Pergamon

PII:

Solar Energy Vol. 72, No. 3, pp. 217234, 2002

2002 Elsevier Science Ltd
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HYBRID PHOTOVOLTAIC / THERMAL SOLAR SYSTEMS

Y. TRIPANAGNOSTOPOULOS , TH. NOUSIA, M. SOULIOTIS and P. YIANOULIS
Physics Department, University of Patras, Patra 26500, Greece
Received 7 November 2000; revised version accepted 16 October 2001

Communicated by HANSJORG
GABLER

AbstractWe present test results on hybrid solar systems, consisting of photovoltaic modules and thermal
collectors (hybrid PV/ T systems). The solar radiation increases the temperature of PV modules, resulting in a
drop of their electrical efficiency. By proper circulation of a fluid with low inlet temperature, heat is extracted
from the PV modules keeping the electrical efficiency at satisfactory values. The extracted thermal energy can
be used in several ways, increasing the total energy output of the system. Hybrid PV/ T systems can be applied
mainly in buildings for the production of electricity and heat and are suitable for PV applications under high
values of solar radiation and ambient temperature. Hybrid PV/ T experimental models based on commercial PV
modules of typical size are described and outdoor test results of the systems are presented and discussed. The
results showed that PV cooling can increase the electrical efficiency of PV modules, increasing the total
efficiency of the systems. Improvement of the system performance can be achieved by the use of an additional
glazing to increase thermal output, a booster diffuse reflector to increase electrical and thermal output, or both,
giving flexibility in system design. 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.

Florschuetz (1979) suggests an extension of the

HottelWhillier model for the analysis of PV/ T
systems and Raghuraman (1981) presents numerical methods predicting the performances of liquid
and air Photovoltaic / Thermal flat plate collectors.
Cox and Raghuraman (1985) study air type
hybrid systems, performing computer simulations.
Lalovic (1986) propose a novel transparent type
of a-Si cell as a low cost improvement of hybrid
systems and Loferski et al. (1988) give results for
a hybrid system with air circulation installed on a
residential building, by using two separate onedimensional analysis compared with test measurements. Bhargava et al. (1991) and Prakash (1994)
present results regarding the effect of air mass
flow rate, air channel depth, length and fraction of
absorber plate area covered by solar cells (packing factor, PF) on single pass, Sopian et al. on
double pass, 1995 and on single pass and double
pass hybrid PV/ T system performance, 1996
(Sopian et al., 1995, 1996).
In the above works the calculated thermal
efficiencies of liquid type PV/ T systems are in the
range of 45 to 65%, the higher values derived for
systems that include thermal losses suppression
by using air gap with glazing. Regarding air type
PV/ T systems, the thermal efficiency depends
strongly on air flow rate, air duct depth and
collector length. For higher values of air flow rate,
small air duct depth and long PV/ T systems,
thermal efficiencies up to about 55% are given by

1. INTRODUCTION

Most of the absorbed solar radiation by solar cells

is not converted to electricity and increases their
temperature, reducing their electrical efficiency.
The PV temperature can be lowered by heat
extraction with a proper natural or forced fluid
circulation. An interesting alternative to plain PV
modules is to use hybrid PV/ T systems, which
consist of PV modules coupled to heat extraction
devices, providing electricity and heat simultaneously. PV cooling has been applied to concentrating PV systems and recently to PV building
installations. The total energy output (electrical
plus thermal) of the hybrid PV/ T systems depends on the solar energy input, the ambient
temperature, the wind speed, the operating temperature of the system parts and the heat extraction mode. The electrical output is of priority
and the operating conditions of the system thermal unit must be adapted accordingly.
Several theoretical and experimental studies of
hybrid PV/ T systems exist. Among the first, Kern
and Russell (1978), give the main concepts of
these systems with results, by the use of water or
air as heat removal fluid. Hendrie (1979) presents
a theoretical model on PV/ T systems using conventional
thermal
collector
techniques,

Author to whom correspondence should be addressed. Tel. /

fax: 130-61-997-472; e-mail: yiantrip@physics.upatras.gr
217

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Y. Tripanagnostopoulos et al.

the theoretical models. The packing factor is an

important parameter in most of the above papers.
Takashima et al. (1994) propose a PV/ T system consisting of a PV panel placed on a solar
thermal collector, with a gap between them to
achieve an effective PV cooling. Bergene and
Lovvik (1995) give detailed analysis on energy
transfer between the different components of a
liquid type hybrid PV/ T system with results for
their electrical and thermal efficiencies. A
parametric study of a PV cladding for building
roof and facade is presented by Brinkworth et al.
(1997) and steady state simulation results regarding PV/ T air heating systems with single and
double glass, are included in the work of Garg
and Adhikari (1997). Hybrid PV/ T systems, as
the PVThermal combined building elements, are
presented by Imre et al. (1993), the importance of
hybrid PV-building integration by Posnansky et
al. (1994), a 66% efficient hybrid solar module by
Ricaud and Roubeau (1994) and a commercial
PV/ T system for domestic applications by Elazari
(1998). Several practical concepts are included in
all the above, aiming to thermal efficiencies up to
about 70% for liquid and 60% for air-cooled PV
modules. Recent publications on PV/ T systems
present new investigations, as systems that are
based on latent heat storage, developed for installation on building facades and providing warm
water, by Hauser and Rogash (2000). Commercial
PV/ T systems developed in the USA by Thomas
et al. (2000) and one that combines PV module
with hot water storage tank by Huang et al.
(2001).
The electrical and thermal output of hybrid
PV/ T systems can be increased by using concentrators of solar radiation of low concentrating
ratio as proposed by Al-Baali (1986). Theoretical
models predicting thermal and electrical performance of hybrid PV/ T systems with flat booster
reflectors are given by Garg et al. (1991), or with
CPC reflectors by Garg and Adhikari (1999). The
systems are based on air heat extraction and the
authors suggest to replace a number of higher cost
cells by lower cost reflectors. Recently, the work
of Brogren et al. (2000) gives interest results
from a water-cooled PV/ T system with 4 3 CPC
reflectors that presents yearly electric output
increase by 20%. By concentrating PV/ T systems
a cost reduction in the PV part is achieved, but
continuous orientation is needed, rendering them
complex for usual building applications. Stationary booster specular reflectors could be a low cost
alternative in achieving higher solar input, but
they are not suitable for use with PV modules,

because the variation of the reflected solar radiation results to a non-uniform density of illumination on the PV surface, reducing the electrical
efficiency of the system.
In our laboratory we study hybrid systems with
commercial silicon PV modules of typical size
and thermal units using water or air as working
fluid. A study on the application of solar energy
systems in hotels of Cycladic islands in Greece
was our first step on hybrid PV/ T systems. We
used pc-Si PV modules of dark blue colour, for
aesthetic compatibility to the Cycladic architecture (white buildings of low height with blue
doors and windows) and water for the heat
extraction. The devices were similar to flat plate
thermal collectors (Tripanagnostopoulos et al.,
1996a,b) and to ICS solar water heating systems
(Tripanagnostopoulos et al., 1998). In addition,
we studied air type PV/ T systems, testing several
modes of PV cooling and heat extraction improvement (Tripanagnostopoulos et al., 2000). In the
present paper we include design considerations
and experimental results from constructed and
tested outdoors hybrid PV/ T systems. We determine several aspects for the efficient operation
of the hybrid PV/ T systems and we present
alternative designs with the use of an additional
glazing, a booster diffuse reflector or both, aiming
to the improvement of the total energy output
from the system. The combination of PV/ T
system with booster diffuse reflector is most
important and therefore the main part of test
results is referred to this concept.
2. HYBRID SYSTEM DESIGN
CONSIDERATIONS

Natural air circulation constitutes a simple and

low cost method to remove heat from PV modules
and to keep the electrical efficiency at an acceptable level. Forced air circulation is more efficient
but the additional energy supply to the pump
reduces the net gain of the system in electricity.
The direct heat extraction from the PV rear
surface by using a liquid circulation could be an
efficient mode of PV cooling. To avoid problems
due to the electrical conductivity of water, a heat
exchanger in thermal contact with the PV rear
surface can be used.
The operating temperature of the thermal unit
in hybrid PV/ T systems affects the electrical
efficiency of the PV module. To maximise the
electrical output, the PV module must be at the
lower operating temperature under certain conditions of incoming solar radiation intensity,

Hybrid photovoltaic / thermal solar systems

ambient air temperature and wind speed. This can

be achieved by using the heat removing fluid in
the lower possible temperature of it at the system
input, with a proper flow rate for a low fluid
temperature rise in the system. This requirement
results in output temperatures useful for space
heating and water preheating for water heating in
swimming pools and for air and water preheating
in industry. The operation of the thermal unit at
higher temperatures is more useful for water or air
heating, but the PV efficiency becomes lower.
For PV building applications at locations with
low insolation and ambient temperatures, space
heating is necessary for almost all the year and
PV cooling by air circulation can be more useful
and cost effective compared to PV cooling by
liquid circulation. At locations with considerable
solar input and medium values of ambient temperature, air or liquid heat extraction modes can
be used, according to thermal needs and the cost
of each mode for the application of the hybrid
system. In PV building installation at locations
with high solar input and high ambient temperatures, liquid PV cooling can be considered as the
most efficient mode for water preheating all year,
with air heat extraction for smaller periods in case
of space heating (Winter) and natural ventilation
(Summer).
In all hybrid PV/ T system applications the
additional cost of the complete thermal part (heat
extraction from PV modules, working fluid and
flow mode, circulation pipes, pumps, system
thermal energy storage, etc.) must be compared to
the cost of the plain PV installation, calculating
the electrical output gain by the PV cooling

219

procedure, in order to optimise the system and

make it cost effective. The added thermal unit
must be durable, as PV cooling may give to solar
cells longer time of acceptable operation than that
corresponding to plain PV applications. The cost
of the added thermal system can be the same for
all PV types used in hybrid systems, for the same
heat extraction mode and equal aperture area of
PV installation, but the thermal efficiency differs
with the PV type, with higher values for a-Si PV
modules, because of their lower electrical efficiency and lower optical losses.
In photovoltaic stationary installations, the PV
modules are usually placed in parallel rows, with
a distance between them to avoid shading. A
fraction of the incoming solar radiation on the
horizontal PV installation is not used by PV
modules from Spring to Autumn, as solar rays are
striking the free horizontal surface between the
parallel PV rows (because of the higher sun
altitude). This fraction of radiation could be
partially used by the PV modules and we suggest
booster diffuse reflectors to be placed between the
parallel PV rows as shown in Fig. 1a, increasing
insolation on PV surface. The diffuse booster
reflectors achieve a smoother distribution of the
additional solar radiation on the PV surface, which
can be almost uniform for a proper reflector PV/ T
system geometry. The additional solar input on
the surface of PV modules is lower than that of
specular reflectors, but diffuse reflectors are
cheaper and can be combined easily with typical
size PV modules. In hybrid PV/ T systems this
additional solar input can increase their thermal
and electrical output, keeping PV temperature at a

Fig. 1. PV/ T systems with booster diffuse reflectors: (a) horizontal building roof system installation; (b) PV/ T1REF
experimental system with indication of diffuse reflected solar rays.

220

Y. Tripanagnostopoulos et al.

reasonable level. The combination of booster

diffuse reflectors with hybrid PV/ T systems is
proposed as a cost effective performance improvement of these systems.
3. EXPERIMENTAL MODELS

Heat extraction from PV modules by air circulation is used in hybrid PV/ T systems and several
projects aim to cost effective devices with increased total energy output. These improvements
together with projected lower costs of the PV
component of hybrids will aid the market penetration of these systems. Hybrid systems using liquid
as heat extraction fluid are less developed and
more steps are necessary for their improvement.
Our research on hybrid PV/ T systems is mainly
based on using commercial pc-Si PV modules and
the working fluid for heat extraction is the water
(model pc-PV/ WATER). Water is more suitable
for the weather conditions and the building needs
in lower latitude countries. We have also used
hybrid systems of a-Si PV module type (model
a-PV/ WATER), to compare the performance of
systems of lower electrical efficiency. In addition,
hybrid systems using air to remove heat from PV
modules of pc-Si and a-Si type (models pc-PV/
AIR and a-PV/AIR, respectively) were constructed and tested. With the aim to increase the
total energy output, we studied the basic hybrid
systems of pc-Si module (PV/ WATER and PV/
AIR) with an additional glazing (PV/ WATER 1
GL, PV/AIR 1 GL), a booster diffuse reflector
(PV/ WATER 1 REF, PV/AIR 1 REF) and both
(PV/ WATER 1 GL 1 REF,
PV/AIR 1 GL 1
REF). A plain pc-Si PV module with both its

surfaces free to ambient (PV/ FREE) and a second

with thermal insulation on the back PV surface
(PV/ INSUL) were also used to compare the
temperature and efficiency improvements of the
systems.
In Fig. 2 we show in cross section the experimental models: Fig. 2a the hybrid PV/ T
system with the thermal unit of water circulation
through a heat exchanger (PV/ WATER), Fig. 2b
the hybrid system with additional glazing to
increase thermal output and heat exchanger with
water circulation (PV/ WATER 1 GL), Fig. 2c the
hybrid system with air duct under the PV module
for heat extraction with air circulation (PV/AIR)
and Fig. 2d the hybrid system with air circulation
and glazing (PV/AIR 1 GL). All these models
were constructed using commercial pc-Si PV
modules of the same aperture area. The designs 2a
and 2c represent similar cross section with the
constructed hybrid systems using a-Si PV module.
The hybrid systems with pc-Si PV module and
water or air heat extraction of both types (without
and with additional glazing) were also tested with
a booster diffuse reflector placed in front of them,
as shown in Fig. 1b, to increase the incoming
solar radiation on PV module surface.
For the liquid cooled experimental PV/ T
models, a thin copper sheet with copper pipes in
thermal contact with it was used for the heat
extraction unit. It was covered externally by
thermal insulation. Water was circulated in pipes,
with the flat surface of the copper sheet placed at
the rear surface of the PV module and in thermal
contact with it. We should notice that careful
handling and pressing of the copper sheet against
the PV surface is important for good thermal

Fig. 2. Cross section of the PV/ T experimental models: (a) PV/ WATER type; (b) PV/ WATER1GL type; (c) PV/AIR type; (d)
PV/AIR1GL type.

Hybrid photovoltaic / thermal solar systems

contact. This type of heat exchanger was handmade in our laboratory and as a result the thermal
contact was not very satisfactory. We expect that a
much better thermal contact can be achieved in
hybrid PV/ T systems that will be manufactured
industrially by a proper procedure.
We used thin copper sheet of thickness 5 3
10 24 m and copper pipes of 0.01 m inside and
0.012 m outside diameter. Aiming at sufficient
heat exchanger efficiency with acceptable cost,
the distance between the pipes was 0.08 m at their
arrangement on the copper sheet surface. The
input and output of the heat exchanger were
connected to the forced water circulation system
and thermocouples (TCs) of CuCuNi type were
installed for the measurement of the water input
and output temperature. We have also placed TCs
on the copper sheet surface, on the PV rear
surface and on the protective glazing of PV
module to record the temperature distribution on
several parts of the hybrid system and to calculate
the mean temperature of each part.
In hybrid systems with circulating air the
thermal unit is simpler, as we formed an air duct
between the PV rear surface and the thermal
insulation. The air circulation channel width was
0.1 m and plastic tubes were installed in opposite
positions at the lower and at the higher part of the
air duct for the entrance and the exit of the
circulating air, respectively. The width of the air
channel affects the heat extraction, with higher
values for smaller width and lower for larger
width. Considering that smaller width increases
pressure drop, it has been suggested (Bhargava et
al., 1991) to use air channel with minimum width
w50.1 m to balance the thermal output of air
heating system with the needed electrical energy
input for the fan. We have put TCs at the same
positions as in the hybrid systems with heat
extraction by water circulation and almost all tests
were performed with forced air circulation.
In all constructed hybrid systems we used
thermal insulation of polyurethane with thermal
conductivity K50.05 W K 21 m 21 and thickness
d50.05 m at the backside of the systems and
d50.02 m at the system edges. This insulation is
estimated to be sufficient considering the low
operating temperatures of the hybrid systems. The
aperture area A a of the pc-Si PV module was
A a 50.40 m 2 and of a-Si PV A a 50.27 m 2 . In the
hybrid systems with the additional glazing we
used a glass sheet of thickness 2310 23 m to
avoid as much as possible the increase of optical
losses by the additional absorption of solar radiation. This glazing simulates in transmittance in

221

low iron glazing, which is the suitable glazing for

these systems, but it was not available in the
market in the above dimensions of the experimental models.
The increase of the total energy output of the
hybrid PV/ T systems can be achieved by using
diffuse reflectors of aluminium sheet, as boosters,
which give an almost uniform distribution of the
reflected solar radiation on PV surface. The
booster diffuse reflector applied to experimental
hybrid PV/ T systems with additional glazing,
aims to balance the negative effect of the reduction of the incident solar radiation on PV surface
from the additional glazing, with the positive
effect of the increased solar radiation input from
the diffuse reflector.
Regarding the cost of the hybrid PV/ T systems,
we estimate that the thermal unit for the system
with the pc-Si PV module and heat extraction by
water circulation increases the system cost by
about 8%, considering the cost of the plain pc-Si
PV module as base. If we include the cost of
external pipes and other components for water
circulation we have a total cost increase of about
10%. In hybrid systems with heat extraction by air
circulation, the estimated cost increase is about
5%, only for the thermal unit of the system used
with the pc-Si PV module, and about 8% if the
system includes a complete forced air circulation
system. The corresponding cost increase of hybrid
systems with a-Si PV modules is relatively higher
(about double) compared to that with pc-Si PV
modules, with equal aperture area for both PV
module types. This is explained as the thermal
unit is of the same cost, but the a-Si PV modules
are of lower cost (almost half) compared to pc-Si
PV modules.
4. EXPERIMENTAL STUDY

The PV/ T models were tested at steady state

operation under outdoor conditions to determine
their electrical and thermal efficiency for various
operating temperatures. In tests with water as
heat-removing fluid we used a water circulation
system with a flowmeter and an electrical heater,
by which the water flow rate and input temperature were controlled. In tests with air as heatremoving fluid we used a similar system, for air
flow rate and input temperature control. In tests
with low input temperature of water or air, water
from mains and ambient air entered directly to
each system input, respectively. The intensity of
the incoming solar radiation (G in W m 22 ) was
measured by a Kipp and Zonen pyranometer

222

Y. Tripanagnostopoulos et al.

installed parallel to the PV module plane. The

wind speed (Vw in m s 21 ) was measured by a
Vector Instruments A100R anemometer. Ambient
temperature (Ta in 8C) and the temperature (T in
8C) at several positions of the systems as at input
(T i ), output (T o ), PV (T pv ), water heat exchanger
sheet (T whe ), air in the duct (T air ), etc., were
measured by thermocouples (TCs) of CuCuNi
type.
Steady state experiments were performed during noon (62 h), with systems oriented to the sun
in order to ensure constant value of the incoming
solar radiation intensity and we used in calculations the collected data extracted from the outdoor
tests under almost constant conditions. We estimated that solar radiation intensity variation of
620 W m 22 , with diffuse solar radiation up to
about 25% of the total incident solar radiation,
ambient air temperature variation of 61 K and
wind speed variation of 60.5 m s 21 in the range
of 12 m s 21 , can be considered approximately
constant for the calculations and system evaluation, regarding outdoor steady state operating
conditions. Considering the incoming solar radiation G on aperture area A a of the tested systems,
~ 5 dm / dt (0.02 Kg s 21 ),
the fluid mass flow rate m
the fluid temperature rise (T o 2 T i ) and the fluid
21
21
specific heat c p (4180 J Kg K
for water,
21
21
1007 J Kg K for air), the steady state thermal
efficiency hth of the hybrid PV/ T systems is
calculated by the relation:

~ p (T o 2 T i ) /A a G
hth 5 mc
The variation of thermal efficiency hth relative to
the fluid input temperature T i , the ambient temperature Ta and the incoming solar radiation G is
determined experimentally as a function of the
ratio DT /G with DT 5 T i 2 Ta . The function
hth 5 f(DT /G) is used for the performance determination of thermal collectors. It can be also
used for the hybrid PV/ T systems, as the thermal
part of them corresponds approximately to a
thermal collector. In stagnation operation (hth 5
0) of the PV/ T systems we used the water heat
exchanger temperature (T whe ) or air channel temperature (T air ), as the systems were operating
without fluid flow. These temperatures were used
to determine the corresponding ratio DT /G, with
DT 5 T whe 2 Ta or DT 5 T air 2 Ta .
During the tests the PV electrical output was
connected to a load, simulating real system operation. With the tested PV/ T systems at thermal
equilibrium under ambient conditions, we determine the values of current Im (in A) and voltage

Vm (in V) at maximum power point of PV module

operation from the collected I (in A), V (in V)
data. The values of Im and Vm and the net
incoming solar radiation G are used to find the PV
module electrical efficiency hel for system aperture area A a using the relation:

hel 5 ImVm /A a G
In hybrid PV/ T systems we can consider the total
efficiency htot , which corresponds to the sum of
the electrical efficiency hel and the thermal efficiency hth of the system, for certain operating
conditions.
Studying the effect of booster diffuse reflectors
on the hybrid experimental models we calculated
thermal and electrical efficiency from the net
incoming solar radiation G on the PV module
surface (without the additional solar input from
the diffuse reflector). In concentrating solar devices the concentration ratio C is determined by
the ratio of the system aperture area to the
absorber surface area. In our work the calculation
of thermal (hth ) and electrical (hel ) efficiencies is
based on G and not on the amount C ? G, in order
to get the effective values of the corresponding
efficiencies, considering that the additional solar
input from the reflector affects hth and hel rising
their values by the increase of fluid output temperature T o (or T whe , T air ) and Im , Vm , respectively. The increase of system electrical and thermal
output (included in the effective values of hth
and hel ), provides a clearer comparison of the
results from the tested systems with and without
diffuse reflectors.
The study of the experimental PV/ T model
(PV/ WATER) with diffuse reflector includes tests
with variable percentage of the additional solar
radiation from the diffuse reflector, with respect to
its electrical efficiency as a function of the pc-Si
PV module temperature. We consider a concentration factor C that corresponds to a homogeneous increase of the incoming solar radiation on
PV module surface, with value C51 for net solar
input (without additional solar radiation from the
diffuse reflector) and C51.1 for an effective 10%
additional solar input, etc., up to C51.5 for 50%
additional solar input on PV module. Higher
values of factor C are not usually achieved in
practice, because of the use of diffuse reflector in
the collectorreflector geometry of Fig. 1.
Thermal performance of hybrid PV/ T systems
with booster diffuse reflector depends on the fluid
input temperature, ambient temperature, incident
net solar radiation and the concentration factor C.

Hybrid photovoltaic / thermal solar systems

The aim of this work is to give comparative

results, so the hybrid PV/ T systems were tested
under almost same incident net solar radiation G
and concentration factor C, in a small range of
ambient temperatures Ta and wind speed Vw . In
practice the additional solar radiation is not
uniformly distributed on PV module surface and
we consider an effective concentration factor Ct
that corresponds to solar radiation profile from
bottom to top of PV module surface. We measured
the effective concentration factor Ct of the used
diffuse reflector of aluminium sheet for angles w
of 908 and 1208 between the reflector and the
plane of the PV module, as a function of the angle
of incidence q of solar radiation on the diffuse
reflector. The angle w 51208 is almost an upper
limit of effective angles. We used a photosensor of
small c-Si PV cell (1 cm 2 area), to measure the net
(Inet ) and the total (Itot ) incident solar radiation on
the plane that corresponds to the PV module
surface.
Using the collected data we have the distribution of the total incident solar radiation on PV
module expressed by the effective concentration
factor Ct . In Fig. 3 we show the device for the
measurement of the concentration factor Ct for
variable values of the ratio L /R, where L and R
are the PV module width fOLg and R the reflector
width fORg, respectively. We consider that L /R # 1
in practical applications of booster diffuse reflectors. In the present work we used flat aluminium
sheet for the diffuse reflector as a widely available
low cost material with satisfactory reflectance.

223

Simulating the plane of the PV/ T system we

moved the photosensor (PS1) along the line L of
the rod [OL], recording the variation of the total
solar radiation (net plus reflected, Itot 5 Inet 1 Iref ,
in mA) for variable incidence angles q of solar
rays on the diffuse reflector. In every circle of
these measurements, the value of the net solar
radiation parallel of the PV plane (Inet in mA,
PS2) was also measured. The concentration factor
Ct is determined by Ct 5 Itot /Inet and is calculated
along [OL] for various angles q.
Comparative tests of PV/ T systems with water
and air for heat extraction (PV/ WATER and PV/
AIR) and of the plain PV module with both
surfaces free to ambient (PV/ FREE) and the other
one with back thermal insulation (PV/ INSUL)
were also performed. The results from these
experiments give an idea about the effect of the
heat extraction mode used on the electrical efficiency, compared to that of PV/ INSUL, that
simulates PV installed on building facade or
inclined roof and to that of PV/ FREE, the simpler
type of the used PV systems.

5. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

5.1. Systems with a-Si and pc-Si PV modules

The first step of the experimental study includes test results of the hybrid PV/ T systems,
which are based on a-Si and pc-Si PV modules
with water (pc-PV/ WATER, a-PV/ WATER) and
air (pc-PV/AIR, a-PV/AIR) as heat removing

Fig. 3. Measurement of Ct by using photosensors PS1 (Itot ) and PS2 (Inet ), for variable angle q of the insident solar radiation on
the diffuse reflector, which forms angle w with PV/ T system surface.

224

Y. Tripanagnostopoulos et al.

Fig. 4. Thermal efficiency hth results of systems pc-PV/ WATER, a-PV/ WATER, pc-PV/AIR and a-PV/AIR, as function of DT /G
operating values.

fluid. In Fig. 4 we show the results from the

steady state tests of thermal efficiency hth as a
function of the ratio DT /G and in Fig. 5 the
electrical efficiency hel for the corresponding
values of DT /G of the tests of Fig. 4. In Figs. 4
and 5 we included experimental results for both
positive and negative ranges of DT /G values for
systems pc-PV/ WATER and a-PV/ WATER. This
comes from the fact that in some tests we used
water of lower temperature than ambient temperature (T i , Ta ). The experimental points of thermal
efficiency are well fitted by linear equations,
which are included in Table 1 for the models

Table 1. Steady state thermal efficiency hth results of all tested

hybrid PV/ T systems
PV/ T System

Thermal efficiency

pc-PV/ WATER
a-PV/ WATER
pc-PV/AIR
a-PV/AIR
PV/ WATER
PV/ WATER1GL
PV/ WATER1REF
PV/ WATER1GL 1REF
PV/AIR
PV/AIR 1GL
PV/AIR1REF
PV/AIR 1GL 1REF

hth 50.5511.99 (DT /G)

hth 50.6012.02 (DT /G)
hth 50.389.33 (DT /G)
hth 50.4610.69 (DT /G)
hth 50.5511.99 (DT /G)
hth 50.719.04 (DT /G)
hth 50.6611.89 (DT /G)
hth 50.809.03 (DT /G)
hth 50.389.33 (DT /G)
hth 50.597.88 (DT /G)
hth 50.6012.68 (DT /G)
hth 50.758.89 (DT /G)

Fig. 5. Electrical efficiency hel results of systems pc-PV/ WATER, a-PV/ WATER, pc-PV/AIR and a-PV/AIR, for the
corresponding DT /G values of Fig. 4 experiments.

Hybrid photovoltaic / thermal solar systems

pc-PV/ WATER, a-PV/ WATER, pc-PV/AIR and

a-PV/AIR, respectively. The results of the electrical efficiency are presented only by points considering that hel depends on T pv and not on T i 2 Ta ,
(electrical efficiency hel could be a function of
DT /G if the experiments were performed in same
values of ambient temperature Ta and incident
solar radiation G).

5.2. Experiments with the diffuse reflector

The distribution of the reflected solar radiation
from the diffuse reflector on PV module surface
depends on sun altitude and azimuth, on sky
clearness (level of diffuse solar radiation), on
angle between reflector and PV module, on PV
module slope and on the optical properties of the
reflector material. In this work we give the results
of simulation tests regarding the solar radiation
distribution on PV module surface. The data were
recorded during noon with diffuse solar radiation
25% of total and we properly adjusted reflector
and PV plane slopes to achieve the desired angles
w and u (Fig. 3), for the existing position of sun
during the experiments. By this method we got
profiles for the variation of solar radiation along
vertical axis of PV module surface, as the flat
diffuse reflector gives horizontally uniform distribution of solar radiation.
In Fig. 6 we give the results in diagrams for
angle w 5908 between reflector and PV plane and
also in Fig. 7 the results in diagrams for angle
w 51208, regarding angle q of 08, 158, 308, 458,
608 and 758 in both figures. In case of q 5908,
there is no effect of booster reflector (Iref 5 0 mA)

225

and we consider that Ct 5 1. In practical applications the effective angle w is w 5908 (or slightly
greater) with w 51208 possible upper limit and the
results of Ct for the ratio L /R correspond to
variable values of PV module width (L) relative to
reflector width (R), considering L /R51 as maximum.
From Fig. 6 (angle w 5908) we observe that the
distribution of the total solar radiation on PV
plane (simulated by the use of the [OL]) is
uniform for angles 158 # q # 458 with a mean
concentration ratio Ct 1.4. For q , 158 and
ratio L /R $ 0.20 we obtain a mean value Ct 1.2
and for q $ 608 there is a less uniform distribution of solar radiation mainly in the range of
L /R # 0.40 with a mean value Ct 1.30. These
results show that the uniform increase of solar
radiation on PV module plane is more important
during Summer (higher sun altitude), when the
values of angle q are smaller (158 # q # 608)
than during Winter (lower sun altitude), when
there are larger angles q (q .608). Mean values
of Ct 1.35 and Ct 1.15, respectively can be
considered for these two operation periods of the
combined system.
The results of Fig. 7 are less effective regarding
the increase of the solar radiation on the PV plane
by the used diffuse reflector for angle w 51208
between them. For angles q # 308 there is a very
small effect in concentration factor Ct (Ct # 1.05
for all values of the ratio L /R). For angles 308 ,
q # 608 the obtained result is a smooth variation
of concentration factor Ct around the value of
Ct 1.2 and for angles q . 608 a higher value of

Fig. 6. Variation of the concentration factor Ct for various L /R ratio values, regarding the angles q 508 to q 5758 of the incident
solar radiation on the diffuse reflector, which forms an angle w 5908 with PV/ T system surface.

226

Y. Tripanagnostopoulos et al.

Fig. 7. Variation of the concentration factor Ct for various L /R ratio values, regarding the angles q 508 to q 5758 of the incident
solar radiation on the diffuse reflector, which forms an angle w 51208 with PV/ T system surface.

Ct (mean value of Ct 1.3) for the values of the

ratio L /R # 0.40 is achieved. Therefore, the use of
an angle w .908 in combined PV/ T systems with
booster diffuse reflector is less effective than an
angle w 5908 between them.
Based on these results we tested model PV/
WATER with pc-Si PV module regarding the
effective electrical efficiency hel of it as a
function of concentration ratio C. In steady state
tests of PV/ T systems with booster diffuse reflector we used in all experiments the proper collectorreflector geometry to achieve approximately
the same effective concentration factor Ct with
homogeneous illuminance of PV module surface
(we take C 5 Ct ). We adjusted the angle w between the reflector and the PV module plane and
the width R of the diffuse reflector in order to
measure the total incoming solar radiation that
gives a value of C (for homogeneous additional
solar radiation) of about 1.35, for a net solar
radiation intensity G 850 W m 22 on the plane
of the PV module. The value C 1.35 was
considered as an approximation of a mean value
during Summer, when the effect of the diffuse
reflector on thermal and electrical performance of
the PV/ T system is more important and used in
following tests.
We calculated hel for C 5 1.0 to C51.5 (with
step 0.1) adjusting properly the experimental
device (Fig. 1b) for the achievement of the
corresponding values of total solar radiation on
PV module surface during noon and we circulated
water through the heat exchanger to achieve
operation of the system at several values of PV

temperature T pv . In Fig. 8 we present the results

from these tests, using fitting lines for the values
of hel of the corresponding concentration factor C.
The solar radiation from the diffuse reflector
affects the PV module electrical performance but
in calculations we used the net solar radiation on
PV module (effective n el ) to get the electrical
output from the proposed combination in comparison with that without using diffuse reflector
(results for C 5 1). We performed tests with
concentration factor up to C 5 1.5 taking into
account the results of Figs. 6 and 7, where the
obtained maximum value of C 5 1.6 was an upper
limit for the used type of diffuse reflector. The
results of Fig. 8 show that an electrical efficiency
increase of about 25% for PV operating temperature T pv 5 408C to about 35% for T pv 5 708C is
achieved, comparing the effect of using stationary
booster diffuse reflector with its practical possible
maximum value of concentration factor (C 5 1.5)
to the plain PV system (C 5 1.0). From the results
of Fig. 8 we also calculate a mean electrical
efficiency drop of 0.08% per K of PV temperature
increase.

5.3. Systems with heat extraction by water

The basic system PV/ WATER, the system with
the additional glazing PV/ WATER1GL, the system with the diffuse reflector (using C51.35)
PV/ WATER1REF and the system with additional glazing and diffuse reflector (C51.35) PV/
WATER1GL1REF, were tested. Test results are
presented in Fig. 9, for steady state thermal
efficiency hth as function of the ratio DT /G and in

Hybrid photovoltaic / thermal solar systems

227

Fig. 8. Results of PV/ T system electrical efficiency hel for the diffuse reflector concentration factors C 5 1 to C 5 1.5 (step 0.1)
and for variable pc-PV module operating temperature.

Fig. 10 for electrical efficiency hel for the corresponding values of the ratio DT /G of Fig. 9. The
results of the system PV/ WATER are the same as
the results of Figs. 4 and 5 (of pc-PV/ WATER
system). They are included in Figs. 9 and 10 for
comparison with the results of the other PV/ T
systems. The experimental points of these PV/ T
systems for thermal efficiency are fitted linearly
and are included in Table 1, but the results of
electrical efficiency are presented only by points
in Fig. 10, as hel is function only of T pv . In the
diagrams of Figs. 9 and 10 experimental points in
the negative range of DT /G axis are included,

because we performed tests with water input

temperature T i lower than ambient temperature Ta
(summer conditions).
Test results of Fig. 9 show that considering
operation of systems at DT /G50 K W 21 m 2 the
increase of system thermal efficiency is 29% for
PV/ WATER1GL and 20% for PV/ WATER1
REF, regarding the basic PV/ T type PV/ WATER.
The increase of hth of system PV/ WATER1GL is
due to the suppression of thermal losses by the
additional glazing that rises PV module temperature. For system operation at DT /G50 K W 21 m 2
(low fluid input temperature) we observed that the

Fig. 9. Thermal efficiency hth results of systems PV/ WATER, PV/ WATER1GL, PV/ WATER1REF and PV/ WATER1GL1
REF, as function of DT /G operating values.

228

Y. Tripanagnostopoulos et al.

Fig. 10. Electrical efficiency hel results of systems PV/ WATER, PV/ WATER1GL, PV/ WATER1REF and PV/ WATER1GL1
REF, for the corresponding DT /G values of Fig. 9 experiments.

PV module temperature is 10208C higher than

fluid input temperature, resulting in this way to a
more efficient heat transfer to the circulating fluid.
At higher values of ratio DT /G the increase of
thermal efficiency is also higher and the stagnation values of DT /G (for hth 5 0) are satisfactory
for all models. On the other hand the experimental
results of Fig. 10 show that the addition of the
glazing reduces electrical efficiency by about 16%
for system PV/ WATER1GL compared to the
reference system PV/ WATER, but the use of
diffuse reflector (PV/ WATER1REF system) increases the (effective) electrical efficiency by a
similar percentage of 16% to PV/ WATER system.
The system PV/ WATER1GL1REF presents a

significant increase of thermal output by about

45% and an electrical output slightly higher to
that of the basic system PV/ WATER. These
results are due to the negative effect of the
increased optical losses by the additional glazing,
which can be offset by the positive effect of the
used booster diffuse reflector with C51.35.

5.4. Systems with heat extraction by air

In the following the results from the tests of the
steady state operation of the PV/ T systems with
air as heat removal fluid are presented, with
thermal efficiency hth as function of DT /G in Fig.
11 and the electrical efficiency hel in Fig. 12, for
the corresponding values of DT /G. The used PV/

Fig. 11. Thermal efficiency hth results of systems PV/AIR, PV/AIR1GL, PV/AIR1REF and PV/AIR1GL1REF, as function
of DT /G operating values.

Hybrid photovoltaic / thermal solar systems

229

Fig. 12. Electrical efficiency hel results of systems PV/AIR, PV/AIR1GL, PV/AIR1REF and PV/AIR1GL1REF, for the
corresponding DT /G values of Fig. 11 experiments.

T systems were: the basic system PV/AIR, the

system with the additional glazing PV/AIR1GL,
the system with the diffuse reflector (using C5
1.35) PV/AIR1REF and the system with both
glazing and diffuse reflector (C51.35) PV/AIR1
GL1REF. The experimental points are included
in the positive DT /G axis as we used ambient air
for the lower level of air input temperature (T in
Ta ) and therefore the fitting lines of hth start from
the value DT /G 5 0 K W 21 m 2 and finish at
stagnation operating condition (hth 5 0).
The results of Fig. 11 show that the thermal
efficiency of the PV/ T systems with air heat
extraction is lower than that of the corresponding
systems with water heat extraction due to the less
effective heat exchanging mode of air circulation
(air channel width of 0.1 m without additional
modifications to improve PV air cooling and
medium air flow rate). The results of the electrical
efficiency in Fig. 12 show that the hel of aircooled systems is almost the same (slightly lower)
to that of water-cooled systems. This is explained
by the fact that hel depends mainly on PV
temperature and T pv is almost the same (slightly
higher) than that of water-cooled systems for
same operating DT /G values.

5.5. Results from comparison tests

In the above figures we present the results from
the steady state tests of eight types of PV/ T
system configurations. The water or air heat
extraction reduces PV temperature and increases
PV electrical efficiency and it is useful to know it
in comparison with the additionally tested systems
PV/ FREE and PV/ INSUL. Aiming to get com-

parison results from systems PV/ FREE and PV/

INSUL, with the two main PV/ T system types
PV/ WATER and PV/AIR, we used same PV
modules of pc-Si cells for all systems and we
performed simultaneous operation of them under
same weather conditions. The tests were performed during 6 3 h at noon, from 9:30 until
15:30 (noon at Patras is on 12:30), with all
systems at the same slope ( b 5408) facing south
and being stationary.
From the recorded data we calculated the
thermal efficiency of both PV/ T systems. In Fig.
13 we present the variation of PV temperature of
all systems (T pv / water , T pv / air , T pv / free , T pv / insul ) the
ambient temperature Ta , the incoming solar radiation G and the wind speed Vw . In Fig. 14 we
present the variation of the corresponding thermal
(hth / water , hth / air ) and electrical efficiency
(hel / water , hel / air , hel / free , hel / insul ) during the same
period. Cold water from mains is used in the
water-cooled PV/ T system and ambient air in the
air-cooled PV/ T corresponding system. This test,
under several weather conditions, gives the results
of Figs. 13 and 14, which are selected among the
others for their smoother variation of the measured and the calculated parameters, for operation
of the systems in mild weather conditions.
From the results of Fig. 13 we observe that the
water heat extraction results to a lower PV
temperature (T pv / water 388C) than that of air
(T pv / air 418C) heat extraction, because during
tests the water temperature from mains was lower
(T i 208C) than that of ambient temperature
(Ta 298C). This affects the thermal and electrical efficiency (as we can see from Fig. 14) and

230

Y. Tripanagnostopoulos et al.

Fig. 13. Test results of the compared systems PV/ WATER, PV/AIR, PV/ FREE and PV/ INSUL from 9:30 h to 15:30 h,
regarding their PV operating temperature for the corresponding incident solar radiation G, ambient temperature Ta and wind
speed Vw .

shows the relative advantage of using water

instead of air as heat removal fluid, regarding the
PV cooling effect for mild weather conditions,
with better results during warm periods. In Fig. 14
we also observe that the temperature of PV
module with both surfaces free to ambient (PV/
FREE) is some degrees higher (T pv / free 438C)
than that of system PV/ WATER and PV/AIR, but
it is lower than that of system PV/ INSUL
(T pv / insul 558C).
Comparing the variation of T pv of these four
systems, we conclude that PV cooling by water or

air heat extraction does not reduces PV temperature significantly regarding the PV module with
both surfaces free to ambient. In addition, model
PV/ FREE is of lower temperature compared to
model PV/ INSUL, due to the radiation and
convection thermal losses from its two surfaces.
Therefore, the thermally insulated PV module
(PV/ INSUL) operates always at higher temperature than that of the other systems, because of the
lower thermal losses from its rear surface.
In Fig. 14 we can see the variation of thermal
efficiency hth of both PV/ WATER and PV/AIR

Fig. 14. Test results of the compared systems PV/ WATER, PV/AIR, PV/ FREE and PV/ INSUL regarding their electrical
efficiency hel , as well as thermal efficiency hth of systems PV/ WATER and PV/AIR, for the corresponding operating conditions
of Fig. 13.

Hybrid photovoltaic / thermal solar systems

systems, as well as the PV electrical efficiency hel

of all systems. The high temperature rise of PV
module with thermal insulation results to a reduction of its electrical efficiency (hel / insul 5 0.113),
and systems PV/ WATER, PV/AIR and PV/ FREE
with
n el / water 5 0.128,
n el / air 5 0.126
and
n el / free 5 0.124 present a relative percentage increase to hel / insul by 13.3, 11.% and 9.7%, respectively. Additionally, electrical efficiency of systems PV/ WATER and PV/AIR are slightly higher
than that of the simple system PV/ FREE by 3.2
and 1.6%, correspondingly.
The comparison tests of systems give us an
estimation about the limits of electrical efficiency
improvement of PV/ T systems, as the experiments were performed under mild weather conditions (Ta 5 298C). We also performed comparison tests under warm and cold weather conditions
and from the presented results in Table 2 we can
see that in higher ambient temperature (Ta 5
358C) the electrical performance improvement of
PV/ T systems is higher than that in lower ambient
temperature (Ta 5 158C), considering the corresponding values of systems PV/ INSUL and PV/
FREE.
The experimental study showed that the tested
PV/ T systems PV/ WATER and PV/AIR present a
slightly higher electrical efficiency (hel / water 5
0.128, hel / air 50.126) to that of the PV module
without thermal insulation on its rear surface
(system PV/ FREE, hel / free 50.124). On the contrary PV/ T systems can provide a significant
thermal output, but with fluid temperature not
reaching in high values, in order to keep the PV
module operating temperature at a low level. This
requirement means that the application of PV/ T
systems is limited in water heating up to about
35408C (water preheating for domestic use,
water heating for swimming pools, water preheating in industry, etc.) and also in space heating and
natural ventilation of buildings, mainly by heated
air. Considering the system cost increase by the
added thermal unit (up to 10% for water and up to
8% for air) we derive that the obtained gain in
electrical efficiency of water and air-cooled PV/ T
systems to PV/ FREE type systems (3.2 to 1.6%,
respectively) is lower than the additional cost.

231

Therefore the main advantage of using PV/ T

systems instead of plain PV modules comes from
the achieved thermal output.
The use of PV/ T systems with additional
glazing is interesting mainly for the increase of
system thermal output, because the PV electrical
efficiency is reduced or remains the same in case
of using both glazing and booster diffuse reflector.
The suggestion of using stationary booster diffuse
reflectors with PV/ T systems on horizontal building roof installations is the main result from this
work. We estimate that the proposed combination
makes PV/ T systems more expensive by about
4%, but increases the electrical output (for C 5
1.35) by 16%, comparing PV/ T1REF systems to
the basic PV/ T systems. The concentration factor
during winter is low (C , 1.35) and the weather
conditions are not favorable (cloudy sky) for the
operation of systems. In Spring, Summer and
Autumn the corresponding concentration factor is
higher (C 1.5), resulting to an efficient operation of PV/ T systems considering the favorable
weather conditions during this period. The electrical efficiency of the basic PV/ T model (PV/
WATER) is 3.2% higher than that of the simple
PV module (PV/ FREE) in mild weather conditions. Therefore a PV/ T system with booster
diffuse reflectors of C51.35 can achieve a percentage increase of electrical efficiency up to
19.2%, considering total additional cost of about
14% to the use of plain PV modules. This is a
significant improvement considering the use of
stationary reflectors and the additional thermal
output of the system. Therefore, the use of booster
diffuse reflectors is a new concept to cost reduction of PV installations and a promising solution
to the practical application of the hybrid PV/ T
systems for a wider use of photovoltaics.
6. CONCLUSIONS

Hybrid Photovoltaic / Thermal solar systems

were experimentally studied in outdoor conditions
regarding their thermal and electrical performance. Design principles of PV/ T systems and the
constructed models were described. We used
water and air to extract heat from the PV module

Table 2. Test results of the compared systems PV/ WATER, PV/AIR, PV/ FREE and PV/ INSUL, regarding PV module
temperature T pv and electrical efficiency hel under different weather conditions
Ta
(8C)

G
(W m 22 )

PV/ WATER
T pv (8C)
hel

PV/AIR
T pv (8C)

hel

PV/ FREE
T pv (8C)

hel

PV/ INSUL
T pv (8C)

hel

15.0
29.0
35.0

850
910
898

32.0
38.1
47.2

31.9
41.2
48.4

0.134
0.126
0.121

33.9
42.7
54.1

0.132
0.124
0.114

50.2
55.2
68.7

0.118
0.113
0.098

0.134
0.128
0.123

232

Y. Tripanagnostopoulos et al.

rear surface and to keep the electrical efficiency

of it at a satisfactory level by the reduction of its
operating temperature.
We formed the basic models PV/ WATER and
PV/AIR, by using commercial pc-Si and a-Si PV
modules and steady state tests of these systems
were performed. The results showed that the use
of pc-Si PV module can be considered more
effective, taking into account the higher (double)
electrical efficiency of it to that of a-Si PV module
and also the lower relative system cost increase
from the addition of same type heat extraction
unit.
The constructed and tested hybrid PV/ T systems with water and air as heat removal fluid
were the basic PV/ T systems PV/ WATER, PV/
AIR and the systems with additional glazing PV/
WATER1GL, PV/AIR1GL, with booster diffuse
reflector PV/ WATER1REF, PV/AIR1REF and
with additional glazing and booster diffuse reflector, PV/ WATER1GL1REF, and PV/AIR1
GL1REF.
The addition of the glazing aims to the increase
of thermal output of PV/ T systems, the use of the
booster diffuse reflector to achieve higher electrical and satisfactory thermal output and of both to
the increase of thermal output, keeping electrical
output of systems at a sufficient level. We tested
the aluminium sheet of the used diffuse reflector
regarding its performance to the achieved concentration factor on PV module surface, for
various angles of incident solar radiation on the
diffuse reflector and for 908 and 1208 angle
between it and the PV module plane. In addition,
we measured the effective electrical efficiency of
the pc-Si PV module as a function of its operating
temperature, for concentration factors 1 # C #
1.5.
The results from the steady state tests of all
experimental models of the studied hybrid PV/ T
systems show the following:
1. Heat extraction by water circulation through
the used heat exchanger is more efficient than
that of the simple mode of air circulation,
especially during Summer when water temperature from mains is lower than ambient air
temperature.
2. Higher value of electrical efficiency hel is
achieved by hybrid PV/ T systems for higher
value of thermal efficiency hth .
3. The PV/ T systems with additional glazing
give higher values of thermal efficiency up to
about 30%, but the increase of optical losses
reduces by about 16% their electrical efficiency to that of the basic PV/ T systems.

4. The addition of a glazing in PV/ T systems

could be considered effective in case of using
these systems with priority in thermal output.
5. The use of booster diffuse reflector increases
both electrical and thermal PV/ T system
output.
6. The PV/ T systems with the booster diffuse
reflectors operating with concentration factor
C 5 1.35 can achieve electrical output increase by about 16% to the basic PV/ T
systems, giving also a remarkable thermal
output.
7. The use of both additional glazing and booster diffuse reflector in PV/ T systems results
to a significant increase of thermal output by
45% and almost 100% compared to that of
the corresponding basic PV/ T systems using
water and air, respectively.
8. The negative effect of PV electrical efficiency
drop by the additional glazing is balanced by
the positive effect of the additional solar input
from the diffuse reflector, keeping the electrical efficiency of these systems at a satisfactory level.
9. Booster diffuse reflectors of aluminium sheet
can increase the incoming solar radiation on
PV module plane up to 50%, resulting to an
electrical output increase 25 to 35% for PV
operating temperature 40 to 708C, correspondingly.
10. The use of the booster diffuse reflector is
limited in the forming angle between it and
the PV module plane, with angle of about 908
being more effective in the achieved concentration and smooth distribution of the
additional solar radiation on PV module
plane.
The thermal performance of the simple type PV/ T
experimental models is in the range that corresponds to most PV/ T systems studied by other
authors. The suggested PV/ T systems of PV/ T1
REF and PV/ T1GL1REF type present clearly
higher thermal and electrical performance than
simple type PV/ T systems. Therefore we estimate
that the combined PV/ T systems give better
annual benefits, considering their higher performance from Spring to Fall. More detailed study on
long term performance of the tested PV/ T systems is useful and could be included in a next
work, as in this paper we are mainly focused on
the experimental study of the diffuse reflector
concept. Regarding the impact of diffuse reflectors to PV thermal and electrical performance
improvement the derived simulation test results
show the limits of the effective use of them. The

Hybrid photovoltaic / thermal solar systems

angle w between reflector and PV module is

critical and the combination is less efficient when
this angle is greater than 908. In case of using
ratio L /R , 0.50 angle w about 1208 could be also
efficient. In general booster diffuse reflectors
could be considered efficient in southern countries, because of the higher sun altitude during
year.
Considering that electrical output is usually of
priority, we determined the limits of the achieved
improvement from the basic PV/ T systems PV/
WATER and PV/AIR. We performed comparative
tests, in which one PV module with both surfaces
free to ambient (PV/ FREE) and another with
thermally insulated its rear surface (PV/ INSUL)
were also tested under the same weather conditions. The results showed that the electrical
efficiency of system PV/ WATER is higher by
13.3% than that of system PV/ INSUL and by
3.2% than PV/ FREE, with slightly lower corresponding increase for system PV/AIR.
These results show that PV/ T systems of the
basic type, like the used experimental models
PV/ WATER and PV/AIR, present a low increase
in electrical efficiency but a high rise in their total
efficiency, because of the simultaneous operation
of these systems as thermal collectors. Considering cost per energy gain, the additional thermal
unit of PV/ T systems is more expensive than the
achieved increase in electrical efficiency by PV
cooling and only thermal output is the main gain
in simple type PV/ T systems. The presented study
suggests the use of booster diffuse reflectors in
PV/ T system installations, which can increase
significantly the thermal and the electrical output,
overcoming the additional cost of reflectors.
Therefore, the application of low cost booster
diffuse reflectors, mainly in horizontal installations, can be considered a promising improvement
for the achievement of cost effective hybrid PV/ T
systems, aiming to their commercial fabrication
and practical use in buildings for water preheating
and space heating, in swimming pools for water
heating and also for use in industry.
NOMENCLATURE
Aa
C
Ct
cp
d
G
I
Im
Inet

Aperture surface area (m 2 )

Concentration factor
Effective concentration factor
Fluid specific heat (J Kg 21 K 21 )
Thermal insulation thickness (m)
Solar radiation intensity (W m 22 )
PV current (A)
PV current at maximum power point (A)
PS current from net irradiance (mA)

Iref
Itot
K
L
~
m
R
PS
PV
T
Ta
T air
Ti
To
T pv
T whe
Vm
Vw
w
DT
b
q
hel
hth
htot
w

233

PS current from reflected irradiance (mA)

PS current from total irradiance (mA)
Thermal insulation conductivity (W K 21 m 21 )
PV/ T system width (m)
Fluid mass flow rate (Kg s 21 )
Diffuse reflector width (m)
Photosensor
Photovoltaic
Thermal
Ambient air temperature (8C)
Temperature of air in duct (8C)
Fluid input temperature (8C)
Fluid output temperature (8C)
PV module temperature (8C)
Water heat exchanger temperature (8C)
PV voltage at maximum power point (V)
Wind speed (m s 21 )
Air duct width (m)
Temperature difference (K)
PV/ T system slope (8)
Angle of incident solar radiation (8)
PV electrical efficiency
System thermal efficiency
Total PV/ T system efficiency
Angle between reflector and PV/ T system (8)

AcknowledgementsThe authors wish to acknowledge the

assistance of Ms M. Chortatou in the experiments.

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