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Chemistry
Reversible reactions
- Equillibrium is achieved when the forward and the backward reaction are equal. Therefore the
amount of reactants and products dont change.

- Le Chateliers principle states that whatever you do to a reversible reaction, it will do the opposite
through position of equilibrium. Therefore, if you change the conditions, the amount of reactants
and products change.
- If you raise the temperature of a reversible reaction, endothermic reaction is produced in
cool surroundings. E.g. for endothermic retain of yield of ammonia, best yield is in low
temperature, but slower reaction.

- If you increase the pressure on a reversible reaction, the reaction which forms fewer
molecules of gas is favoured, since this lowers pressure.

- If you remove one of the products then the forward reaction is favoured because it makes
more of that product.

- Catalysts dont alter the position of the equilibrium because they increase the rates of
forward and backward reactions equally.
- In ammonia, the mixture is cooled so that the ammonia liquifies and is removed. Unreacted
nitrogen and hydrogen is recycled.

Rates of Reactions
- Parts cant react unless they collide with enough energy, otherwise they just bounce off each
other.
- Activation energy is the minimum energy needed in order for a reaction to take place.
- Reaction rate is how quickly the amount of a substance is changing: e.g.

change in volume per second (cm3/s)

change in mass per second (g/s)
change in concentration per second (mol/s)

- You can change the rate of reaction by:

- Using a catalyst which creates a different reaction pathway with a lower activation energy.
- Having a higher temperature means the particles have more energy so they move faster
and collide more often. More of the collisions have the necessary activation energy.

- Changing pressure (for gases only) to a higher pressure means they are more likely to
collide/react.

- Changing concentrations of solutions means that the more concentrated it is, the more
dissolved particles there are. The particles are closer together, so are more likely to collide
and react.

- A reaction can take place only on the surface of the solid, so the greater total surface area
means an increased rate of reaction. Small sized pieces have a greater total surface area
than the same mass of bigger pieces. Therefore, more chance of liquid or gas particles
hitting the surface of smaller pieces.

Atom, Ion, Molecule

- Atom: have no overall electrical charge
- Ion: atoms that have lost or gained electrons in their outer shell, so that the ion has a full outer

shell. An ion cant live on its own.

- Molecule: more than one atom chemically bonded together, but has no charge and can exist on its
own.

Periodic Table
- Atomic Number: smaller number by element
- Mass Number: bigger number by element
- Number of electrons: the atomic number gives the number of electrons.
- Number of electron shells: the row (period) number gives the number of electron shells.
- Group 1: has alkali metals, which react very fast with water (effervescence, float, melts, flame).
Produces an alkaline solution. Reacts very rapid with oxygen too, to produce metal oxide. Soft
and low density (floating) metals, fast reaction with chlorine. All lose outer electron to form a
single positively charged ion when reacting, so they behave similarly.
- Group 2: all metals, similar reactions as group 1 but less vigorous

The further down group 1 & group 2, the more reactive it is, since its easier to lose an
electron. The outer electron gets further from the nucleus as you go down the group,
reducing the force of attraction and so the nucleus does not tightly hold the outer shell.

- Group 7: diatomic halogens, gas > liquid > solid further down group. The further down the

group, the darker the halogen is, with a higher melting and boiling point. Form ionic compounds
with metals (halide ion -1)

Fluorine is more reactive than chlorine because the atoms get bigger (in energy levels)
as you go down the group of halogens. This reduces the attraction between the energy
shells and nucleus so it is harder to gain the electron needed for a full outer shell
(shielding), therefore the further down the group, the less reactive it is.

- Group 0: colourless, odourless gases, inert, LMP + LBP (like non-metals), no electricity/heat
conducted, density increases down the group.

Noble gases are unreactive because they have full outer energy levels. The atoms are
fully stable so do not need to lose, gain or share electrons. Elements have monatomic
molecules and atoms never found in pairs.

Calculations

- Relative formula mass: mass of 1 molecule = add Ar of atoms/ions in that compound.

- Percentage composition:
1) Calculate Mr of compound

2) Calculate Ar of X in compound
3) Percentage of X =

- The mass of one compound needed to react with a known mass of another compound,
given the equation for the reaction: mass = moles x Mr (just rearrange that equation)

- Atom economy:

- Yield of a reaction:

Typical Reactions of Acids

- Acid + metal > salt + hydrogen (metals above lead in reactivity series)
- Acid + carbonate > salt + carbon dioxide + water
- Acid + base/alkali > salt + water
- Acid + steam > metal oxide + hydrogen
- Acid + water > metal hydroxide + hydrogen
- Metal + water > metal hydroxide + hydrogen

Alkalis
-

Alkalis are a soluble base (soluble hydroxides). A base neutralises an acid.

Alkalis produce hydroxide ions (OH-(aq)) in water.
A strong alkali contains a large number of hydroxide ions, when dissolving in water.
Neutralisation:

Acids in solution contain hydrogen ions, H+

Alkalis in solution contain hydroxide ions, OH-

Neutralisation can be written as an ionic equation: H+ + OH- H2O

- Also can be written as a balanced equation using periodic table.

Oxidation, Reduction, Electrolysis

- Reduction: element loses oxygen and gains electron (2+ > 0)

- Oxidation: element gains oxygen and loses electrons (0 > 2+)

- Electrolysis half equations: e.g.

1. Write the formulae of the reactant and product: Cl- Cl2

2. Adjust the number of ions, if needed: 2Cl- Cl2
3. Count the number of charges. Add enough electrons so that both sides have the same
total number of charges: 2Cl- Cl2 2e-

- E.g.: 2Br- Br2 + 2e- Cu2+ + 2e Cu

Bonding