Imp Basics of SOM

SOME SALIENT ASPECTS OF ME354
MECHANICS OF MATERIALS LABORATORY

30 December 1997 (Version 1c) compiled by Michael G. Jenkins, University of Washington
page 1 / 36
NOTE: These notes represent selected highlights of ME354 and are not intended to replace conscientious
study, attendance of lecture, reading of the textbook, completion of homework assignments, and performance
of laboratory work. These notes are corrected, modified, and upgraded periodically with date and latest version
number appearing in the header.
Mechanics of Materials - a branch of mechanics that develops relationships

between the external loads applied to a deformable body and the intensity of internal forces
acting within the body as well as the deformations of the body
External Forces - classified as two types: 1) surface forces produced by a) direct
contact between two bodies such as concentrated forces or distributed forces and/or
b) body forces which occur when no physical contact exists between two bodies (e.g.,
magnetic forces, gravitational forces, etc.).
Internal Forces - non external forces acting in a body to resist external loadings
Support Reactions - surface forces that develop at the support or points of support
between two bodies. Support reactions may include normal forces and couple moments.
Equations of Equilibrium - mathematical expression of vector relations showing that
for a body not to translate or move along a path then F = 0 . M = 0 for a body not to
rotate. Alternatively, scalar equations in 3-D space (i.e., x, y, z) are:
F x = 0 F y = 0 F z = 0
=0
=0
=0
Some nomenclature used in these notes

Roman characters
a - crack length; A- area; Af - final area; Ao - original area; c - distance from
neutral axis to farthest point from neutral axis or Griffith flaw size; C - center of Mohr's circle;
E- elastic modulus (a.k.a., Young's modulus); F - force or stress intensity factor coefficient;
F S - factor of safety; G - shear modulus (a.k.a. modulus of rigidity); I - moment of inertia;
J - polar moment of inertia; K - strength coefficient for strain hardening; K - stress intensity
factor, k - bulk modulus; L - length; L f - final length; L o - original length; M or M(x) - bending
moment; m - metre (SI unit of length) or Marin factor for fatigue; N - Newton (SI unit of force)
or fatigue cycles; N f - cycles to fatigue failure; n - strain hardening exponent or stress
exponent; P - applied load; P cr - critical buckling load; P S D - Sherby-Dorn parameter;
P LM - Larson-Miller parameter; p - pressure; Q - first moment of a partial area about the
neutral axis or activation energy; R - radius of Mohr's circle or radius of shaft/torsion
specimen or stress ratio; S f - fracture strength; S uts or S u - ultimate tensile strength;
r - radius of a cylinder or sphere; S y - offset yield strength; T - torque or temperature;
T mp - melting temperature; t - thickness of cross section or time; tf - time to failure;
U - stored energy; U r - modulus of resilience; U t - modulus of toughness; V or V(x) - shear
force; v or v(x) - displacement in the "y" direction; w(x) - distributed load; x or X - coordinate
direction or axis; y or Y - coordinate direction or axis; z or Z - coordinate direction or axis;
Greek characters
- change or increment; - normal strain or tensoral strain component;
- normal strain at ; - angle or angle of twist; - engineering shear strain;
- Poisson's ratio; - angular velocity; - variable for radius or radius of curvature;
- normal stress; 1 , 2 , 3 - greatest, intermediate, and least principal normal stresses;
'- effective stress; - proportional limit, elastic limit, or yield stress; - shear stress;
max - maximum shear stress; o - yield shear strength; - angle; p - principal normal
stress angle; s - maximum shear stress angle

page 2 / 36
Stress
Stress: i) the ratio of incremental force to incremental area on which the force acts such
F
that: lim
.
A0 A
ii) the intensity of the internal force on a specific plane (area) passing through
a point.
Normal Stress: the intensity of the internal force acting normal to an incremental area
F n
such that: = lim
A0 A
Note: + = tensile stress = "pulling" stress
and - = compressive stress = "pushing" stress
Shear Stress: the intensity of the internal force acting tangent to an incremental area
F t
such that: = lim
A0 A
General State of Stress: all the internal stresses acting on an incremental element
y
yz
zy
y
yx
xy
zx xz
x
x
Note: A + acts normal to a positive face in the positive coordinate direction

and a + acts tangent to a positive face in a positive coordinate direction
Note: Moment equilibrium shows that xy = yx ; xz = zx ; yz = zy
Complete State of Stress: Six independent stress components
(3 normal stresses, x ; y ; z and
3 shear stresses, xy ; yz ; xz ) which uniquely
describe the stress state for each particular orientation
Force F
= ,
Area L2
N
N
N
In SI units, Pa = 2 or MPa = 106 2 =
m
m
mm 2
lb
lb
kip
In US Customary units, psi = f2 or ksi = 10 3 f2 = 2
in
in
in
Units of Stress: In general:

page 3 / 36
Stress Transformation
For the plane stress condition (e.g., stress state at a surface where no load is supported on
the surface), stresses exist only in the plane of the surface (e.g., x ; y ; xy )
The plane stress state at a point is uniquely represented by three components acting on a
element that has a specific orientation (e.g., x, y) at the point. The stress transformation
relation for any other orientation (e.g., x', y') is found by applying equilibrium equations
( F = 0 and M = 0 ) keeping in mind that F n = A and F t = A
y
x'
Ax=A cos
y'
Rotated coordinate
axes and areas for
x and y directions
Ay=A sin
y
x'
xyAx
y'
x Ax
x' A
x'y' A
xy Ay
y Ay
x'
= 0 gives
x ' = x cos2 + y sin 2 + 2 xy cos sin or x ' =
y'
Rotated coordinate
axes and components of
stress/forces for
original coordinate axes
x + y x y
+
cos2 + xy sin 2
2
2
= 0 gives
x 'y ' = ( x y )cos sin + xy (cos2 + sin 2 ) or x 'y' =

Similarly, for a cut in the y' direction,
y ' = x sin 2 + y cos2 2 xy cos sin or y ' =
x y
sin2 + xy cos2
2
x + y x y
cos2 xy sin 2
2
2

page 4 / 36
Principal Normal Stress - maximum or minimum normal stresses acting in principal

directions on principal planes on which no shear stresses act.
Note that 1 > 2 > 3
+ y
y
2 xy
2
For the plane stress case 1,2 = x
x
+ xy and tan 2 p =
2
2
x y
2
and max
2
x y
x y
x + y
2
=
and tan 2 s =
+ xy , ave =
2
2
2 xy
Mohr's Circles for Stress States - graphical representation of stress

Examples of Mohr's circles
max = 1 3
2
max for x-y plane
Mohr's circle for stresses in x-y plane
Mohr's circle for stresses in x-y-z planes

Graphical Description of State of

Stress
page 5 / 36
In this example all stresses acting in axial

directions are positive as shown in Fig. 1.
2-D Mohr's Circle
xy
x
X
Fig. 1- Positive stresses acting
on a physical element.
As shown in Figs. 2 and 3, plotting actual

sign of the shear stress with x normal stress
requires plotting of the opposite sign of the
shear stress with the y normal stress on the
Mohr's circle.
+y
+xy
y-face
+x
In this example x > y and xy is positive.
By the convention of Figs. 2 and 3, = 2 on
the Mohr's circle is negative from the +
axis. (Mathematical convention is that
positive angle is counterclockwise).
Fig. 2 - Directionality of shear

acting on x and y faces.
+y ,
=2

C= x + y
2
+ x,+
R = (x - C)2 + 2 )
tan = -
( x - C)
2
Fig. 3 - Plotting stress values on

Mohr's circle.
Note that by the simple geometry of

Fig. 3, = 2 appears to be negative while
by the formula,
tan 2 = 2xy/(x -y), the physical angle, ,
is actually positive.
In-plane principal stresses are: 1 = C+R
2 = C - R
Maximum in-plane shear stress is:
max = R =(1 -2 )/2

The direction of physical angle, , is from

the x-y axes to the principal axes.
page 6 / 36
Direction
of +
X
Fig. 4 - Orientation of physical element

with only principal stresses
acting on it.
Principal
Axis
Direction of
Note that the sense (direction) of the

physical angle, , is the same as on the
Mohr's circle from the line of the x-y stresses
to the axes of the principal stresses.
Line of X-Y
Stresses
Fig. 5 - Direction of from the line of x-y
stresses to the principal stress
axis.
strain except interchange variables as
Same relations apply for Mohr's circle for
and
2

30 Decmber 1997 (Version c) compiled by Michael G. Jenkins, University of Washington
page 7 / 36
Strain
Strain: normalized deformations within a body exclusive of rigid body displacements
Normal Strain: elongation or contraction of a line segment per unit length such that
A' B' AB L f Lo
= lim
and a volume change results.

B A along n
AB
Lo
Note: + = tensile strain = elongation
and - = compressive strain = contraction
Shear Strain: the angle change between two line segments such that
= ( = ) ' (for small angles ) and a shape change results.

2
h
Note: + occurs if
> '
2
and - occurs if
< '
2
General State of Strain: all the internal strains acting on an incremental element
y
yx
xy
Engineering shear strain,

= xy + yx
xy
Complete State of Strain: Six independent strain components

(3 normal strains, x ; y ; z and
3 engineering shear strains, xy ; yz ; xz ) which uniquely
describe the strain state for each particular orientation
Length L
= ,
Length L
m
m
In SI units,
for and
or radian for
m
m
in
in
In US Customary units,
for and
or radian for
in
in
Units of Strain: In general:

page 8 / 36
Strain Transformation
For the plane strain condition (e.g., strain at a surface where no deformation occurs normal
to the surface), strains exist only in the plane of the surface ( x ; y ; xy )
The plane strain state at a point is uniquely represented by three components acting on a
element that has a specific orientation (e.g., x, y) at the point. The strain transformation
relation for any other orientation (e.g., x', y') is found by summing displacements in the
appropriate directions keeping in mind that = L o and = h
x'
= dy
Q*
}
Q
y'
y = y dy
Rotated coordinate
axes and displacements
for x and y directions
ds
dy
x= x dx
dx
y
x'
= x' ds
x'
x = x dx
dx
ds
dy
sin =
ds
cos =
Q*
= dy
y = y dy
Displacements in
the x' direction
for strains/ displacements
in the x and y directions
displacements in x 'direction for Q to Q
* gives
+ y x y
x ' = x cos2 + y sin 2 + xy cos sin or x ' = x

+
cos2 + xy sin2
2
2
2
rotation of dx ' and dy' gives
x 'y '
= ( x y )cos sin + xy (cos2 + sin 2 ) or x 'y ' = x

sin 2 + xy cos2
2
2
2
2
2
Similarly, displacements in y 'direction for Q to Q * gives
+ y x y
y ' = x sin 2 + y cos2 xy cos sin or y ' = x
cos2 xy sin2
2
2
2

page 9 / 36
Principal Normal Strain - maximum or minimum normal strains acting in principal

directions on principal planes on which no shear strains act.
Note that 1 > 2 > 3
2
xy
x + y
x y
xy
For the plane strain case 1,2 =

+
and tan 2 p =
2
2
x y
2
2
and
2

( x y )
+ y
max
x y
=
+ xy xy2 , ave = x
and tan2 s =
2
2
2
2
xy
Mohr's Circles for Strain States - graphical representation of strain

Examples of Mohr's circles
max = 1 3
max /2 for x-y plane
/2
/2
Mohr's circle for strains in x-y-z planes
Mohr's circle for strains in x-y plane
Strain Gage Rosettes

Rosette orientations and equations relating x-y coordinate strains to
the respective strain gages of the rosette
y
60
c
b
c
b
60
45
a
a
x
45 Rectangular
x = a
y = c
xy = 2 b ( a + c )
x
60 Delta
x = a
1
y = (2 b + 2 c a )
3
2
xy =
( c )
3 b

page 10 / 36
Continuum Mechanics and Constitutive Relations

Equations which relate stress and strain (a.k.a., Generalized Hooke's Law)
{ } = [C ]{ }
= S
E
E
x =
x +
( + y + z )
(1+ )
(1+ )(1 2 ) x
E
E
y =
y +
( + y + z )
(1+ )
(1+ )(1 2 ) x
E
E
z =
z +
( + y + z )
(1+ )
(1+ )(1 2 ) x
xy = G xy
yz = G yz
xz = G xz
[C ] = [S ]
and [S ] = [C ]1
Elastic relation (1-D Hooke's Law) =E

Plastic relation (Strain -Hardening) =K n
Stress strain relations
for plane stress (x y plane)
E
x =
+ y
(1 2 ) x
E
y =
+ x
(1 2 ) y
z = xz = yz = 0
xy = G xy
{ } [ ]{ }
1
( y + z )
E x
1
y =
( x + z )
E y
1
z =
( x + y )
E z
1
xy = xy
G
1
yz = yz
G
1
xz = xz
G
Poisson's ratio, = - transverse

longitudinal
x =
( + y )
1 x
Plane strain : z = 0, z 0 = ( x + y )
Plane stress : z = 0, z 0 =
Poisson's ratio, = - lateral

longitudinal
Elastic Modulus, E=
Shear Modulus, G=
Bulk Modulus, k =
E
=
2(1+)
( +
3( +
x
+ x
+ x
)= E
) 3(1 2)

page 11 / 36
PLASTIC DEFORMATION
Non recoverable deformation beyond the point of yielding where Hooke's law
(proportionality of stress and strain) no longer applies. Flow curve is the true stress vs. true
strain curve describing the plastic deformation.
Simple Power Law
Strain
Hardening
Elastic: = E
( o )
Plastic: = H n
( o )
Strain
T
Rigid-Perfectly Plastic
Approximate flow curves
Power
Linear
Elastic-Perfectly Plastic
Elastic-Linear Hardening
Elastic-Power Hardening
Ramberg-Osgood Relationship
1
n
Total strain is sum of elastic and plastic = e + p = + p
= H pn = +
E
E H
Deformation Plasticity
1
2
eff =
( 1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + ( 3 1)2 and eff =
(1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + ( 3 1 )2
2
3
Effective stress-effective strain curve is independent of the state of stress and is used to
estimate the stress-strain curves for other states of stress.

page 12 / 36
Failure Theories
Two types: Fracture and Yield Criteria. Generally used to predict the safe limits of a
material/component under combined stresses.
Material Strength
Factor of Safety, FS =
, Failure occurs if FS<1
Component Stress
Maximum Normal Stress Criterion
Fracture criterion generally used to predict failure of brittle materials.
SUTS
FS =
MAX( 1 , 2 , 3 )
Maximum Shear Stress (Tresca) Criterion
Yield criterion generally used to predict failure in materials which yield in shear (i.e. ductile
materials)
( o = Sy / 2 = 0 / 2)
FS =
2 2 3 1 3
MAX 1
,
,
2
2
2
Von Mises (Distortional Energy)

or Octahedral Shear Stress Criterion
Yield criterion generally used to predict failure in materials. which yield in shear (i.e. ductile
materials)
( o = Sy )
FS =
'
1
'=
(1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + ( 3 1 )2
2
1
'=
( x y )2 + ( y z )2 + ( z x )2 + 6( xy2 + yx2 + zx2 )
2

page 13 / 36
Mechanical Testing
The results of materials tests (e.g. tensile, compressive, torsional shear, hardness, impact
energy, etc.) are used for a variety of purposes including to obtain values of material
properties for use in engineering design and for use in quality control to ensure materials
meet established requirements
Tensile Testing
1=P/Ao
=(Li-Lo)/Lo
Ao
2 = 3 = 0
Mohr's Circle for Uniaxial

Tension
Lo
d
of the linear part of the stress-strain curve.
d
Yielding : Proportional limit, p ; elastic limit; offset yield (Sys at 0.2% strain) where o is used
to generally designate the stress at yielding.
L Lo
A Af
Ductility : % elongation = f
x 100 = f x100 or %RA = o
x 100
Lo
Ao
Necking is geometric instability at SUTS and U
Elastic Modulus : E =
Strain hardening ratio =
SUTS
where 1.4 is high and 1.2 is low.
o
Energy absorption (energy/volume):

Modulus of Resilience
= measure of the ability to
store elastic energy
= area under the linear portion
of the stress-strain curve
o
UR = d
o
o o o2
2
2E
|
|
|
|
|
Modulus of Toughness
= measure of the ability to
absorb energy without fracture
= area under the entire
stress-strain curve
f
(S
+ o ) f
UT = d UTS
("flat" - curves)
2
o
f
or
d
o
2SUTS f
(parabolic - curves)
3
Strain-hardening: T = K (T )n = H ( T )n
H=K=strength coefficient and n = strain hardening exponent (0n1)

page 14 / 36
Representative stress-strain curves for tensile tests of brittle and ductile materials
Su
Su=Sy=Sf
X
E
Sy
E
Ur
Ut
Ut=Ur
Ur
Strain
Ductile Material
Strain
Brittlle Material
PARAMETER
Engineering Stress
(E)
True Stress ( T)
Engineering Strain
(E)
True Strain (T)
Table: Stress-strain definitions for tensile testing

FUNDAMENTAL
PRIOR TO
AFTER
DEFINITION
NECKING
NECKING
P
P
P
E = i
E = i
E = i
Ao
Ao
Ao
P
P
Pi
T = i
T = i
T =
Ai
Ai
Aneck
L Li -L o
=
Lo
Lo
L
T = ln i
Lo
E =
T = ln
Ao
Ai
T = E (1+ E )
L Li -L o
E =
=
Lo
Lo
L
T = ln i
Lo
T = ln
L Li -L o
=
Lo
Lo
A
T = ln o
A neck
E =
Ao
Ai
T = ln(1+ E )
Note: Subscripts: i=instantaneous, o=original; Superscripts: E=engineering, T=true
Sf
X

page 15 / 36
Hardness Testing
Resistance of material to penetration
Brinell
Steel or
tungsten
carbide
ball
P=3000 kg
or 500 kg
D=10 mm
t
d
BHN = HB =
P
2P
=
Dt D D (D 2 d 2 )
Vickers
P=1-120 kg
Diamond
pyramid
= 136=Included
angle of faces
VHN = HV =
2P
2 sin
L
2
d=L
Rockwell
Requires Rockwell subscript to provide meaning to the Rockwell scale.
Examples of Rockwell Scales
Rockwell Hardness
A
B
C
D
E
M
R
Indentor
Diamond point
1.588 mm dia. ball
Diamond point
Diamond point
3.175 mm dia. ball
6.350 mm dia. ball
12.70 mm dia. ball
Load (kg)
60
100
150
100
100
100
60
Notch-Impact Testing
Resistance of material to sudden fracture in presence of notch
mass, m
Ductile
h1
h2
IZOD
IMPACT ENERGY=mg(h1-h2)
CHARPY
V-NOTCH
Brittle
Ductile/Brittle
Transition
TEMPERATURE

page 16 / 36
Torsion Testing
=TR/J
=R /L
=
2R
2 =
1=
L
Torsional Shear Stress
Torsional Shear Strain
4
TR
D
=
J =
for solid shaft
R
J
32
=
4
4
L
(Douter Dinner )
J =
for tube
32
E
Shear Modulus : G = =
2(1+ )
For linear elastic behaviour, plane sections remain plane, so =
T maxR
J
For nonlinear behaviour, plane sections remain plane, so
R
TR
1
=
but
beyond linear region .
Instead =
L
J
2R 3
R
TR
and =
L
J
Modulus of Rupture (maximum shear stress) : u =
dT
( / L )
+ 3T
d ( / L )
3T max
Modulus of Rupture (maximum shear stress) when dT/d(/L) = 0 so u
2 R3
Table: Comparison of stresses and strains for tension and torsion tests
Tension Test
Torsion Test
1 = max ; 3 = 2 = 0
1 = 3 ; 2 = 0
2 1
max = 1 = max
max =
= max
2
2
2
max = 1 = 3 ; 2 = 0
max = 1; 2 = 3 = 1
2
3 1
max = 1 3 = 2 1
max =
2
1
effective stress eff =
( 1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + ( 3 1)2
2
2
effective strain eff =
(1 2 )2 + ( 2 3 )2 + ( 3 1)2
3
= 1
= 31
= 1
2
=
1 =
3
3

page 17 / 36
Compression Testing
1 =P/Ao
=(Li-Lo)/Lo
Ao
2 = 3 = 0
Lo
No necking and maximum load may not occur since pancaking allows load to keep
increasing. For many metals and polymers, the compressive stress and strain relations are
similar to those in tension (including elastic constants, ductility, and yield). For other
materials, such as ceramics, glasses, and composites (often at elevated temperatures),
compression behavior may be quite different than tensile behavior.
In an ideal column (no eccentricity) the axial load, P, can be increased until failure occurs
wither by fracture, yielding or buckling. Buckling is a geometric instablity related only to the
elastic modulus (stiffness) of the material and not the strength.
Pcr =
2EI
2E
or
=
cr
(KL)2
(KL / r)2
where (L/r) is the slenderness ratio

and (KL/r) is the effective slenderness ratio
Sometimes, Le =KL is the effective length.

page 18 / 36
Creep and Time Dependent Deformation

Time dependent deformation under constant load or stress at temperatures greater than 30
and 60% of the melting point (i.e. homologous temperatures, T/Tmp >0.3-0.6)
I
STRAIN
II
III
steady-state
d =.
d
dt
dt
CREEP
STRAIN.
RATE,
II
TIME, t
TIME, t
min = A n exp( Q / RT )
Stress exponent, n, from isothermal tests:
min = B n so that log min = logB + n log
log min,1 log min,2
or n =
log 1 log 2
Activation energy, Q, from isostress tests:
min = C exp(Q / RT ) so that
ln min = ln C + (Q / R ) (1/ T )
R (ln min,1 ln min,2 )
or Q =
1
1
T1 T2
log
.
min
n
log
ln
.
min
(-Q/R)
1/T
III
min

page 19 / 36
Long term predictions from short term results - valid only if the creep/creep rupture
mechanism does not change over time. Rule-of-thumb: short-time test lives should be at
least 10% of the required long-term design life. Creep rupture occurs by the coalescence of
the diffusional damage (creep cavitation by inter or intragranular diffusion and oxidation)
which is manifested during secondary (steady-state creep).
Stress-rupture
Empirical relation = A tf N
Important where creep deformation is tolerated but rupture is to be avoided.
Stress
N
Failure time, t f
Monkman-Grant
Empirical relation min t f = C or min = Ctmf where m = 1 if the relation is applicable .
Important where total creep deformation (i.e. mint f ) is of primary concern.
.
min
m
t
Sherby-Dorn
Assumes that Qf( or T) and suggests that the creep strains for a given stress form a
unique curve if plotted versus the temperature compensated time, = t exp( Q/RT) .
A common physical mechanism is assumed to define the time-temperature paramter such
log (e) 1
that the Sherby-Dorn parameter P SD = log = logt f Q
R T
PSD
Larson-Miller
Assumes that Q=f() and suggests that the creep strains for a given stress form a unique
curve if plotted versus the temperature compensated time, f = t f exp( Q/RT) .
A common physical mechanism is assumed to define the time-temperature parameter such
log (e)
that the Larson-Miller parameter P LM =
Q = T (logt f +C)
R
PLM

page 20 / 36
Material Damping
Energy dissipation during cyclic loading - internal friction which is material, frequency,
temperature dependent.
u=internal damping energy

= d
t
Dynamic Modulus : E * =
a
a
Loss Coefficient : Q 1 = tan =
Phase Angle : =
u
2 Ue
'
= E * cos (where ' = at a )
a
1
Elastic Energy: Ue = ' aat a maximum extension
2
Storage Modulus:
Fracture
Fracture is the separation (or fragmentation) of a solid body into two or more parts under the
action of stress (crack initiation and crack propagation) Presence of cracks may weaken the
material such that fracture occurs at stresses much less than the yield or ultimate strengths.
Fracture mechanics is the methodology used to aid in selecting materials and designing
components to minimize the possibility of fracture from cracks.
ALLOWABLE
STRESS,
High K Ic
Low K Ic
CRACK LENGTH, a
ALLOWABLE
STRESS,
a t = transition crack length

between yield and fracture
CRACK LENGTH, a
Cracks lower the material's tolerance (allowable stress) to fracture.

page 21 / 36
Griffith Theory of Brittle Fracture

A crack will propagate when the decrease in elastic strain energy is at least equal to the
energy required to create the new fracture surfaces
For completely brittle material :

2c
t
W
c 2 2 t
E
Energy required to produce crack surfaces , Us = 2(2c s )t
Elastic strain energy with no crack
, Ue =
Energy balance , U= Us Ue = 4c s tAt critical crack length fracture will occur
Us
U
Ue
Such that f =
E 2s
for plane stress and t = 1
c
If plastic deformation occurs
Strain Energy Release Rate

E 2 s
If f =
let
=2 s then
c
release rate.
c2 2 t
E
dU
2 c 2 t
,
= 0 = 4 s tdc
E
2 c
E
where
f =
E 2( s + p )
E p
c
is the linear elastic strain energy
The stress intensity factor, K, uniquely defines the stress state at a crack tip in a linearelastic, isotropic material.
K
3
x =
cos 1-sin sin
+.....
y
2 r
2
2
2
r
K
3
y =
cos 1+sin sin
+.....
2r
2
2
2
K
3
x
xy =
cos sin cos
+.....
2 r
2
2
2
z = 0 for plane stress or z = ( x + y )
a
yz = zx = 0

page 22 / 36
In general
MODE I
OPENING
MODE
K = F a = Y a = a
where F, Y, and are geometry correction factors
Subscripts on K refer to fracture mode :
KI =Mode I, opening mode
KII = Mode II, sliding mode
KIII =Mode III, tearing mode
Note:
MODE II
SLIDING
MODE
MODE III
TEARING
MODE
K2
where E' = E (plane stress)
E'
and E'= E/(1- 2 ) (plane strain)
Plane strain fracture toughness

KIc is the critical stress intensity factor in plane strain conditions at stress intensity factors
below which brittle fracture will not occur. The plane strain fracture toughness, KIc, is a
material property and is independent of geometry (e.g. specimen thickness).
Fracture toughness in design
Fracture occurs when
K Ic = K I = F a
where F is the geometry correction factor for the particular crack geometery.
Designer can choose a material with required K Ic ,
OR design for the stress, ,to prevent fracture ,
OR choose a critical crack length, a, which is detectable (or tolerable).
Cyclic Fatigue
Fatigue is failure due to cyclic (dynamic) loading including time-dependent failure due to
mechanical and/or thermal fatigue. Fatigue analysis may be stress-based, strain based, or
fracture mechanics based.
Stress-based analysis
max
min

max = Maximum stress
page 23 / 36
min = Minimum stress

+ min
m = Mean stress = max
2
= Stress range = max min
= ( max m ) = (m min )
2
Note: tension = + and compression = . Completely reversed R= 1, m = 0.
R = Stress ratio = min

max
a = Stress amplitude =
A = Amplitude ratio =
a 1 R
=
m 1+ R
S-N Curves
Stress (S)-fatigue (Nf) life curve where gross stress, S, may be presented as
, a , max ,or m . High cycle N f>10 5 (sometimes 102 -10 4 ) with gross stress elastic. Low
cycle N f<10 2 -10 4 with gross elastic plus plastic strain.
Ferrous and Ti-based alloys
e= fatigue limit or endurance limit ( e @106 cycles)
Non-ferrrous materials
(e.g Al or Cu alloys) ( e @ 108 cycles)
10 6
log N f 108
Fatigue factors
LOCAL
REMOTE
NOTCHED
UN-NOTCHED
UN
e
e
S
Fatigue strength reduction factor: k f =
NOTCHED
e
e NOTCHED
k 1
Notch sensitivity factor, q = f
where q=0 for no
kt 1
notch sensitivity, q=1 for full sensitivity.
log N f
q as notch radius, , and q as S UTS
Generally, k f<< kt for ductile materials and sharp notches but kf kt for brittle materials and
blunt notches. This is due to i) steeper d/dx for sharp notch so average stress in fatigue
process zone is greater for the blunt notch, ii) volume effect of fatigue which is tied to
average stress over larger volume for blunt notch, iii) crack cannot propagate far from a
sharp notch because steep stress gradient lowers KI quickly. In design, avoid some types of
notches, rough surfaces, and certain types of loading. Compressive residual stresses at
surfaces (from shot peening, surface rolling, etc.) can increase fatigue lives.
Endurance limit, e is also lowered by factors such as surface finish (ma), type of loading
(mt), size of specimen (m d ), miscellaneous effects (mo ) such that: 'e = m amt m d mo e
Recall stress concentration factor: k t =

page 24 / 36
Note that e can be estimated from the ultimate tensile strength of the material such that:
e meSUTS where m e =0.4-0.6 for ferrous materials.
For design purposes:
Effect of mean stress for constant amplitude completely reversed stress.

Goodman: a = e 1 m Soderberg, use S YS instead of SUTS .
SUTS
If factor of safety and /or fatigue factor are used:

For brittle materials, apply k f to e , k f k t to SUTS , and FS to SUTS and e.
Goodman
Soderberg
e
m
1
FS k f (SUTS /(k f k t )FS )

For ductile materials, apply k f to e and FS to SUTS and e .
a =
ys
Suts
a =
e
m
1
FS k f (S UTS / FS )
Effect of variable amplitude

about a constant mean stress.
a3
a1
a2
N1
N2
N3
a3
f3
a2
a1
Nf 2 N f1 Nf
Palmgren-Miner Rule (Miner's Rule)

N
N1 N2 N3
+
+
= j =1
Nf1 Nf2 Nf3
Nfj
Fatigue crack growth
The fatigue process consists of 1) crack initiation, 2) slip band crack growth (stage I crack
propagation) 3) crack growth on planes of high tensile stress (stage II crack propagation)
and 4) ultimate failure.
Fatigue cracks initiate at free surfaces (external or internal) and initially consist of slip band
extrusions and intrusions. Fatigue striations (beach marks) on fracture surfaces represent
successive crack extensions normal to tensile stresses when 1 mark1N but marksNf.

page 25 / 36
Saturation
Slip bands on
first loading
Slip band Intrusions and

Extrusions under cyclic loading
Cracking
Number of Cycles N
During fatigue crack propagation (stage II may dominate) such that crack growth analysis
can be applied to design: a) cracks are inevitable, b) minimum detectable crack length can
be used to predict total allowable cycles, c) periodic inspections can be scheduled to
monitor and repair growing cracks, d) damage tolerant design can be applied to allow
structural survival in presence of cracks.
Most important advance in fatigue crack propagation was realizing the dependence of crack
da
propagation on the stress intensity factor. Paris power law relation:
= C(K )m
dN
For constant stress range such that K = F ( ) a and F can be approximated as nearly
constant over the range of crack growth. Assume m and C are constant, then:
af
Nf
f
da
da
dN=
=
N
a C(K )m a C(F a )m
i
i
i
OR
Nf =
/2))
/2))
a(1(m
a(1(m
f
i
C F ( )
] [1 (m / 2) ]
da/dN
where ai is the initial crack length which

is either assumed or determined from non
destructive evaluation (NDE) and
1 K Ic
af =
F max
I
log
da/dN
For >(+R) crack remains in

tension (open) longer and can
tolerate less K for the same da/dN
III
II
m
log
da/dN
+R
Kth
-R
log K
log K
If F is a function of crack length, i.e. F(a,W, etc.), then numerical integration must be used.
Nf
af
af
da
da
N dN= a C(K )m = a C F(a,W,etc) a m
i
i
i

page 26 / 36
Shafts in Torsion
=T /J
= /L
T
=
1=
2 =
2R=2c=D
2-D Mohr's Circle for Pure Torsion

Torsional Shear Stress
Torsional Shear Strain
T
=
where J= polar moment of intertia = 2 dA
=
J
L
dA
c
Tc (or c o )
max =
max =
L
J
d
E
Shear Modulus : G =
=
d 2(1+ )
T
For linear elastic behaviour, plane sections remain plane, so =
and =
L
J
Special cases
D4
c 4
J=
=
for solid shaft
32
2
4
4
(Douter
Dinner
)
(co4 ci4 )
J=
=
for tube
32
2
Power transmission
P = T
P =power (S.I. units, P= W = Nm/s, US Customary, P =HP = 550 ftlb/s
T = torque
d
2
=
=angular velocity, rad/s ( =RPM
)
dt
60
Angle of twist
L
T (x)dx
=
(in general)
J(x )G
0
TL
(at x =L for constant T, J, G)
JG
TL
=
(for multiple segments for different T, J, G)
JG
=

page 27 / 36
Pressure Vessels
1= pr
t
2= pr
2t
1=2=
p
pr
2t
p
Thin wall spherical

Thin wall cylindrical
pressure vessel
pressure vessel
Thin wall refers to a vessel with inner radius to wall thickness ratio, r/t, of greater than 10.
For cylindrical vessel with internal gage pressure only,
pr
pr
At outer wall, 1 =
(hoop); 2 =
(longitudinal);
t
2t
pr
pr
At inner wall, 1 =
(hoop); 2 =
(longitudinal);
t
2t
For spherical vessel with internal gage pressure only,
pr
pr
At outer wall, 1 =
(hoop); 2 =
(longitudinal);
2t
2t
pr
pr
At inner wall, 1 =
(hoop); 2 =
(longitudinal);
2t
2t
3 = 0 (radial),
3 = -p (radial)
3 = 0 (radial),
3 = -p (radial)

page 28 / 36
Beams
+w(x)
y
+V
+V
+M
+M
x
Beam Sign Convention
Support Condition
Force Reaction
Boundary Condition
v=0
dv =0
dx
Fixed
M=0
v=0
dv
dx 0
v=0
dv
dx 0
Roller
M=0
Pinned
R=0
M=0
Free
FBD, Shear Diagram and Moment Diagram
FBD: F = 0,
M = 0
dV
= w(x )
dx
dM
Moment Diagram (M):
=V
dx
Shear Diagram (V):
v0
dv
dx 0

page 29 / 36
Bending strain and stress

= Radius of Curvature
y
+M
Neutral Axis
=Centroid
= -My
I
= -y
Normal Stress and Strain

-y
-c
y
=
= max where max =
c
My
Mc
=and max =
I
I
y = distance from neutral axis
= radius of curvature of neutral axis
c = distance from neutral axis to point furthest
from neutral axis
M= bending moment
I = moment of inertia of cross section=
y dA
2
dA
Shear Stress
VQ
=
It
V = shear force
Q = ydA' = y 'A' where A'= portion of cross section
A'
I = moment of inertia of entire cross section

t = thickness of cross section at point of interest
+M

page 30 / 36
Compare normal and shear stress distributions
=0
y
x
+M
Neutral Axis
=Centroid
VQ
=
It
= -My
+V
+M
+V
=0
+
Special cases
Rectangular Cross Section

3
bh
6M
max =
12
bh 2
Circular Cross Section
I=
I=
c 4
4
max =
2M
c 3
max =
3V
3V
=
2A 2(bh)
max =
4V
4V
=
3A
3(c 2 )
c=co
Tubular Cross Section

I=
(co4 c i4 )
4
max =
2Mco
(c 4o c i4 )
max =
2V
A
2V
(co2 c i2 )
ci
co
Beam Deflections
Moment Curvature
1 M
=
EI
Equations for Elastic Curve
d 4v
= -w(x)
dx 4
d3v
EI 3 =V(x)
dx
d2v
EI 2 = M(x)
dx
EI
Need to integrate equations for elastic curve for find v(x) and dv(x)/dx in terms of M(x), V(x),
w(x), and constants of integration. The specific solution for the elastic curve is then found by
applying the boundary conditions. Note that v=dv/dx=0 for fixed support, v=0 but dv/dx0 for
simple support, and v=max or min when dv/dx=0 at maximum moment (i.e. inflection point).

Statically Indeterminate
Axially-Loaded Members
FA
C
LAC
F = 0
FB
LCB
so -FA FB +P = 0
But FA and FB are unknown

so
Use load-displacement relation and compatibility
at the common point C
FAL AC FBL CB
=0
AE
AE
Torsionally-Loaded Members
T
TA
TB
A
M = 0
LAC
so
LCB
-TA TB +T = 0
But TA and TB are unknown

so
Use torque-twist relation and compatibility
at the common point C
TAL AC TBL CB
=0
JG
JG
page 31 / 36

Beams
P
M = 0
LAC
and F = 0
LCB
But there are additional supports not needed

for stable equilibrium which are redundants
and determine the degree of indeterminacy
so
First determine redundant reactions, then
use compatibility conditions to determine
redundants and apply these to beam to solve
for the remaining reactions using equilibrium
If use method of integration, integrate the
d2v M
=
twice to
dx 2 EI
find the internal moment in terms of x (i.e., M(x)).
differential equation,
The redundants and constants of integration are

found from the boundary conditions.
page 32 / 36

page 33 / 36
Engineering Materials
Classes and various aspects of engineering materials.
Size scales and disciplines involved in the study of engineering materials.

page 34 / 36
Crystals, structures, defects and dislocations, theoretical strength
Four common crystal structures: (primitive) cubic, body-centered cubic, face-centered cubic,
and hexagonal close packed.
a) amorphous
b) crystalline
Examples of a) amorphous (without form) and b) crystalline structures
Types of point defects
Types of line defects (dislocations)

[a) edge dislocations and b) screw dislocations]
Maximum Cohesive Strength
max
Maximum Shear Stress at Slip
E E
10
E s
=
a0
max =
max =
Gb
2ao
Upper
Bound
Lower
Bound

page 35 / 36
Strengthening Mechanisms
Grain Boundary Strengthening
Mechanism: GB is region of disturbed lattice with steep strain gradients
High angle = high fracture energy plus diffusion sites
Low angle = edge dislocations climb
Teq is equicohesive temp where GB is weaker than grain and d is the grain diameter.
Result: At R.T. As d then H and SUTS AND as d then H and SUTS such that
o = i + kd 1/2 (Hall-Petch Eq. where o is yield stress, i is friction
stress and k is the"locking" parameter
At H.T. If T>Teq as d then S UTS BUT if T<Teq as d then S UTS
Yield Point Phenomenon
Mechanism: Lders bands of yielded and unyielded
material with C and N atoms forming
atmospheres (interstitials) to pin dislocations
and forcing new dislocations to form.
Result: Upper yield point followed by lower yield point
before strain hardening.
Upper Yield
Strain
Hardening
Lower Yield
Lders Bands
are bands of
yielded material
Strain
Strain Aging
Mechanism: C and N atoms form atmospheres (interstitials) to pin dislocations and forcing
new dislocations to form BUT diffusion of interstitials can repin dislocations.
Result: Upper yield point and lower yield point return even if material is strain hardening.
YP returns
for load/unload
load/unload
shows no YP
Strain
At R.T., No strain age and no YP
Strain
Aged at T or after days at R.T., YP returns
Solid Solution Strengthening

Mechanism: Atomic-level interstitial and substitutional solute atoms provide resistance to
dislocation motion as dislocations bend around regions of high energy.
Result: Level of stress strain curve increases and yield strength increases.
Two Phase Aggregates
Mechanism: Microstructural-level solid solution (dispersed structure) or particulate
additions (aggregated structures). Super saturation of particles in a matrix
where hard particles block slip in a ductile matrix and localized strain
concentration raise yield strength due to plastic constraint.
Result: Yield strength increases, hardness increases
Bounds on properties: Isostrain: m=p =c so c=Vp p +Vmm
Isostress: m=p =c so c=Vp p +Vmm

page 36 / 36
Strengthening Mechanisms (cont'd.)

Fiber Strengthening
Mechanism: Discrete fibers carry load and directional properties "toughen" composite.
Discrete matrix transmits load to fibers and protects fibers.
Result: High strength to weight ratio, directional properties
Bounds on properties: Isostrain: m=p =c so c=Vp p +Vmm
Isostress: m=p =c so c=Vp p +Vmm
Martensite Strengthening
Mechanism: Fine structure and high dislocation density provide effective barriers to slip
with C atoms strongly bound to dislocations and restrict dislocation motion.
Result: Hardness and strength increase
Cold Working
Mechanism: Strain hardening due to dislocations
interacting with barriers and other dislocations
to impede slip. As number of dislocations
increase the resistance to slip increases
(toughness increases)
Result: Energy required for plastic deformation increases
with increasing cold work. Strength increases
and ductility decreases.
Suts
Sys
%RA
%EL
Amount of Cold Work
Strain Hardening
Mechanism: Mutual obstruction of dislocations on intersecting slip systems through
interaction of stress field aid interpenetration of slip systems both of which
produce higher internal energy.
Result: Hardens alloys which do not heat treat harden. The "rate" of strain hardening is the
slope of the flow curve (true stress - true strain curve). Tensile behaviour
increases, density decreases (~0.2%), electrical conductivity decreases,
thermal coefficient increases, chemical reactivity increases.
Annealing of Cold Work
Mechanism: Hold at elevated temperature to cause annealing.
Recovery - short time - restores physical properties without change in
microstructure.
Recrystallization - longer time - cold worked microstructure is replaced with
new sets of strain free grains.
Grain growth - longest time - progressive increase in size of strain free grains.
Result: High internal energy due to cold work is relieved - material reverts to strain free
condition. Cold working is mechanically stable (shape) but not
thermodynamically so annealing restores ductility while retaining shape
changes of part.
Texture (Preferred Orientation)
Mechanism: Crystallographic fibering with reorientation of grains during deformation (e.g.
extrusion, rolling, etc.) Mechanical fibering with alignment of inclusions,
cavities, and secondary phases.
Result:
Anisotropy of mechanical properties (generally enhanced in texture direction)

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SOME SALIENT ASPECTS OF ME354

MECHANICS OF MATERIALS LABORATORY

Mechanics of Materials - a branch of mechanics that develops relationships

Some nomenclature used in these notes

SOME SALIENT ASPECTS OF ME354

Note: A + acts normal to a positive face in the positive coordinate direction

Units of Stress: In general:

SOME SALIENT ASPECTS OF ME354

x ' = x cos2 + y sin 2 + 2 xy cos sin or x ' =

x 'y ' = ( x y )cos sin + xy (cos2 + sin 2 ) or x 'y' =

SOME SALIENT ASPECTS OF ME354

Principal Normal Stress - maximum or minimum normal stresses acting in principal

Mohr's Circles for Stress States - graphical representation of stress

max for x-y plane

Mohr's circle for stresses in x-y plane

Mohr's circle for stresses in x-y-z planes

SOME SALIENT ASPECTS OF ME354

Graphical Description of State of

In this example all stresses acting in axial

2-D Mohr's Circle

As shown in Figs. 2 and 3, plotting actual

Fig. 2 - Directionality of shear

Fig. 3 - Plotting stress values on

Note that by the simple geometry of

SOME SALIENT ASPECTS OF ME354

The direction of physical angle, , is from

Fig. 4 - Orientation of physical element

Note that the sense (direction) of the

SOME SALIENT ASPECTS OF ME354

and a volume change results.

= ( = ) ' (for small angles ) and a shape change results.

Engineering shear strain,

Complete State of Strain: Six independent strain components

Units of Strain: In general:

SOME SALIENT ASPECTS OF ME354

displacements in x 'direction for Q to Q

x ' = x cos2 + y sin 2 + xy cos sin or x ' = x

= ( x y )cos sin + xy (cos2 + sin 2 ) or x 'y ' = x

y ' = x sin 2 + y cos2 xy cos sin or y ' = x

SOME SALIENT ASPECTS OF ME354

Principal Normal Strain - maximum or minimum normal strains acting in principal

Mohr's Circles for Strain States - graphical representation of strain

max /2 for x-y plane

Mohr's circle for strains in x-y-z planes

Mohr's circle for strains in x-y plane

Strain Gage Rosettes

SOME SALIENT ASPECTS OF ME354

Continuum Mechanics and Constitutive Relations

Elastic relation (1-D Hooke's Law) =E

Poisson's ratio, = - transverse

Poisson's ratio, = - lateral

SOME SALIENT ASPECTS OF ME354

Approximate flow curves

SOME SALIENT ASPECTS OF ME354

Von Mises (Distortional Energy)

SOME SALIENT ASPECTS OF ME354

Mohr's Circle for Uniaxial

Strain hardening ratio =

Energy absorption (energy/volume):

SOME SALIENT ASPECTS OF ME354

Table: Stress-strain definitions for tensile testing

SOME SALIENT ASPECTS OF ME354

SOME SALIENT ASPECTS OF ME354

Modulus of Rupture (maximum shear stress) : u =