CNG N TP MN EARTH MATERIALS

1. What are Earth Materials?

A. The Earth materials are rocks, minerals and soils
2. Definition of a mineral?
A. Naturally occurring - occurs in nature (not synthetic, ie not made in laboratory, e.g., synthetic
diamonds are not minerals); Inorganic (mostly) - not organic chemical (carbon-based compound, usually
produced by organisms). For example, plants + animals are not minerals; Solid - not liquid or gas (water
is not mineral, but glacial ice is mineral); Formed geologically; Definite (definable) chemical
composition - contains elements bonded together in definite proportions (and can write mineral chemical
formula), e.g., quartz SiO2, ratio of Si:O = 1:2; Crystal structure - Orderly arrangement of atoms. Glass
has random arrangement of atoms (no regular pattern = amorphous).
3. What determines the element that an atom belongs to?
a. The number of electrons
b. The number of neutrons
c. The number of protons
d. The number of shells or orbitals
e. All of the above
4. What kind of a silicate mineral is quartz?
a. Orthosilicate (single tetrahedra)
b. Single chain silicate
c. Double chain silicate
d. Sheet silicate
e. Framework silicate (three-dimensional networks)
5. What kind of a silicate mineral is plagioclase (a feldspar)?
a. Orthosilicate (single tetrahedra)
b. Single chain silicate
c. Double chain silicate
d. Sheet silicate
e. Framework silicate (three-dimensional networks)
6. Which of the following is an example of a ferromagnesian (mafic) silicate mineral?
a. Feldspar
b. Halite
c. Pyroxene
d. Kaolinite
e. Muscovite
7. Cementation of sedimentary rocks is the result of the chemical named:
a. Hydrochloric acid
b. Calcium carbonate
c. Sodium chloride
8. What mineral family does pyrite belong to?
a. Carbonates
b. Halides
c. Oxides
d. Silicates
e. Sulfide
9. Which mineral exhibits double refraction and reacts with dilute hydrochloric acid?
a. Biotite
b. Calcite
c. Halite
d. Magnetite
e. Talc

10. Name 2 examples of sheet silicates

A. For example, muscovite and biotite
11. Name 4 common carbonate minerals
A. For example, calcite, dolomite, siderite, and magnesite
12. What is an example of an oxide?
a. Anhydrite
b. Corundum
c. Sulfur
d. Magnetite
13. What are the common minerals called?
a. Rock-forming minerals
b. Sedimentary minerals
c. Igneous minerals
d. Abundant minerals
14. Which is a mineral?
a. Coal
b. Amber
c. Sugar
d. Salt
15. What makes a mineral a gem?
a. Its pearly luster
b. Its association with native elements
c. Its deep color
d. Its rarity and beauty
16. Definition of a rock?
A. Coherent
and relatively hard, naturally formed mass of mineral matter
C
17. What is the source of heat inside Earth that melts rocks into magma?
a. Geothermal energy
b. Other molten rocks
c. Earth's core is hotter for no reason
d. The decay of radioactive elements
18. What process explains why a molten magma often is a mix of molten rock and crystals?
a. Plate tectonics
b. Melting points
c. Bowen's reaction series
d. Partial melting
19. Igneous rocks such as basalt that cools quickly have crystals that are:
a. Small
b. Large
c. Non-existent
20. What kind of a silicate mineral is olivine (the main mineral in the earth's mantle)?
a. Orthosilicate (single tetrahedra)
b. Single chain silicate
c. Double chain silicate
d. Sheet silicate
e. Framework silicate (three-dimensional networks)
21. When magma cools quickly, __________ crystals form, and when it cools slowly, __________
crystals form
a. Large, large
b. Small, large

c. Shiny, dull
d. Broken, crystals
22. What is a rock with mineral grains too small to see with the unaided eye called?
a. Aphanitic
b. Glass
c. Phaneritic
d. Porphyritic
e. Tuff
23. What kind of a silicate mineral is muscovite (a mica)?
a. Orthosilicate (single tetrahedra)
b. Single chain silicate
c. Double chain silicate
d. Sheet silicate
e. Framework silicate (three-dimensional networks)
24. What is a rock with both large and microscopic mineral grains called?
a. Aphanitic
b. Glass
c. Phaneritic
d. Porphyritic
e. Tuff
25. What is a rock made of unordered atoms called?
a. Aphanitic
b. Glass
c. Phaneritic
d. Porphyritic
e. Tuff
26. Name 5 common minerals in the native element subclass
A. For example, gold, silver, diamond, sulfur, and platinum
27. Which term describes the composition of the earth's mantle?
a. Felsic
b. Intermediate
c. Mafic
d. Ultramafic
28. Which term describes the composition of a basalt?
a. Felsic
b. Intermediate
c. Mafic
d. Ultramafic
29. Which type of soil contains caliche due to minor leaching?
a. Laterite
b. Pedalfer
c. Pedocal
30. Sedimentary rocks are formed by the:
a. Weathering and erosion of rocks
b. Deposition, compaction and cementing of sediments
c. Solidification of molten rock such as lava
31. Which of the following is an example of a fossil?
a. A dinosaur bone
b. A leaf imprint
c. A marine worm burrow
d. All of the above

32. The name given to layers of sedimentary rock is:

a. Strata
b. Bedding
c. Deposition
d. Compaction
33. What process results in the exfoliation (concentric fracturing) of granite domes?
a. Dissolution
b. Frost wedging
c. Hydrolysis
d. Oxidation
e. Unloading
34. What is a rock with mineral grains that are all big enough to see with the unaided eye called?
a. Aphanitic
b. Glass
c. Phaneritic
d. Porphyritic
e. Tuff
35. Which of the following is correctly arranged in order of increasing grain size?
a. Silt, sand, gravel, clay
b. Clay, silt, sand, gravel
c. Silt, sand, clay, gravel
d. Silt, clay, sand, gravel
36. Which type of weathering creates clay minerals?
a. Dissolution
b. Frost wedging
c. Hydrolysis
d. Oxidation
e. Unloading
37. Give 5 examples of common sulphide minerals
A. For example, pyrite, chalcopyrite, galena, sphalerite, molybdenite
38. Which type of weathering produces cones of talus?
a. Dissolution
b. Frost wedging
c. Hydrolysis
d. Oxidation
e. Unloading
39. Marble is example of
a. Sedimentary rock
b. Metamorphic rock
c. Mineral
d. Silicate
40. Which types of weathering are significantly promoted by acid rain (two correct answers)?
a. Dissolution
b. Frost wedging
c. Hydrolysis
d. Oxidation
e. Unloading
41. Chemical weathering always results in the creation of what kind of minerals?
a. Felsic minerals
b. Mafic minerals
c. High-temperature minerals

d. Low-temperature minerals
e. Non-silicate minerals
42. Which term describes the composition of a granite?
a. Felsic
b. Intermediate
c. Mafic
d. Ultramafic
43. Which of these silicate minerals is likely to be chemically weathered most easily?
a. Augite (pyroxene)
b. Hornblende (amphibole)
c. K-feldspar
d. Kaolinite (clay)
e. Olivine
f. Quartz
44. Which of these silicate minerals is unlikely to be chemically weathered?
a. Augite (pyroxene)
b. Hornblende (amphibole)
c. K-feldspar
d. Kaolinite (clay)
e. Olivine
f. Quartz
45. Chemical weathering in a soil tends to create what shape of rock fragments?
a. Angular
b. Columnar
c. Cubic
d. Spheroidal
e. Tetrahedral
46. What is the definition of erosion?
a. The accumulation of sediment following transportation
b. The disintegration and decomposition of rocks at or near the earth's surface
c. The dissolution of soil components
d. The incorporation of and transportation of material by mobile agents such as water, wind, and ice
e. The transfer of rock material downslope under the influence of gravity
f. The washing out of fine soil components
47. What is the primary agent of sediment transportation from sites of weathering to sites of
deposition?
a. Glaciers
b. Gravity
c. Plants and animals
d. Rivers
e. Wind
48. Which weathering products, if present, are deposited first when a river reaches the ocean?
a. Clays in suspension
b. Dissolved ions
c. Pebbles
d. Sand grains
49. Which weathering products, if present, are not necessarily deposited when a river reaches the
ocean?
a. Clays in suspension
b. Dissolved ions
c. Pebbles

d. Sand grains
50. Soil that has been moved to a location away from its parent rock is called __________.
a. Residual soil
b. Soil profile
c. Organic-rich soil
d. Transported soil
51. Which type of weathering works most effectively on limestone?
a. Dissolution
b. Frost wedging
c. Hydrolysis
d. Oxidation
e. Unloading
52. Metamorphic rocks form deep inside Earth from other types of rocks. Which forces produce
metamorphic rocks?
a. Rain and snow
b. Extreme pressures, temperatures and fluids
c. Strong winds and earthquakes
53. What is the usual orientation of foliation?
a. Horizontal, the same as sedimentary beds
b. Vertical and parallel to stress
c. Vertical and perpendicular to stress
d. Random orientation
54. Where does most energy on Earth come from?
a. The Sun
b. The Moon
c. Coal
d. The decay of radioactive elements
55. Why do scientists interpret crude oil to have originated from once-living organisms?
a. Low levels of oxygen in ocean sediments preserved organic matter.
b. Crude oil is a mixture of organic compounds.
c. Sedimentary rocks associated with crude oil contain living organisms.
d. All of the above
56. How can coal be classified?
a. Geologic period during which it formed
b. Amount of pressure and time for formation
c. Type of biomass
d. Temperature of formation
57. Many different types of fossil fuels exist, but they all originated from __________.
a. Metamorphism and partial decomposition of plants
b. Ocean sediments
c. Organic matter trapped in sedimentary rocks
d. Anthracite coal
58. Which of the following energy resources is renewable?
a. Coal
b. Hydroelectric power
c. Natural gas
d. Nuclear energy
e. Petroleum
59. What determines the bonding properties of an element?
a. The number of protons in the nucleus

b. The number of neutrons in the nucleus

c. The number of electrons in the nucleus
d. The number of electrons in the outer shell
e. The total number of electrons
60. What is the concept that adding or removing a weight from the earth's crust causes it to depress
or rebound?
a. Continental drift
b. Isostasy
c. Plate tectonics
d. Rifting
e. Seafloor spreading
61. What type of coal burns the most efficiently?
a. Bituminous
b. Peat
c. Lignite
d. Anthracite
62. What name did Alfred Wegener give to his theory of horizontal crustal movements?
a. Continental drift
b. Isostasy
c. Plate tectonics
d. Rifting
e. Seafloor spreading
63. What weathering products are most easily transported by water?
a. Clays in suspension
b. Dissolved ions
c. Pebbles
d. Sand grains
64. What finally convinced geologists that the continents did move?
a. Dinosaur distributions
b. Lystrosaurus in Antarctica
c. Mantle convection
d. Paleomagnetism
e. The mid-Atlantic ridge
65. What is caused by the presence of trace elements in a mineral?
a. Luster
b. Hardness
c. Streak
d. Color
66. Minerals are:
a. Similar to rocks in the fact that they are made of minerals
b. Similar to rocks because they have 3 types: metamorphic, igneous, and sedimentary
c. Different than rocks because they are made of chemicals
67. A(n) __________ is a solid in which the atoms are arranged in repeating patterns
a. Atom
b. Crystal
c. Rock
d. Mineral
68. How do crystals of salt form?
a. From solution
b. From magma
c. In glacial ice

d. Inside caves
69. Salt and sulfur are common
a. Minerals
b. Crystals
c. Metamorphic rocks
d. Sedimentary rocks
70. Characteristics that are used to identify rocks and minerals:
a. Ore
b. Physical properties
c. Crystal structures
d. Chemical composition
71. Earth materials that become cemented and hardened form:
a. Igneous rock
b. Metamorphic rock
c. Sedimentary rock
d. Crystal
72. Name common physical properties of minerals
A. Color, streak, luster, hardness, specific gravity, crystal habit, crystal form, fracture, cleavage
73. Minerals are classified by:
a. Chemical composition
b. Crystal structure
c. Physical properties
d. All above
74. Name common minerals classes
A. Common mineral classes are silicates, oxides and hydroxides, native elements, carbonates, sulphates,
sulfides, halides, phosphates
75. Name 2 minerals belonging to the isolated tetrahedral subclass
A. For example, olivine and garnet
76. What do we call atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons?
a. Anions
b. Cations
c. Complex ions
d. Compounds
e. Isotopes
77. __________ is the way a mineral reflects light
a. Luster
b. Streak
c. Color
d. Cleavage
78. What is involved in covalent bonding?
a. The attraction between oppositely charged atoms
b. The attraction of the positive and negative poles of neutral molecules
c. The loose sharing of among all atoms in the substance
d. The sharing of electrons between specific atoms
e. All of the above
79. What is involved in ionic bonding?
a. The attraction between oppositely charged atoms
b. The attraction of the positive and negative poles of neutral molecules
c. The loose sharing of among all atoms in the substance
d. The sharing of electrons between specific atoms

e. All of the above

80. Definition of soil?
A. Layer of sediment (loose grains) and organic matter that covers most of Earth's surface, produced by
weathering (physical, chemical and biological processes that break down solid rock), can support plant
growth).
81. Which of the following is a required characteristic of minerals?
a. Inorganic solid
b. Naturally formed
c. Distinct chemical formula
d. Ordered arrangement of atoms
e. All of the above
82. What describes the way a mineral feels?
a. Texture
b. Luster
c. Streak
d. Hardness
83. A mineral is __________ if it can be mined for profit
a. An ore
b. A crystal
c. An igneous rock
d. A rock
84. A mineral's __________ is the color when it is powdered
a. Luster
b. Density
c. Hardness
d. Streak
85. Which rock is the fine-grained equivalent of granite (same composition but aphanitic)?
a. Andesite
b. Basalt
c. Obsidian
d. Rhyolite
86. Which rock is the coarse-grained equivalent of basalt (same composition but phaneritic)?
a. Diorite
b. Gabbro
c. Granite
d. Peridotite
e. Pumice
87. Which rock is the coarse-grained equivalent of andesite (same composition but phaneritic)?
a. Diorite
b. Gabbro
c. Granite
d. Peridotite
e. Pumice
88. What factor primarily controls the viscosity, and therefore the explosiveness, of a magma?
a. Dissolved gasses
b. Pressure
c. Silica content
d. Temperature
89. Which rock shown in the figure cooled the fastest?

a. Glassy
b. Coarse-grained
c. Fine-grained
d. Porphorytic
90. According to the figure, what types of minerals are ultramafic?

a. Feldspar and quartz

b. Feldspar and biotite
c. Amphibole and pyronene
d. Pyroxene and olivine
91. How are soil textures classified?
a. Acidity
b. Grain size
c. Horizon
b. Climate
92. Which type of soil develops in mid-latitude forests?
a. Laterite
b. Pedalfer
c. Pedocal
93. What rock is defined as having angular-shaped clasts?
a. Breccia
b. Conglomerate
c. Sandstone
d. Shale
e. Siltstone
94. Which sedimentary rock type is likely to be formed in the most offshore environment?
a. Conglomerate
b. Limestone
c. Sandstone
d. Shale
e. Siltstone
95. What separates layers of sedimentary strata?
a. Bedding plains

b. Cement
c. Cross beds
d. Graded beds
e. Ripple marks
96. What is coal made of?
a. Altered peat
b. Augite
c. Biotite
d. Hornblende
e. Olivine
97. Which sedimentary rock type is likely to be formed in the most offshore environment?
a. Conglomerate
b. Limestone
c. Sandstone
d. Shale
e. Siltstone
98. What term refers to the degree of uniformity of clast size in sedimentary rocks?
a. Compaction
b. Eluviation
c. Facies
d. Grading
e. Sorting
99. What type of weathering involves changes in the size or shape of the rock?
a. Physical weathering
b. Pressure weathering
c. Chemical weathering
d. Hydrolysis
100. How does temperature affect chemical weathering?
a. It affects the rate of weathering
b. It affects the amount of oxygen involved in weathering
c. It affects the type of weathering
d. It is an agent of weathering
101. What processes aid in the formation of sediments?
a. Weathering and metamorphism
b. Deposition and solidification
c. Weathering and erosion
d. Erosion only
102. Dissolution is an example of __________.
a. Limestone
b. Physical weathering
c. Erosion
d. Chemical weathering
103. What is the most likely way for rock at the bottom of the land in the figure to be exposed to
sunlight?

a. Weathering and erosion

b. Metamorphism
c. Intrusive cooling
d. Fossil digging
104. What type of metamorphism exhibits high temperature but low pressure?
a. Contact metamorphism
b. Fault zone metamorphism
c. Regional metamorphism
105. What type of metamorphism exhibits both high temperature and high pressure?
a. Contact metamorphism
b. Fault zone metamorphism
c. Regional metamorphism
106. In what plate tectonic setting does regional metamorphism usually take place?
a. Convergent plate boundaries
b. Divergent plate boundaries
c. Transform plate boundaries
d. Plate interiors
107. What is the most abundant pollutant from fossil fuel combustion?
a. Carbon monoxide
b. Nitrogen oxides
c. Particulates
d. Sulfur oxides
e. Volatile organics
108. What theory did magnetic anomalies on the seafloor give rise to?
a. Continental drift
b. Isostasy
c. Plate tectonics
d. Rifting
109. What is the current comprehensive theory of horizontal crustal movements?
a. Continental drift
b. Isostasy
c. Plate tectonics
d. Rifting
e. Seafloor spreading
110. What does plate tectonic theory predict about the distribution of volcanoes and earthquakes?
a. They should be evenly distributed throughout the earth
b. They should occur primarily along plate boundaries
c. They should occur primarily in deep ocean basins
d. They should occur primarily on continents
e. They should only occur along continental margins
111. What has become accepted as the primary mechanism for seafloor spreading?
a. Density differences in the crust

b. Gravitational and tidal forces

c. Mantle convection cells
d. The pole-fleeing force
e. Weight of seafloor sediments
112. What is a rock made of unordered atoms called?
f. Aphanitic
g. Glass
h. Phaneritic
i. Porphyritic
j. Tuff
113. What is the primary agent of sediment transportation from sites of weathering to sites of
deposition?
f. Glaciers
g. Gravity
h. Plants and animals
i. Rivers
j. Wind
114. Which of the following energy resources is renewable?
f. Coal
g. Hydroelectric power
h. Natural gas
i. Nuclear energy
j. Petroleum
115. Classification of rocks:
ROCKS
Sedimentary
Clastic

Chemical

Magmatic
Biologic

Intrusive

Extrusive

Metamorphic
Foliated

Non-foliated

116. What are the sciences of rocks, minerals and soils?

Petrology, Mineralogy and Pedology
117. The importance of rocks, minerals and soils
Natural Earth Resources (Minerals, Rocks, Energy, + Soil); Natural Earth Resources (Minerals, Rocks,
Energy, + Soil); Civil Engineering/construction projects; Geologic Hazards; Other environmental issues landfill/waste disposal (in some sort of earth material with low permeability clay liners), trace elements in
soils + rocks (e.g., Se, heavy metals) - can cause health problems; Earth history.
118. Earths Interior Layers
Crust
o Continental
o Oceanic
Mantle
o Upper
Lower
Core
o Outer - liquid
o Inner solid
119. The characteristics of 2 types of Earth crust
o Continental
Average rock density about 2.7 g/cm3

 Average thickness 35-40 km

Granitic in composition
o Oceanic
Density about 3.0 g/cm3
Avg. thickness 7-10 km
Basaltic in composition
120. What are the most abundant 8 chemical elements in the Earth crust?
Oxygen, silicon, aluminum, iron, calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium
121. What is polymorphism?
Minerals with same chemical composition but different crystal structures. Examples: diamond and
graphite C; calcite and and aragonite (CaCO3)
122. Name symmetry elements (parameters) in crystals
Mirror plane, rotation axis and center of symmetry
123. Name 7 crystal systems
Cubic, tetragonal, hexagonal, trigonal, orthorhombic, monoclinic and triclinic
124. Types of silicate structure
Independent (isolated) tetrahedra, double tetrahedra, ring silicates, single-chain silicates, double-chain
silicates, sheet silicates, framework silicates
125. What are the evidences of the plate tectonics?
They are:
The apparent fit of continents
Fossil correlation
Rocks and mountains correlation
Paleoclimate data
126. What are the names of 7 major plates on Earth?
They are:
Eurasian plate
African plate
Pacific plate
North American plate
South American plate
Antarctic plate
India-Australian plate
127. What are the driving forces of plate motions?
They are:
Convection in the asthenosphere
Ridge-push Elevated MOR pushes adjacent lithosphere
Slab-pull Gravity pulls a subducting plate downward
128. Name the 4 types of continental margins?
Atlantic-type (passive) margin
Andean-type (active) margin
Japan-type (back-arc) margin
California-type (transform) margin
129. What are the main four textures of igneous rocks?
- Coarse grain/ phaneritic texture (intrusive/plutonic rocks) - large, visible mineral grains
- Fine grain/ aphanitic - small mineral grains, barely seen or microscopic
- Porphyritic - large crystals surrounded by much smaller grains
- Volcanic Glass - amorphous (random arrangements), e.g., pumice, obsidian, and volcanic ash

130. Name the most typical examples of igneous rocks (both intrusive and extrusive equivalents)

Peridotite
Gabbro
Basalt
Diorite
Andesite
Granite
Rhyolite
131. What are the major textures of sedimentary rocks?
- Graded bedding
Cross-beds
Ripple marks
Mudcracks
132. The main groups of sedimentary rocks are:
a. Clastic sedimentary rocks
b. Inorganic chemical sedimentary rocks
c. Organic chemical sedimentary rocks
d. All the above groups
133. What are the controls of metamorphism?
- Parent rock
- Temperature
- Pressure
- Pore fluid
- Time
134. The types of metamorphism?
- Contact metamorphism
- Regional metamorphism
- Hydrothermal alteration
- Fault-zone metamorphism
- Shock metamorphism
135. Metamorphic rock classification?
Foliated:
- Slate
- Phyllite
- Schist
- Gneiss
Unfoliated:
- Quartzite
- Marble
- Hornfels
136. Importance of studying weathering + soils
A) Resource:
World depends on crops grown on soils (for many countries, soils are the greatest
resource).
Certain ore deposits involve weathering (Al-ore = laterite, + numerous others to a lesser
degree, e.g., Fe, Cu, Mn, Ni, + Ag).
B) Civil engineering:
Many buildings and other structures are built on soil (outermost layer of Earth), which
must be strong enough to support the weight of the building (the Leaning Tower of Pisa
was built on weak, compressible, clay-rich soil).
Soil hazards include swelling soils, liquefaction, landslides + sinkholes.
C) Building/monument degradation (acid rain) ancient buildings (e.g., Egyptian pyramids,
European cathedrals, Partheon in Greece) and other structures (Mt. Rushmore) are deteriorating
from weathering including effects of acid rain; weathering reactions in soils can neutralize acidity
to prevent acidification of streams + lakes.

D) Land use decisions - Is soil suitable for agriculture, urbanization, forestry, waste disposal, etc.?
E) Appreciation of landscape weathering produces some spectacular scenery (e.g., Monument
Valley in AZ, Bryce Canyon in UT).
F) Geology:
Soils are first step in formation of sedimentary rocks, weathering releases dissolves ions
into groundwater, rivers, + ocean (reason why ocean is salty);
Minerals in soils are related to climate (rainfall, temperature, etc.), paleosols (old soils
that have been buried and preserved in rock record) yield information on paleoclimates
(application to global change);
Knowing age of soil can allow determination of age of landforms or frequency of
geologic hazard (landslide);
Link to global climate (> weathering causes <CO2 in atmosphere + global cooling, <
weathering causes >CO2 in atmosphere + global warming).
137. Definition of weathering
Physical and chemical changes in a rock at Earth's surface due to action of water, air, plants, animals;
results in formation of weathering crust and soil.
138. Types of physical weathering:
Jointing
Frost wedging
Root wedging
Salt wedging
Thermal expansion
Animal activity
139. Common chemical weathering reactions
Dissolution
Oxidation
Hydrolysis
Hydration
140. Soil-Forming Factors
Climate Amount of water and warmth
Substrate composition Soil parent minerals
Slope steepness Soils develop best on low slopes
Drainage Wet soils are more organic-rich
Time Older soils are more developed
Vegetation Controls type of organic matter added
141. Soil horizons
Distinct horizons reflect soil-forming processes:
O Horizon Dark organic matter-rich surface layer.
A Horizon Organic and mineral matter.
E Horizon Transitional layer leached by organic acids.
B Horizon Organic-poor mineral rich layer.
C Horizon Slightly altered bedrock.
142. Difference between residual soil and transported soil:
Soil that remains at the place of formation is called residual soil. It is usually formed from
chemical or physical weathering and eventually covers the parent rock. the characteristics of
residual soil depends on the that of the parent rock.

The weathered pieces of rocks that have been carried by several agents like wind and water and
finally breaks down into further small pieces to settle down is called transported soil. They are
very fertile as they consist of minerals from a variety of transported rocks.
143. General Zonal Classification of soil:
Pedalfer - soil rich in clay minerals and Fe-oxides (i.e., rich in Al and Fe); characteristic
of humid, temperate regions e.g., eastern USA.
Pedocal (aridosol) - soil rich in calcite, characteristic of dry regions, e.g., desert SW USA,
evaporation concentrates salt and calcite, little leaching.
Laterite (oxisol) - highly leached soils characteristic of hot and humid tropical zones, only most
insoluble phases remain (Al- and Fe-oxides), usually brick red color; economic source of
Al (bauxite);unproductive after deforestation most nutrients are in plants not in soil, dries to
brick-like texture.
144. Factors controlling soil erosion:
Soil properties - soils with low cohesion (sandy soils) > erosion
Rainfall (climate) + vegetation - desert climates (low vegetation + brief heavy rainstorms) >
erosion; plants (especially trees) protect soil from impact of raindrops + plant roots bind soil
(world is currently experiencing problem of desertification - conversion of productive land to a
desert)
Wind - strong winds > erosion (usually strong winds in deserts)
Slope - steep slopes > erosion
Land use (human impact) - huge impact, many possibilities - construction can create massive
erosion (large areas are stripped of vegetation + exposed to erosive effects of rain + wind); Offroad vehicles can destroy plants, cause soil erosion, making it impossible for plants to return
(positive feedback); unreclaimed strip mines (now illegal); farming practice - tilling results in >>
soil erosion rates (no-till farming greatly reduces soil erosion rates), single cash crops (e.g., corn
only) can deplete soil nutrients quickly + produce erosion rates ~300 times those of grass- or
alfalfa-covered land.
145. How to reduce soil erosion?
Avoid disturbing (building on) problem areas; need soil surveying (mapping)
Good construction practice - build sediment traps (ditches or ponds to capture soil onsite); replant trees; build immediately and provide soil cover (e.g., straw) while building
Good crop planting practices - terracing (creating level areas in hill sides), crop rotation, no till
146. Classification of mineral resources according to their use: