6 is vital in the formation of long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids from essential fatty
acids and in the conversion of tryptophan into nicotinic acid. Similarly, it is needed to incorporate
iron into haemoglobin and to transfer methinonine into energy, thereby avoiding an excessive
accumulation of homocysteine which is toxic.