Math 331 - Homework 1

Alex Liheng Wang

January 12, 2015

Section 7.1
Let R be a ring with 1.

Problem 1
Show that (1)2 = 1 in R.
0 = 02 = (1 1)2 = (1)2 + (1)(1) + (1)(1) + (1)(1) = 1 1 1 + (1)2 =
1 + (1)2 . And consequently, (1)2 = 1.

Problem 11
Prove that if R is an integral domain and x2 = 1 for some x R then x = 1.
x2 = 1
x2 1 = 0
(x + 1)(x 1) = 0
As R is an integral domain, (x+1) and (x1) cannot be zero divisors. Therefore,
x + 1 = 0 or x 1 = 0 then x = 1.

Problem 13
An element x in R is called nilpotent if xm = 0 for some m Z+ .
(a)
Show that if n = ak b for some integer a and b then ab is a nilpotent element in
Z/nZ.
Consider ab the representative of ab. (ab)k = ak bk = ak bbk1 = 0bk1 = 0.
Thus ab is nilpotent as (ab)k = 0.

(b)
If a Z is an integer, show that the element a Z/nZ is nilpotent if and only
if every prime divisor of n is also a divisor of a. In particular, determine the
nilpotent elements of Z/72Z explicitly.
() Assume a is nilpotent in Z/nZ.
am = 0(modn)
am = nk, for k Z
am
=n
k
Consider p an arbitrary prime divisor of n.
p|n
am
p|
k
pk | am
p | am
p|a
1 me2
n
The last step follows as am = (pe11 pe22 ... penn )m = pme
p2 ...pme
. As
n
1
m
m
p | a and p is prime, p must appear in a and thus in a.Therefore, if a is
nilpotent in Z/nZ then a prime divisor of n is also a prime divisor of a.

() Assume every prime divisor of n is also a prime divisor of a. Let n =

pb11 pb22 ...pbkk , and rewrite a = pc11 pc22 ...pckk d, where d is some integer. Let e =max(bi
ci ) and consider ae = pc11 +e p2c2 +e ...pckk +e de . As each exponent of ae is at
least as large as its corresponding exponent in n, we can factor out n. ae =
n(pc11 +eb1 p2c2 +eb2 ...pckk +ebk de ) = nf = 0 for some f Z. Thus ae = 0 and a
is nilpotent.
72 = 23 32 . Therefore, each nilpotent element in Z/72Z must be divisible by 2
and 3 and the set of nilpotent elements is hence, 0, 6, 12, 18, 24, 30, 36, 42, 48, 54, 60, 66.
(c)
Let R be the ring of functions from a nonempty set X to a field F . Prove that
R contains no nonzero nilpotent elements.
It suffices to show alternatively that if f (x) R is nilpotent, it must be 0.
Let f (x) R such that f (x)m = 0(x) where 0(x) denotes the function sending
every element in X to the 0 of field F . Now fix x. The zero of the ring sends
every element of X to 0, thus f (x)m = 0 F . As a field contains no nonzero
nilpotent elements, f (x)m = 0 = f (x) = 0. Therefore, f (x) R sends every
element of X to 0 and is the zero function.
2

Problem 14
Let x be a nilpotent element of the commutative ring R (cf. the preceding
exercise)
(a)
Prove that x is either zero or a zero divisor.
As x is nilpotent, xm = 0 for some m Z. If x = 0, xm = 0m = 00...0 = 0
holds true. If x 6= 0 then xm = x xm1 = 0 and there exists y = xm1 R
such that xy = 0 and x is a zero divisor. Therefore if x is nilpotent then x is
either zero or a zero divisor.
(b)
Prove that rx is nilpotent for all r R.
Consider (rx)m = (rx)(rx)...(rx). As R is a commutative ring, we can col{z
}
|
m

lect like terms, (rx)(rx)...(rx) = rm xm = rm 0 = 0.

|
{z
}
m

(c)
Prove that 1 + x is a unit in R.
Consider (1 + x)(1 x + x2 x3 ... xm1 ) = (1 x + x2 x3 ... xm1 ) + (x
x2 ... xm1 xm = 1 xm = 1 0 = 1. Therefore (1 + x) is nilpotent.
(d)
Deduce that the sum of a nilpotent element and a unit is a unit.
First, we note that the product of two units is a unit. Let u1 v1 = 1 and
u2 v2 = 1. (u1 u2 )(v2 v1 ) = u1 (u2 v2 )v1 = u1 v1 = 1.
Let u be a unit and x be nilpotent. From (c) above, we have that the sum
of 1 and a nilpotent element is a unit. Consider u1 x nilpotent. 1 + u1 x is
therefore a unit.
As the product of two units is a unit, u(1 + u1 x) = u + uu1 x = u + x is a
unit. Therefore, the sum of a unit and a nilpotent element is a unit.

Problem 17
Let R and S be rings. Prove that the direct product R S is a ring under
componentwise addition and multiplication.

Let (a, a0 ), (b, b0 ) R S. Under componentwise addition (a, a0 ) + (b, b0 ) =

(a + b, a0 + b0 ). As R and S are rings both additions are abelian, (a + b, a0 + b0 ) =
(b + a, b0 + a0 ) = (b, b0 ) + (a, a0 ). Therefore (R S, +) is an abelian group.
Let (a, a0 ), (b, b0 ), (c, c0 ) RS. Consider ((a, a0 )(b, b0 ))(c, c0 ) = (ab, a0 b0 )(c, c0 ) =
(abc, a0 b0 c0 ) = (a, a0 )(bc, b0 c0 ) = (a, a0 )((b, b0 )(c, c0 )). Therefore is associative.
Let (a, a0 ), (b, b0 ), (c, c0 ) R S. Consider ((a, a0 ) + (b, b0 ))(c, c0 ) = (a + b, a0 +
b0 )(c, c0 ) = (ac + bc, a0 c0 + b0 c0 ) = (ac, a0 c0 ) + (bc, b0 c0 ) = (a, c) (a0 , c0 ) +
(b, c) (b0 , c0 ). Now consider (a, a0 )((b, b0 ) + (c, c0 )) = (a, a0 )(b + c, b0 + c0 ) =
(ab + ac, a0 b0 + a0 c0 ) = (ab, a0 b0 ) + (ac, a0 c0 ) = (a, a0 )(b, b0 ) + (a, a0 )(c, c0 ). The
distributive laws hold in R S and therefore R S is a ring.
Prove that R S is commutative if and only if both R and S are commutative.
() Assume that both R and S are commutative. (a, b)(a0 , b0 ) = (aa0 , bb0 ) =
(a0 a, b0 b) = (a0 , b0 )(a, b).
() Now assume that R S is commutative. (aa0 , bb0 ) = (a, b)(a0 , b0 ) =
(a0 , b0 )(a, b) = (a0 a, b0 b). Therefore aa0 = a0 a and bb0 = b0 b and we are done.
Prove that R S has an identity if and only if both R and S have identities.
() Assume that both R and S have identities denoted 1R and 1S respectively. Then (a, b)(1R , 1S ) = (1R , 1S )(a, b) = (a 1R , b 1S ) = (a, b)
() Now assume that R S has an identity denoted 1RS = (e1 , e2 ). Then
(a, b) = (a, b)(e1 , e2 ) = (e1 , e2 )(a, b) = (ae1 , be2 ) = (e1 a, e2 b). Therefore a =
ae1 = e1 a and b = be2 = e2 b. e1 R and e2 S must then be identities.

Problem 18
Prove that (r, r) | r R is a subring of R R.
By 17 above, we know that RR is a ring. We must then prove that (r, r) | r R
is not empty, closed under addition and multiplication, and contains the multiplicative identity. Let 1R be the identity of R. The element (1R , 1R ) is the multiplicative identity in the parent ring and therefore the multiplicative identity in
(r, r) | r R. Let a, b R and hence (a, a), (b, b) (r, r) | r R. As a + b R
because R is a ring, (a, a) + (b, b) = (a + b, a + b) (r, r) | r R. By the same
argument, as ab R because R is a ring, (a, a)(b, b) = (ab, ab) (r, r) | r R.
Thus, (r, r) | r R is nonempty, closed under addition and multiplication, and
contains the multiplicative identity. (r, r) | r R is a subring of R R.