Chapter 6: Mechanical Properties

True strain is the elongation per unit length calculated using the

Tape casting: Produces thin ceramic tapes, alumina electronic

be both a thermoplastic or thermosetting; Contain coil-like
packages, barium titanate capacitors. Slurry/mixture is poured into a molecules that stretch
doctor blade, which controls its thickness as it is cast onto a substrate Types of Polymerization (2 types)
Addition Polymerization (Chain Growth)
(polymer sheet or stainless steel).
Extrusion process: 1. Blending 2. Extrusion- pushed through a die Under heat/pressure/catalysts double bonds within a monomer
o
cavity through pressure to get the desired 3. Cutting and drying - after molecule are broken to form a single bond; Ends of single bond can
instantaneous dimensions ln(
)
desired length is extruded, green part is cut and dried before sintering now bond with other monomers to form longer chains; Smaller
chains may bond together (combination), hydrogen atoms bond with
Injection Moulding: 1.Blending and compounding 2. Moulding i
pressed into cold die cavity with a plunger or screw mechanism 3.
one end (creating a C double bond - called disproportionation) or
Engineering stress is a force acting over the original area of a sample
terminators can be added
Ejection and binder removal - after the part is removed from the
mould, the binder is removed by heat treatment
Condensation Polymerization (Step-Growth)
(
= F/Ao)
Cold Isostatic Pressing (CIP): useful for complex shapes. Powder is Two or more molecules combine to form a polymer and a small
placed inside a mould and pressed in all directions in pressure vessel tomolecule by product (water, methanol, ethanol); Length of chain
Strain - measure of the amount of elongation per unit length
depends on the ability of the reacting molecules to reach the ends of
compress into a useful shape, high pressed green densities
Elastic Limit - Stress where plastic deformation begins
Sintering of Ceramics: to reduce surface area in green body
polymer chain; Process continues until no more monomers available
Proportional Limit Magnitude of stress where stress-strain
Degree of Polymerization
1. After pressing to form a green body, particles are in contact with
relationship is no longer linear. Deformation of a material is a
each other forming necks 2. Grain boundary forms in each neck (b/c Average length of a linear polymer chain is given by degree of
combination of both proportional and elastic limit
crystallographic orientation is different in each particle) 3. As sintering polymerization
Yield Strength Shift strain (0.002) or (0.2%)
progresses, spaces b/w particles become pores and keep on shrinking Degree of Polymerization =
Sintered Ceramics The goal of green forming and sintering is to
Modulus of Resilience, Er: Is the elastic energy absorbed during
reduce the porosity as much as possible; Pores can be inter connected
loading and subsequently released when the load is removed
or isolated depending on the amount of sintering; Interconnected pores
Higher Elastic Modulus indicates higher stiffness, steeper slope
allow for filtering but are structurally weak
Tensile Toughness: Represents the energy absorbed by a material
Porosity Pores are flows that reduce the tensile strength of ceramics;
prior to fracture (Area under the true stress-strain curve) (Higher
Some porosity can be helpful for thermal shock but generally should beIf polymer contains more than one monomer; the molecular weight
strength = higher energy absorption)
of the repeat unit is the sum of the molecular weights of the
avoided
monomers minus the molecular weight of the by-product
Brittle Materials: Experience more stress than more ductile
Mechanical Properties of Thermoplastics
materials/Experience very little plastic deformation/Glasses and
w
d
Viscoelastic: Viscoelastic behaviour is a deformation of a material
Apparent
Porosity
=
ceramics
by elastic deformation and viscous flow; Under slow strain rates,
Hardness of Materials Measure of the resistance to plastic
chains are able to move past one another resulting ins large plastic
w
s
deformation
deformation; With strain rates, chains cannot move and the material
Rockwell hardness test is used to measure the hardness of a material
acts in a brittle mater
by measuring the depth of an impression made by an indenter under
Elastic Behaviour
w
load.
Stretching of covalent bonds: Covalent bonds stretched under
Vickers hardness test measures the hardness of a material by
applied stress; Strain instantly recovered after stress released
d
Distortion of Chains: Under applied stress, chains may move
measuring the size of an impression made by a square based pyramid
slightly; Over, chains move back to original position; Non-linear
diamond indenter
elastic behaviour
Chapter 2: Atomic Structure
s
Plastic Deformation (Amorphous): Deformation different
Bonds: (Ionic, covalent, metallic are primary bonds)
mechanism metals; Chains stretch, glide, disentangle under load; At
Ionic: Cation/Anion; Covalent: Limited ductility and poor electrical
high stress necking begins
True
Porosity
=
conductivity. Ceramics and Polymers; Metallic: Provides good
Necking in Thermoplastics: Randomly oriented; As the stress is
electrical conductivity, good ductility, and high melting temperatures;
applied a neck develops and the chains begin to locally align until
the chains have aligned along the entire gage length; This process of
Van der Waals: Important in polymers as they determine strength and
aligning chains strengthens the polymer; Eventually the covalent
ductility (secondary bonds forming between two molecules)
bonds fracture after the chains have fully aligned
Interatomic Spacing: Spacing b/w atoms is dependent on the
Deformation of Crystalline Polymers: Crystalline - folding of
attractive and repulsive forces. The equilibrium interatomic spacing
chains in tension; Eventually disentangle and break
occurs when the net forces acting on the atom is zero. Typically equal
Crazing: Localized plastic deformation that occurs perpendicular to
Apparent porosity indicates the amount of interconnected or open porosity in the
to the atomic diameter.
material.
an applied stress; Causes colour change from transparent to opaque,
True porosity indicates the total porosity of a material including both open and closed and often leads to cracks; May lead to brittle failure. Thermoplastics
Chapter 13: Steels and Cast Iron
Cast Iron Carbon content > 2.1% Carbon; melt at lower temperatures (isolated) porosity.
are brittle under impact since there is little time for the chains to
Glasses
Non-crystalline,
i.e.
short-range
order
of
molecules
but
no
(better for casting); contain graphite (form of pure carbon); used for
move
long-range order; Usually based on Sio2; Most properties are similar to
engine blocks, gears, pistons
Stress Relaxation: under constant strain stress levels decrease
those of ceramics; Glasses are metastable and will crystallize given the
Steel Carbon content < 1.4%; Plain carbon steels: No alloying
overtime (think of a stretched elastic band)
elements added for strength; very good general properties (strength, right combination of circumstances.
ductility, weldability, machinability); very poor corrosion resistance Classification of Glass Oxides
Glass
Formers:
These
oxides
are
capable
of
forming
glass.
Types of Carbon Steels
= oexp(
)
1. Low Carbon steels (<0.3% C) - highest tonnage of steel produced; Intermediates: Oxides that may be incorporated into the glass
structure but do not form glasses on their own.
2. Medium Carbon steels (0.3-0.6% C) - railway tracks, gears,
crankshafts; 3. High Carbon Steels (0.6-1.4%) - cutting edges, dies, Modifiers: Oxides that break up the network structure and allow the
glass to crystallize; Reduce melting point and viscosity of SiO 2 making
punches
it easier to form glasses at lower temperatures.
= oexp(
), o = original stress,
=
Note: The more carbon the harder and stronger it is but the less
Types of Glasses
weldability and formability it has.
Classification of Steels - AISI/SAE (Not used for stainless steels or Soda Lime Glass - reduces melting temperature, reduces water
tool steels) consists of 4 digit number; first digit: indicates alloy steel solubility; Borosilicate Glass - Possess excellent chemical and
dimensional stability, used for lab ware, containers for nuclear waste. relaxation time,
= a constant, Q is the activation
(1xxx plain carbon steel, 40xx = Mo steel, 41xx Cr Mo steel,
o
Calcium Aluminoborosilicate Glass - used for glass fibres in
15xx Mo steel, 50xx Cr steel); second digit: indicates a
fibreglass and composites. Magnesium Aluminosilicate Glass - used energy
modification; last two digits indicate %C in hundredths of a %
Degree of Polymerization Increasing the average molecular weight
Tool Steels high carbon with addition of alloying elements for high for glass fibres in high strength composites Fused Silica - Best
increases: tensile strength, creep resistance, impact toughness, wear
hardenability and carbide formation; high hardness, wear resistance, resistance to high temperature, thermal shock, and chemical resistance
Glass Processing Heating the glass to high temperatures changes the resistance, melting temperature
shock and impact resistance, and elevated temperature service
Structure-Property Relationships in Thermoplastics
viscosity
of
the
glass
and
gives
different
characteristics;
Liquid
Stainless Steels Alloys of iron and chromium; excellent corrosion and
Range: Glass is molten and used to produce glass sheet; Mirrors and Effect of Side Group - adding atoms changes the properties of the
high temperature oxidation resistance
fibres are produced in this state; Working Range: Glass is heated so it polymer; Larger side groups make it more difficult for chains to
Five types: Ferritic - less expensive, used for construction, lack
uncoil and slide past one another - this increases strength and
ductility and weldability, used for automotive exhaust, dishwashers, is formable but not liquid; Used to produce containers, light bulbs
stiffness; Branching reduces strength
decorative. Martensitic - selected for cutting edges with good wear through pressing, drawing, or blow moulding; A gob of molten glass
Tacticity Arrangement of non-symmetrical polymer chains (isotatic
is
performed
into
a
crude
shape
(a
parison)
then
pressed
or
blown
into
and corrosion resistance, high temperatures will cause embrittlement.
repeat unit is on the same side, syndiotactic repeat unit is on
Austenitic - not heat treatable, strain hardenable, strengthened by cold a final shape; Annealing Range: Glass may be annealed then slowly
opposite sides, Atatic random, Atotic structure has the poorest
cooked
to
reduce
residual
stress
working, excellent corrosion resistance and formability, used for
Tempered Glass Produced by quenching the surface with air; Surface packing and least favourable mechanical properties)
appliances, kitchen sinks. Duplex - combination of austenitic and
Crystallization Polymer may crystallize to improve: Density,
contracts quickly while centre contracts more slowly; Differential
ferritic stainless steels with properties between each type.
Resistance to chemical attack, Mechanical properties. May cause
cooling causes compressive stresses to develop on the surface with
Precipitation Hardened - high strength and corrosion/ oxidation
polymer to be translucent
tensile stresses in the centre; Improves tensile strength and impact
resistance
Copolymers Copolymers are polymers made with different
properties
Cast Iron Fe-C-Si alloys; excellent casting, good wear/ corrosion
polymers within the chain in order to combine the properties of two
resistance, low cost (10% less dense than steel); Advantages: low cost, Laminated Glass Consists of two annealed glass pieces laminated
different polymers together.
with
a
polymer
(polyvinyl
butyral)
in
b/w;
Used
to
make
windshields;
easily melted, free-flowing liquid, low solidification shrinkage;
Temperature Effects
Disadvantages: high solidification temp, sensitive to solidification rate Bulletproof glass is made with polycarbonate layers instead
Mechanical properties of thermoplastics change with temperature
Glass

Ceramics
High
crystalline
materials
made
from
amorphous
Five types: White Iron - relatively hard and brittle, increased wear
4 Thermoplastic States
glasses;;
Heat
treatment
after
forming
and
added
oxides
allow
for
and corrosion resistance, used for rolling mills, grinding plates,
Liquid: Thermoplastics above melting temperature. Bonds between
cement mixers, extrusion dies. Gray Iron - most common, graphite crystallization; Offers good mechanical strength, toughness, high
chains are weak; chains move easily; no strength and elasticity:
temperature
corrosion
resistance,
with
a
low
coefficient
of
thermal
flakes form, low solidification rate, high machinability and wear
Rubbery: Thermoplastics just below melting temperature just below
resistance, good oil retention and dampening. Ductile Iron - similar expansion;
melting temperature; chains move easily resulting in plastic
Chapter
16;
Polymer
properties to gray irons except stronger and tougher. Malleable Iron deformation (state used for forming); Leathery: At lower
Polymer is a long chain of molecules made from many monomers
formed by annealing white iron (contain irregular graphite nodules
temperature(Just above glass transition temp); Bonds between chains
bonded
together;
Typically
polymers
consist
of
a
carbon
backbone
called mallebalization). Compacted Graphite Iron - properties
which is covalently bonded to other atoms such as hydrogen oxygen orstrengthen making thermoplastic stronger and more rigid.
between gray and ductile irons, good for high-temperature
Rigid State: thermoplastic polymer is just below its glass transition
nitrogen
applications
temperature. Polymer is glass-like making it strong and stiff yet
3 Types of Polymers
Chapter 14: Non-Ferrous Alloys
Thermoplastics; Atoms within the chains are covalently bonded with brittle
Non-ferrous alloys dont contain iron
the chains themselves bonded by van der Waals bonds; Are generally Crystallinity in Polymers: Thermoplastics may partially crystallize
Aluminum Alloys: Low density; low stiffness, high electrical /
at temperatures blow melting point; Chains become closely aligned
ductile; May be amorphous or crystalline depending on the
thermal conductivity; good corrosion resistance; good strength /
temperature; Soften when heated which allows for shaping and easy folding over themselves creating plates (lamella)
recycling
ductility; poor fatigue resistance. Wrought Alloys Use a 4 digit
system where first digit indicates principle alloying elements, suffix Thermosetting Also long chain molecules; Strongly cross-linked
c
a
forming rigid 3D structures; Stronger but more brittle than
% Crystalline =
, p is the
after digits indicates how alloy is heat treated. Copper Alloys
thermoplastics; Do not melt simply decompose; Recycling difficult
Excellent electrical and thermal conductors; Good corrosion & wear
Elastomers Capable of elastic deformation greater than 200%; May be
c
a
resistance; Good strength, high ductility, cold workability Common both a thermoplastic or thermosetting; Contain coil-like molecules that
measure of density of the polymer, pa is the density of amorphous
Copper Alloys Brass (Cu + Zn) Good strength, ductility, corrosion stretch
polymer, Pc is the density of completely crystallized polymer
resistance; Bronze (Cu + Sn) Good strength and wear resistance; Cu Types of Polymerization (2 types)
Mechanical Properties of Polymers
Addition Polymerization (Chain Growth)
+ Be alloys Highest strength of Cu alloys age hardenable
Molecular weight, Amount of branching, Degree of branching,
Additive
polymerization
is
a
process
to
make
long
chain
polymers
by
Magnesium Alloys Low density, melting temp, and modulus of
Degree of cross-linking, Degree of crystallinity (folding of chains),
elasticity; Good specific strength, corrosion resistance (except marine combining several monomers together.
Tacticity, Temperature, Strain rate
Condensation Polymerization (Step-Growth)
environments); Poor fatigue, creep, and wear resistance Nickel Alloys
Condensation polymerization forms polymer chains by reacting two Geometric Isomers: Monomers with the same composition but
Have good strength, particularly at high temp; Good corrosion
or more molecules together to produce a polymer and a small moleculedifferent structures (ie rubber)
Cross-linking: Bonding between polymer chains to prevent viscous
resistance; Used for heat exchangers, gas turbines Titanium Alloys by-product.
plastic deformation (Low cross-linking - soft, flexible (i.e. rubber
High strength, low density; Excellent corrosion resistance; Good high Degree of Polymerization
bands, rubber gloves)
Average length of a linear polymer chain is given by degree of
temperature properties; Used in chemical processing equipment,
High cross-linking - hard rigid (i.e. hockey pucks))
polymerization
biomedical implants, jet engines
Vulcanization: Technique for cross-linking elastomer chains by
Degree
of
Polymerization
=
Chapter 15: Ceramics
adding sulphur atom chains which displace hydrogen atoms (non
Ceramics: solid compounds that comprise at least one metal and one
referable, cant recycle)
non-metallic element or a combination of at least two non-metallic
Tensile Testing of Elastomers: All deformation is elastic (nonelement solids.
linear); Initially the polymer chains uncoil; Chains then stretch with
Properties of Ceramics Hard and wear resistant, brittle, prone to
further deformation; Eventually the bonds break
thermal shock, refractory (high melting point), generally electrically
Tempered glass is produced by quenching the surface of the glass withThermoplastic Elastomers Dont rely on cross linking for plastic
insulating, generally thermally insulating, generally non-magnetic,
deformation - instead one chain crystallizes to prevent the sliding of
air resulting in residual compressive stresses which increases the
chemically stable and oxidation-resistant
chains
strength of the glass.
Processing of ceramics: 1. Synthesis of ceramic powders 2. Blending
Thermosetting Polymers
Annealed glass is glass with the residual stresses removed
and spray drying using additives 3. Shaping into useful shapes called
Highly cross linked; Limited chain movement due to 3D structure;
Laminated Glass Consists of two annealed glass pieces laminated
green ceramics 4. Consolidation into a dense object using sintering or
with a polymer (polyvinyl butyral) in b/w; Used to make windshields; Good strength stiffness and hardness, but brittle; Begin as linear
firing 5. Secondary processing such as cutting or polishing 6.Final
chains-mixed with resins and heat to from cross-linking
Bulletproof glass is made with polycarbonate layers instead
sintered ceramic product.
Glass Ceramics High crystalline materials made from amorphous Common Thermosets Phenolics - adhesives, brake pads; Amines

A
A

of the mould pressing the plastic into the mould; Often used for bottles
Thermoset Place solid materials in the mould then heating causes cross
linking to form the final product; Compression moulding - high pressure
and temperature causes the plastic to melt and it fills the mould as it
cools
Compression moulding - high pressure & temperature causes the plastic
to melt & it fills the mould as it cools
of properties, strength, toughness, electrical conductivity Metal matrix
composites (MMCs) Polymer-matrix composites (PMCs) ceramic
matrix composites (CMCs) Abrasives i.e. grinding cutting tools
Chapter 17: Composites
Rule of Mixtures
Fibre-reinforced Composites stronger, fatigue resistance, elasticity,
stiff, brittle, metal, glass, or polymers, carbon, boron
matrix is softer, more ductile, examples Kevlar, tennis rackets
Rule of mixtures predicts density (above) & modulus of elasticity for
loads || to fibres Ec= ffEf +fmEm Load perpen to fibres (stress same,
strain different)1/Ec =fm/Em+ff/Ef
Fibre Length determines load carrying ability, large aspect ratio =
stronger, smaller d=less flaws, longer fivers stronger b/c end dont
support load, fibre volume = strong too
Whiskers simple crystal fibres - strong
Matrixes support fibers and keep them in proper positions, prevent
damage of fibers and cracks in material controls electrical, chemical &
thermal properties of composites
Polymer & Metal Matrix good bonding, allow transfer of load to fibres,
coefficients of thermal expansion similar throughout
Ceramic weak bond between fibres and matrix, deflect cracks make less
brittle
Bonding & Failure Good bonding between matrix & fibres helps
transfer of stress coating improves bonding
Fibre Production Metallic, glass & most composites fibres formed from
the drawing process. carbon, Boron, & ceramics produced through
chemical vapor deposition Fibres, twisted to form yarn or bundled to
form tows
Composite production Short fibre, casting or injection moulding,
continuous handlayup
Metal Matrix Composites Strengthened by metal or ceramic fibres,
good high temp properties i.e. Aluminum
Ceramic Matrix Composites Ceramic fibres in a ceramic matrix,
strong, fracture resistance,poor bonding between fibres and matrices
Carbon Carbon Composite Super strong
Laminar Composites coatings which improve corrosion & wear
resistance
Chapter 3: Atomic and Ionic Arrangements
No Order no orderly arrangement, atoms are not connected and
occupy space randomly Short Range Order Arrangement of atoms
extend only to nearest neighbours, molecules occupy space randomly
Long Range Order Crystalline structures with extended atomic
arrangements forming regular repetitive 3D patterns, molecules occupy
well defined positions
Number of Atoms per Unit Cell Corners = 1/8 atom, Face-Centres =
atom, Body-Cetnres = 1 atom. Simple Cubic Structure (SC) = 1 atom.
Body Centered Cubic Structure (BCC) = 2 atoms. Face Centered Cubic
Structure = 4 atoms. All have 8 corner atoms. The stacking of the atoms
within the crystal structure determines the size of the unit cell.
Coordination Number Higher number indicates more efficiently
packed atom; number of nearest neighbors to an atom in its atomic
arrangement.
Atomic Packing Factor =

Average molecular weight of polymer

Molecular weight of repeat unit

W W
x 100
W W
W =W eight of ceramic after submergingwater ;
W =Dry weight of ceramic ;
W =Weight of ceramic when suspended water
pB
x 100 ;
p
p=theoretical density of the ceramic ; B isthe measured
density of the ceramic

Q
RT

P (PP )
P( P P )

Average molecular weight of polymer

Molecular weight of repeat unit

Volume of atomsunit cell

Volume of unit cell
Materials may have more than one crystal structure Allotropy for pure
elements; Polymorphic for compounds. Isotropic Behaviour
identical in all directions (Polycrystalline) Anisotropic properties are
dependent on the crystallographic directions
Extra Stuff:
What does it mean when a material has short-range order? What does it mean when a
material has long-range order? Give an example of a material for each situation. Materials
with short-range order have an atomic arrangement that extends only to the nearest
neighbouring atoms (e.g. glass, thermoplastic polymers, steam). Materials with long-range
order have an atomic arrangement forming regular repetitive 3D patterns (e.g. metals,
ceramics).
What properties make a ceramic, like silica, a good choice as thermal insulation in high
temperature furnaces?
Ceramics are refractory (have high melting temperatures), are thermal insulating,
chemically stable and oxidation resistant.
How is tempered glass formed? Why is it stronger than annealed glass?
Tempered glass is produced by quenching the surface of the glass with air. This causes the
surface to cool more rapidly than the centre of the glass. As the centre cools it causes the
surface to compress resulting in compressive residual stresses at the surface. The higher
strength of tempered glass compared with annealed glass is a result of the compressive
stresses. In order for tempered glass to break, a tensile load must be sufficiently high to
overcome the compressive residual stresses and cause fracture.
What are the typical properties of the fibres and matrix in fibre-reinforced polymer
composites? What role do the fibres and the matrix have?
Fibres in fibre-reinforced polymer composite are typically strong, stiff, brittle, and light
weight and the matrix is soft and ductile. The fibres are added to carry the load and to
increase the stiffness of the composite. The matrix supports the fibres, transfers the load to
the fibres, protects the fibres from damage, and prevents cracks within the fibre from
propagating throughout the composite. The matrix also controls the chemical, electrical, and
high-temperature use of the composite.
Particulate composites are designed to produce unusual combinations of properties rather
than improve strength. Particulate composites contain large amounts of coarse particles that
do not block slip effectively.
Laminate composites are layers of materials joined together
Surface defects are the boundaries or planes that separate a material into regions such as
grain boundaries, twins, and stacking faults.
In a fatigue fracture surface, striations show the movement of the crack tip after each
loading cycle.
Thermoplastic elastomers are polymers that behave like elastomers when one part of the
polymer chain crystallizes to form domains which act as cross-links. Above the glasstransition temperature of the crystallized polymer, the domains are destroyed and the
polymer may be processed as a thermoplastic.
With reference to the Peierls-Nabarro equation, why are metals with a BCC crystal structure
generally stronger and metals with a FCC crystal structure more ductile?
FCC Metals: Have close packed planes and directions (low crss due to a small Burgers
vector and large interplanar spacing). Several active slip systems. Cross-slip is possible.
Therefore FCC metals have lower strength and high ductility
BCC Metals: Have only close packed directions but only closely packed planes (high
crss due to a larger Burgers vector and closer interplanar spacing). Several active slip
systems. Cross-slip is possible. BCC metals have higher strength and good ductility.
If covalent bonds are stronger than metallic bonds, why is the tensile strength of a ceramic
generally lower than the tensile strength of a metal?
A ceramic typically has a lower tensile strength because of its low fracture toughness.
Ceramics often contain flaws that cause it to fail at lower stresses than its tensile stress
Stress relaxation occurs in polymers when under constant strain, the stress within the
polymer decreases over time.
Stress corrosion cracking causes failure in a material at stresses well below the yield stress
and in environments which do not normally cause corrosion failures. The combination of
stress and environment initiate cracking.
What makes metals ductile? Compare the plastic deformation process in metals with the
plastic deformation process in thermoplastics
The presence of dislocations give metals their ductility. A dislocation will move when an
applied stress is applied parallel to the Burgers vector. Plastic deformation results from the
movement of dislocations. In thermoplastics, plastic deformation takes place because of the
movement of polymer chains rather than dislocations. Plastic deformation results when an
applied stress causes the polymer chains to disentangle and straighten.
Why do BCC metals experience a ductile to brittle transition temperature while FCC metals
do not?
BCC metals experience a ductile to brittle transition temperature because they do not
possess any close-packed planes. At higher temperatures, there are many thermally
activated slip systems. However, as the temperature lowers, fewer slip systems are active.
Consequently, at low temperatures, there are fewer active slip systems to allow for
dislocation movement. Conversely, FCC metals have close-packed planes and many active
slip systems. The lower stress required for dislocation movement and the possibility of
cross-slip ensures that dislocations may move even at low temperatures.
Closely packed planes are planes of atoms that have a high planar density but are not
close-packed.
Basal planes are the specially named close-packed planes in a hexagonal close-packed unit
cell.