Chapter 14

What are the differences between neurons and neuroglia? What are the
functions of both?

The Neuron

Neurons can also be classified by the direction that they send information.

Sensory (or afferent) neurons: send information from sensory receptors

(e.g., in skin, eyes, nose, tongue, ears) TOWARD the central nervous system.

Motor (or efferent) neurons: send information AWAY from the central
nervous system to muscles or glands.

There are several differences between axons and dendrites:

Axons

Take information away from the cell

body

Smooth Surface

Generally only 1 axon per cell

No ribosomes

Can have myelin

Branch further from the cell body

Dendrites

Bring information to the cell

body

Rough Surface (dendritic

spines)

Usually many dendrites per cell

Have ribosomes

No myelin insulation

Branch near the cell body

Longer axons are usually covered with a myelin sheath, a series of fatty cells
which have wrapped around an axon many times. These make the axon look like a
necklace of sausage-shaped beads. They serve a similar function as the insulation
around electrical wire.
At the very end of the axon is the axon ending, which goes by a variety of names
such as the bouton, the synaptic knob, the axon foot, and so on. It is there that the
electro-chemical signal that has travelled the length of the axon is converted into a
chemical message that travels to the next neuron.
Between the axon ending and the dendrite of the next neuron is a very
tiny gap called the synapse (or synaptic gap, or synaptic cleft)

The action potential

When chemicals contact the surface of a neuron, they change the balance of ions
(electrically charged atoms) between the inside and outside of the cell membrane.
When this change reaches a threshold level, this effect runs across the cell's
membrane to the axon. When it reaches the axon, it initiates the action potential,
which is a rapidly moving exchange of ions.
The surface of the axon contains hundreds of thousands of miniscule mechanisms
called ion channels. When the charge enters the axon, the ion channels at the
base of the axon allow positively charged ions to enter the axon, changing
the electrical balance between inside and outside. This causes the next
group of ion channels to do the same, while other channels return positive ions to
the outside, and so on all the way down the axon

 Describe what myelination is. In your description, include what cells

cause myelination, what a
node of Ranvier is, and what the advantage of myelination is.

DIFFERENCE BETWEEN MYELINATED AXON AND UNMYELINATED

Unmyelinated axons are short axons. They transmit signals slower than myelinated
axons.
Myelin sheaths serve to change the form of the action potential (electrical signal)
that transmits down the axon. If axons are myelinated, the action potential travels
via saltatory conduction. There are points all along these long, myelinated axons
where the myelin breaks and reveals the axon. These points are called the
Nodes of Ranvier. It is at these nodes that the signal is regenerated. Without
having a drawing it's hard to explain but the signal is basically going up and down
very fast and it helps the signal propagate faster. This is essential for long axons, for
example, the ones that go to your toes!
If axons are unmyelinated, the action potential is graded...it goes up then fizzles
out, which is fine for a short axon.

What creates the resting membrane potential? Is the cell negative or

positive on the inside?
If you are alert, you notice that both the sodium and the potassium ions are
positive. Neurons actually have a pretty strong negative charge inside them, in
contrast to a positive charge outside. This is due to other molecules called anions.
They are negatively charged, but are way too big to leave through any channel.
They stay put and give the cell a negative charge inside.
So, when an axon is at rest, the anions give it a negative charge, the
sodium pumps keep sodium out and potassium in, and the sodium gates
and potassium gates are all closed. Because of the positive-negative
difference between the inside and outside, this resting state is called a
resting potential. The word potential refers to the fact that there is a
potential for change here. We use the same term to refer to a battery
that is just sitting there, not connected to anything: It, too, has a resting
potential.
When changes occurring in the membranes of the dendrites and the body of the cell
reach the axon, the sodium gates respond: some of them open and let sodium ions
in, so that the inside starts to become less negative. If this reaches a certain level,
called a threshold, more sodium gates respond and let more ions in...
Then we have what is called the action potential -- a moving exchange of ions that
runs along the length of the axon. So many sodium ions get in that, for a very short
time, the difference between the outside and inside of the cell is actually reversed:

The inside is positive and the outside negative.

Then the situation changes: The sodium gates close and the potassium gates open
up. Potassium rushes out of the cell, which brings the charge inside the cell back
down to where it was -- negative on the inside, positive on the outside.
Notice, though, that the sodium is now inside the cell and the potassium is outside,
that is, they are in the wrong places. So, the sodium-potassium pumps get back to
work and pump the sodium back out and the potassium back in, and things are
back to where we started.
Now all this happens at one little segment of the axon at a time: Sodium goes in at
section one; that triggers the potassium to start going out at section one and the
sodium to start coming in at section two; that in turn triggers the potassium to go
out at section two and the sodium to come in at section three; and so on -- like a
row of dominos going down.

Define: depolarization; repolarization. Ion flow leads to both events.

Which ions cause each?
Depolarization is when a cell membrane's charge becomes positive to generate an action potential. This
is usually caused by positive sodium and calcium ions going into the cell.
Repolarization is when a cell membrane's charge returns to negative after depolarization. This is caused
by positive potassium ions moving out of the cell.

What is the purpose of neurotransmitters? Which cell makes them?

How do they get to the post-synaptic cell? How does our body get rid of
them?
When the action potential reaches the axon ending, it causes tiny bubbles of
chemicals called vesicles to release their contents into the synaptic gap. These
chemicals are called neurotransmitters. These sail across the gap to the next
neuron, where they find special places on the cell membrane of the next neuron

called receptor sites.

Ex. Acechyoline

Copyright 2012 Kelly Neary. Permission required for use.

Describe the structure of the spinal cord. What are ascending tracts?
What are descending tracts?

I. Ascending tracts carry sensory information from sensory organs up to

the spinal cord to the brain.
II. Descending tracts are motor tracts and are divided into two groups:
the pyramidal and the extrapyramidal systems.

What are gray and white matter and where are they located in the cord?

The white matter is everything surrounding the dorsal horn. think about it... gray matter is composed of
dendrites and cell bodies; the white matter is composed of axons and because the axons are usually
myelinated, the myelination is what gives the spinal cord it's WHITE color. sooo...imagine the white matter
around the gray matter as insulation...the same way myelination provide insulation by surrounding
axons :)

Describe the structure of the brain and all its parts. What is the
function of each region of the brain?
Parts of the Brain and Their Functions

Cerebrum
The cerebrum is the largest portion of the brain, and contains tools which are responsible for
most of the brain's function. It is divided into four sections: the temporal lobe, the occipital lobe,
parietal lobe and frontal lobe. The cerebrum is divided into a right and left hemisphere which are
connected by axons that relay messages from one to the other.
Frontal Lobe: This lobe controls a several elements including creative thought, problem solving,
intellect, judgment, behavior, attention, abstract thinking, physical reactions, muscle movements,
coordinated movements, smell and personality.
Parietal Lobe: this lobe focuses on comprehension. Visual functions, language, reading, internal
stimuli, tactile sensation and sensory comprehension will be monitored here.

Sensory Cortex- The sensory cortex, located in the front portion of the
parietal lobe, receives information relayed from the spinal cord regarding the
position of various body parts and how they are moving. This middle area of
the brain can also be used to relay information from the sense of touch,
including pain or pressure which is affecting different portions of the body.

Motor Cortex- This helps the brain monitor and control movement
throughout the body. It is located in the top, middle portion of the brain.

Temporal Lobe: The temporal lobe controls visual and auditory memories. It includes areas that
help manage some speech and hearing capabilities, behavioral elements, and language. It is
located in the cerebral hemisphere.

Wernicke's Area- This portion of the temporal lobe is formed around the
auditory cortex. While scientists have a limited understanding of the function
of this area, it is known that it helps the body formulate or understand
speech.

Occipital Lobe: The optical lobe is located in the cerebral hemisphere in the back of the head. It
helps to control vision.

Broca's Area- This area of the brain controls the facial neurons as well as
the understanding of speech and language. It is located in the triangular and
opercular section of the inferior frontal gyrus.

Cerebellum
This is commonly referred to as "the little brain," and is considered to be older than the cerebrum
on the evolutionary scale. The cerebellum controls essential body functions such as balance,
posture and coordination, allowing humans to move properly and maintain their structure.

What is the cortex of the cerebrum? What are the primary somatosensory
and motor areas?
How many cranial nerves are there? How many spinal nerves are there?
although it's backwards. There are 12 pairs (24) of cranial nerves and 31 pairs (62) of spinal nerves.

Which nervous system controls skeletal muscle? Which nervous system

controls cardiac muscle,
smooth muscle and glands?
Somatic and
ANS-Autonomic Nervous
System

A motor nervous system that controls glands, cardiac muscle, and smooth muscle

 What is the purpose of the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous

systems? Define antagonistic
as it relates to the autonomic nervous system.
The autonomic nervous system has two subdivisions, the

sympathetic nervous system and the

Parasympathetic nervous system.

The Sympathetic Nervous System

The neurotransmitter released by the postganglionic neurons is noradrenaline (also called
norepinephrine).
The action of noradrenaline on a particular gland or muscle is excitatory is some cases, inhibitory
in others. (At excitatory terminals, ATP may be released along with noradrenaline.)
The release of noradrenaline

stimulates heartbeat

raises blood pressure

dilates the pupils

dilates the trachea and bronchi

stimulates glycogenolysis the conversion of liver glycogen into glucose

shunts blood away from the skin and viscera to the skeletal muscles, brain,
and heart

inhibits peristalsis in the gastrointestinal (GI) tract

inhibits contraction of the bladder and rectum

and, at least in rats and mice, increases the number of AMPA receptors in the
hippocampus and thus increases long-term potentiation (LTP).

In short, stimulation of the sympathetic branch of the autonomic nervous system prepares the
body for emergencies: for "fight or flight" (and, perhaps, enhances the memory of the event that
triggered the response).
Activation of the sympathetic system is quite general because

The Parasympathetic Nervous System

Each preganglionic parasympathetic neuron synapses with just a few postganglionic neurons,
which are located near or in the effector organ, a muscle or gland. Acetylcholine (ACh)
is the neurotransmitter at all the pre- and many of the postganglionic neurons of the
parasympathetic system. However, some of the postganglionic neurons release nitric oxide
(NO) as their neurotransmitter.
Parasympathetic stimulation causes

slowing down of the heartbeat (as Loewi demonstrated)

lowering of blood pressure

constriction of the pupils

increased blood flow to the skin and viscera

peristalsis of the GI tract

In short, the parasympathetic system returns the body functions to normal after they have been
altered by sympathetic stimulation. In times of danger, the sympathetic system prepares the body
for violent activity. The parasympathetic system reverses these changes when the danger is over.
Autonomic Nervous System
Structure

Sympathetic Stimulation

Parasympathetic Stimulation

Iris (eye muscle) Pupil dilation

Pupil constriction

Salivary Glands

Saliva production reduced

Saliva production increased

Oral/Nasal
Mucosa

Mucus production reduced

Mucus production increased

Heart

Heart rate and force

increased

Heart rate and force decreased

Lung

Bronchial muscle relaxed

Bronchial muscle contracted

Stomach

Peristalsis reduced

Gastric juice secreted; motility

increased

Small Intestine

Motility reduced

Digestion increased

Large Intestine

Motility reduced

Secretions and motility increased

Liver

Increased conversion of
glycogen to glucose

Kidney

Decreased urine secretion

Adrenal medulla

Norepinephrine and
epinephrine secreted

Bladder

Wall relaxed
Sphincter closed

Increased urine secretion

Wall contracted
Sphincter relaxed

It should be noted that the autonomic nervous system is always working. It is NOT
only active during "fight or flight" or "rest and digest" situations. Rather, the
autonomic nervous system acts to maintain normal internal functions and works
with the somatic nervous system.

Chapter 15
List the different types of sensory receptors (all classifications). Give
examples of all.
What are the general senses? Describe the different senses and what
receptors are involved.
What are the special senses? Describe the different special senses and
what receptors are involved.
Define referred pain.
What are the five modalities of taste? Where are the modalities
generally found on the tongue? To
which taste modality are we most sensitive?
How is it that we have about 1000 odor receptor types but 1000s of
odorant modalities?
Describe the structures through which sound waves moves as they
make their way back to the
cochlea.
Describe the physiology of hearing. How is pitch encoded? What about
loudness?
What organs are involved in equilibrium? Describe their structure.
Explain the physiology of

equilibrium.
Describe the structures through which light moves as it makes its way
back to the retina of the eye.
How does our eye focus on images?
What are the two photoreceptor types? What type of light/images does
each respond to? Where on
the retina would they be found? What is the fovea?
After the photoreceptors are excited, where does the excitation go
next? Describe the transmission
of the signal back to the occipital cortex.

Vestibular System
All living organisms monitor their environment and one important aspect of that
environment is gravity and the orientation of the body with respect to gravity. In
addition, animals that locomote must be able to adjust their orientation with respect to
self generated movements, as well as forces that are exerted upon them from the
outside world.
The vestibular system performs these essential tasks. It engages a number of reflex
pathways that are responsible for making compensatory movements and adjustments
in body position. It also engages pathways that project to the cortex to provide
perceptions of gravity and movement.

Auditory Structure of middle and inner ear including names of auditory

ossicles.

The human ear is the anatomical structure responsible for hearing and
balance. The ear consists of three parts: the outer, middle, and inner ears.

The outer ear collects sounds from the environment and funnels them through
the auditory system. The outer ear is composed of three parts, the
pinna (or auricle), the external auditory canal (or external auditory
meatus), and the tympanic membrane (or eardrum).

Pinna
The two flap-like structures on either side of the head commonly called ears
are actually the pinnas of the outer ear. Pinnas are skin-covered cartilage, not
bone, and are therefore flexible. The lowest portion of the pinna is called the

lobe or lobule and is the most likely site for earrings. The pinnas of most
humans cannot move, but these structures are very mobile in cats and dogs.

External auditory canal

The external auditory canal is a passageway in the temporal lobe of the skull
that begins at the ear and extends inward and slightly upwards. In the adult
human it is lined with skin and hairs and is approximately 1 in (2.5 cm) long.
The outer one-third portion of the canal is lined with a membrane containing
(ear wax producing) cells, and hair cells. Wax protects eardrums
Tympanic membrane/eardrum
The human tympanic membrane or eardrum is a thin, concave membrane
stretched across the inner end of the external auditory canal much like the
skin covering the top of a drum. The eardrum marks the border between the
outer ear and middle ear. The eardrum serves as a transmitter of sound by
vibrating in response to sounds traveling down the external auditory canal,
and beginning sound conduction in the middle ear.
The middle ear transmits sound from the outer ear to the inner
ear. The middle ear consists of an oval, air-filled space approximately 2 cubic
cm in volume. The middle ear can be thought of as a room, the outer wall of
which contains the tympanic membrane. The back wall, separating the middle
ear from the inner ear, has two windows, the oval window and the round
window. There is a long hallway leading away from the side wall of the room,
known as the eustachian tube. The brain lies above the room and the jugular
vein lies below. The middle ear is lined entirely with mucous membrane
(similar to the nose) and is surrounded by the bones of the skull.
Bones/ossicles and muscles
Three tiny bones (the ossicles) in the middle ear form a chain which
conducts sound waves from the tympanic membrane (outer ear) to the oval
window (inner ear). The three bones are the hammer (malleus), the anvil
(incus), and the stirrup (stapes). These bones are connected and move as a
link chain might, causing pressure at the oval window and the transmission
of energy from the middle ear to the inner ear. Sound waves cause the

tympanic membrane to vibrate, which sets up vibrations in the ossicles, which

amplify the sounds and transmits them to the inner ear via the oval windows.
The inner ear is responsible for interpreting and transmitting
sound (auditory) sensations and balance (vestibular) sensations to
the brain. The inner ear is small (about the size of a pea) and complex in
shape, where its series of winding interconnected chambers, has been
compared to (and called) a labyrinth. The main components of the inner
ear are the vestibule, semicircular canals, and the cochlea.
Vestibule
The vestibule, a round open space which accesses various passageways, is the
central structure within the inner ear. The outer wall of the vestibule contains
the oval and round windows (which are the connection sites between the
middle and inner ear).
Internally, the vestibule contains two membranous sacs, the utricle and the
saccule, which are lined with tiny hair cells and attached to nerve fibers, and
serve as the vestibular (balance/equilibrium) sense organs.

Semicircular canals
Attached to the utricle within the vestibular portion of the inner ear are three
loop-shaped, fluid filled tubes called the semicircular canals. The semicircular
canals are named according to their location ("lateral," "superior," and
"posterior") and are arranged perpendicular to each other, like the floor and
two corner walls of a box.
The semicircular canals are a key part of the vestibular system and
allow for maintenance of balance when the head or body rotates.

Cochlea
The cochlea is the site of the sense organs for hearing. The cochlea
consists of a bony, snail-like shell that contains three separate
fluid-filled ducts or canals.
The organ of Corti lies along the entire length of the basilar membrane. The
organ contains hair cells and is the site of the conversion of sound waves into
nerve impulses, which are sent to the brain, for auditory interpretation along
cranial nerve VIII, also known as the auditory nerve.

KEY TERMS
.........................................

Auricle
Also called pinna or external ear, is the flap-like organ on either side
of the head.
Cochlea
A snail-shaped structure in the inner ear which contains the
anatomical structures responsible for hearing.
Eustachian tube
A passageway leading from the middle ear to the nasopharynx or
throat.
External auditory canal
Also called a meatus is the tunnel or passageway which begins from
the external ear and extends inward towards the eardrum.
Organ of Corti
A structure located in the scala media of the cochlea, contains hair
cells responsible for hearing.
Ossicles
Three tiny, connected bones located in the middle ear.
Stapedius muscle
A muscle located in the middle ear which reflexively contracts in
response to loud sounds.
Tympanic membrane
Also known as the eardrum, is a thin membrane located at the end of
the external auditory canal, separates the outer ear from the middle ear.

Vestibular system
System within the body that is responsible for balance and
equilibrium.
Passage of sound waves from tympanic membrane to production of nerve
impulses. Neurotransmitter
The creation and travel of sound is the starting point for the mechanism of hearing.
Sound travels to the ear, and then to the brain stem and the cerebral cortex (in the
brain) to interpret sound.

Before we can hear anything, a sound must be generated. Whether the sound is
someones voice, a siren, or thunderclap, vibrations are created. These vibrations
can travel through air, metal, water, wood, etc. This concept functions the same
way human vocal cords vibrate to create the sounds that we use to generate
speech.

The vibrations exist in a wave form that eventually make it to our ears. The wave
that is created is important to how we will perceive the sound.

The external ear acts as a funnel for sounds. Sound travels inside the ear to
the tympanic membrane(eardrum). The sound waves that come into contact with
the tympanic membrane are converted into vibrations that are sensed by a group of
tiny bones, known as the middle ear ossicles. They are comprised of the malleus
(hammer), incus (anvil) and stapes (stirrup). The malleus is the first to conduct the
vibration, which then continues through the incus and ends at the stapes, which is
in contact with the oval (vestibular) window, which separates the middle ear from
the inner ear.

The function of the inner ear starts when conduction of the sound wave reaches the
oval window. The sound wave then travels through the cochlea, which looks like a
snails shell. The cochlea is divided into three fluid-filled chambers. Different
chambers are receptive to different frequencies. The signal then goes into the
cochlear duct causing vibration of endolymph (a specialized fluid) where the signal

is converted into an electrical impulse that is transferred to the cochlear and

vestibular nerves.
The cochlea ends at the round window, where the sound wave is finally dispersed as
hydraulic pressure. The medulla oblongata (lower portion of the brainstem) receives
signals from the vestibulocochlear nerve at different timing and strength intervals
depending on where the sound is coming from, the way the head is turned, and the
distance of the sound. The difference in timing and intensity is important in
providing a 3-dimensional aspect to sound.
The brainstem sends the signal to the midbrain and then subsequently to
the auditory cortex of the temporal lobes of the brain where the electrical
impulses are interpreted as the sounds that we experience.

Define refraction, accommodation, visual acuity.

Rods and cones:

I believe cones are centered in the fovea and are sensitive to color, rods are in the periphery of the eye
and are sensitive to differences in light and also movement, this is why we are able to see movement well
in our peripheral vision.

Refraction:
There is a converging lens in your eyes which refracts/bend the incoming lights sharply to a point onto
your retina. If your light rays are dispersed, the image you see would be blur instead of being clear. (Need
glasses to correct it)

What is accommodation?
Accommodation is to change the focal length of the lens by changing the curvature of the eye lenses.
Why does our eye need accommodation? Normally, when our ciliary muscles are relaxed, parallel rays
form distant objects will converge onto the retina. If our eye is maintained at the above state, and a near
object is put before it, light rays will converge behind the retina. As the sharp image is behind the retina,
our brain can only detect a blurry image.

One's visual acuity is an indication of the clarity or clearness of one's vision. It is a measurement of how
well a person sees

Layers of the retina. Effect of light on retina (fig 10.41)

Cornea: The transparent part of the eyeball which covers the

iris and pupil. A tear film normally coats the cornea, keeping the
eye moist. Directly behind the cornea is the aqueous chamber,
which is filled with a clear fluid for the purpose of maintaining
the pressure of the eye.
Iris: The colored diaphragm in the anterior chamber of the eyeball which
contracts and expands to adjust for light intensity.
Pupil: The opening in the center of the iris through which light passes.
Lens: The transparent, dual-convex body which focuses light rays onto the
retina. It is normally capable of changing shape to allow the eye to focus on
both near and distant images.

Retinal Cell Layers: The membrane on the inner wall of the eyeball which
receives the image from the lens and converts it into nerve impulses.
Vitreous Gel: A clear jelly-like substance which fills the posterior chamber of
the eyeball. Normally attached to the retina, it can become detached in clumps
or strings, called "floaters," which are usually harmless, but can cast annoying
shadows on the retina.
Fovea: The center of the retina. The region of highest visual acuity and cone
cell density.
Macula: The area in and around the fovea. Made up mostly of cone cells, it is
responsible for central vision and contains the fovea. The macula is less than 5%
of the total retina.
Sclera: The white, dense, fibrous outer coating of the eyeball.
Optic nerve: Transmits nerve impulses from the retinal cell layers to the brain.

The Retinal Layers

Light first enters the optic (or nerve) fiber layer and the ganglion cell layer,
under which most of the nourishing blood vessels of the retina are located. This
is where the nerves begin, picking up the impulses from the retina and
transmitting them to the brain.
The light is received by photoreceptor cells called rods (responsible for
peripheral and dim light vision) and cones (providing central, bright light, fine
detail, and color vision). The photoreceptors convert light into nerve impulses,
which are then processed by the retina and sent through nerve fibers to the
brain. The nerve fibers exit the eyeball at the optic disk (Also the blind
spot) and reach the brain through the optic nerve.

The Retina

This is a view of the retina at the back of the eyeball. The retina, which lines
the inside of the eyeball, is essentially transparent, so a doctor can see through
all of the layers to the choroid. The choroid is where the blood vessels are
located, which give the retina it's reddish hue. This also explains why "red eye"
often occurs in photographs.
The retina captures light like the film in a camera. Film, however, is different, in
that it is just as sensitive at its edge as in its center. Only the center of the retina,
the macula, can see fine detail.

Chapter 12
Define: pathogen; microbe; contagious; infectious
Describe the structure of the different types of pathogens: bacteria;
viruses; protozoa; worms; fungi;
prions.
What are the four mechanisms of pathogen transmission? Give
examples of each.
What are the first line of defense mechanisms? Describe all. Include in
your discussion any cells or
chemicals involved.

 What
are the
second line
of defense

mechanisms? Describe all. Include in your discussion any cells

or chemicals involved.
Define: antigen; antibody
What is the third line of defense? What are the two basic types of
lymphocytes? Where are they
created? Where does each of them mature? What type is good for
bacterial infections? What type
is good for viral infections or tumors?
Describe the structure of an antibody. What are the five classes of
antibodies? Which class is the
most common during an active infection? Which class is the culprit behind
allergies? What is the
role of antibodies in immunity?
Copyright 2012 Kelly Neary. Permission required for use.
What are the sub-types of the lymphocytes? What is the specific role of
each?
Chapter 15 The Immune System

The immune system is composed of two major subdivisions, the innate or nonspecific immune system and the adaptive or specific immune system

The adaptive immune system requires some time to react to an invading organism,
whereas the innate immune system includes defenses that, for the most part, are
constitutively present and ready to be mobilized upon infection.

Second, the adaptive immune system is antigen specific and reacts only with the
organism that induced the response. In contrast, the innate system is not antigen
specific and reacts equally well to a variety of organisms.

Finally, the adaptive immune system demonstrates immunological memory. It

remembers that it has encountered an invading organism and reacts more rapidly
on subsequent exposure to the same organism. In contrast, the innate immune
system does not demonstrate immunological memory.

The immune system is made up of a network of cells, tissues, and organs that work together to
protect the body. The cells involved are white blood cells, or leukocytes, which come in two
basic types that combine to seek out and destroy disease-causing organisms or substances.
Leukocytes are produced or stored in many locations in the body, including the thymus,
spleen, and bone marrow. For this reason, they're called the lymphoid organs.
There are also clumps of lymphoid tissue throughout the body, primarily as lymph nodes, that
house the leukocytes.
The leukocytes circulate through the body between the organs and nodes via lymphatic vessels
and blood vessels. In this way, the immune system works in a coordinated manner to monitor the
body for germs or substances that might cause problems.

Innate Mechanisms:

Self/non-self-recognition (PAMPs)
Cells distinguish self from nonself using pathogen-associated molecular patterns
(PAMPs)

Pathogens, especially bacteria, have molecular structures that

are not shared with

their host;

are shared by many

related pathogens;

are relatively
invariant; that is, do
not evolve rapidly

The key to a healthy

immune system is its
remarkable ability to
distinguish between the bodys own cells, recognized as self, and foreign cells, or
nonself. The bodys immune defenses normally coexist peacefully with cells that
carry distinctive self marker molecules. But when immune defenders encounter
foreign cells or organisms carrying markers that say nonself, they quickly launch
an attack.

Anything that can trigger this immune response is called an antigen. An antigen can
be a microbe such as a virus, or a part of a microbe such as a molecule. Tissues or
cells from another person (except an identical twin) also carry nonself markers and
act as foreign antigens. This explains why tissue transplants may be rejected.
Physical

The two basic types of leukocytes are:

1. phagocytes, cells that chew up invading organisms (Innate)
2. lymphocytes, cells that allow the body to remember and recognize previous
invaders and help the body destroy them (Adaptive)

A number of different cells are considered phagocytes. The most common type is the neutrophil,
which primarily fights bacteria. If doctors are worried about a bacterial infection, they might
order a blood test to see if a patient has an increased number of neutrophils triggered by the
infection. Other types of phagocytes have their own jobs to make sure that the body responds
appropriately to a specific type of
invader.

Proteins (interferons and

complement)
Interferon Antiviral
Protein made by cells infected with
a virus

 Interferes with the ability of other viruses to infect healthy neighbor cells
Alpha, beta, gamma interferon (IFN-, , )
Complement plasma proteins
Pokes a hole in bacterial PMs
Activated when antibodies bind to pathogen cells
Natural killer (NK) cells
Indiscriminate killing
machines
Kill any foreign-appearing
cell
Adaptive Immunity
Triggered at the same time, but
takes longer to work
Much more targeted against
(and thus more effective at
clearing) the pathogen
Body also remembers each type of pathogen so subsequent reinfection is not as bad
Two major components of adaptive immunity
1. B cells
2. T cells
The two kinds of lymphocytes are B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes. Lymphocytes start out in
the bone marrow and either stays there and matures into B cells, or they leave for the thymus
gland, where they mature into T cells.
B lymphocytes and T lymphocytes have separate functions: B lymphocytes are like the body's
military intelligence system, seeking out their targets and sending defenses to lock onto
them. T cells are like the soldiers, destroying the invaders that the intelligence system has
identified.

When antigens (foreign substances that invade the body) are detected, several types of cells work
together to recognize them and respond. These cells trigger the B lymphocytes to produce
antibodies, specialized proteins that lock onto specific antigens.
Once produced, these antibodies continue to exist in a person's body, so that if the same
antigen is presented to the immune system again, the antibodies are already there to do
their job. So if someone gets sick with a certain disease, like chickenpox, that person
typically doesn't get sick from it again.
This is also how immunizations prevent certain diseases. An immunization introduces the body
to an antigen in a way that doesn't make someone sick, but does allow the body to produce
antibodies that will then protect the person from future attack by the germ or substance that
produces that particular disease.
Although antibodies can recognize an antigen and lock onto it, they are not capable of
destroying it without help. That's the job of the T cells, which are part of the system that
destroys antigens that have been tagged by antibodies or cells that have been infected or
somehow changed. (Some T cells are actually called "killer cells.") T cells also are involved
in helping signal other cells (like phagocytes) to do their jobs.
Antibodies also can neutralize toxins (poisonous or damaging substances) produced by different
organisms. Lastly, antibodies can activate a group of proteins called complement that are also
part of the immune system. Complement assists in killing bacteria, viruses, or infected cells.
All of these specialized cells and parts of the immune system offer the body protection against
disease. This protection is called immunity.

Adaptive: B cells

Humoral: Immunity involving soluble antibodies)

Antibodies - specificity
Clonal selection
Plasma cells and memory cells
Combats extracellular pathogens

B cells
develop from hematopoietic stem cells (bone marrow)
secrete ANTIBODIES that bind to specific ANTIGENS from pathogen
can differentiate into PLASMA CELLS or MEMORY CELLS

Adaptive: T cells

3 types
Actions of each
CD4+ and CD8+
MHC class 1 and 2
Infection of CD4+ cells with HIV
Intracellular pathogens (Tcyt cells)

T cells
develop from thymus
helper T cell (TH), cytotoxic T cell (TC),
regulatory T cell (Treg)
support other parts of immune system by
releasing cytokines; TC cells kill virusinfected host cells
Helper T cells
help activate B cells, keep high response level via cytokines
Cytotoxic T cells
seek out and destroy infected host cells
Regulatory T cells

put the brakes on adaptive immune response

Active and passive immunity

Active immunity is a form of immunity that develops after a primary immune
response which is a response to exposure to a live pathogen and development of
symptoms. The cells produce the antibodies themselves.
Passive immunity is a form of immunity in which a person's cells do not produce
the antibodies; they receive them by an injection of antibodies or antitoxin.

Primary and Secondary Responses:

Primary immune response refers to the first encounter of your immune system
with a virus or bacteria. When this happens, naive T cells and B cells are activated
and form memory cells. This process takes a week or so, which allows you to get
sick and not feel well, but these cells eventually clear the pathogen from your body.
A secondary immune response refers to a re-encounter of the same
virus/bacteria against which you have memory T cells and B cells. since the memory
cells have seen the bug before, they can respond very rapidly and robustly,
preventing you from feeling sick.
Vaccines artificially mimic a virus/bacteria/parasite to generate a primary
immune response without making you sick, so that you can generate a
rapid secondary immune response to the bug the first time you get it.

Allergies (Hypersensitivity)

An allergy is an overreaction of your immune system to something that is foreign to

your body, but may not be dangerous to other healthy individuals. People can be
allergic to pollen, mold, antibiotics, food such as peanuts or shellfish, or any number
of other things in our environment.

When exposed to an allergen, your immune system generates an inflammatory

response, giving you symptoms like a runny nose, itch, or rash. Scratching and
sneezing might be uncomfortable, however in other situations, an allergic reaction
can be life threatening. Individuals with severe allergies can develop an
anaphylactic reaction after exposure to an allergen, which can cause trouble
breathing and a sudden drop in blood pressure, and often requires immediate
medical attention.

1. Immediate hypersensitivity
Abnormal B cell response to allergen

2. Delayed Hypersensitivity
Abnormal T cell response

symptoms 2472 hours after exposure

caused by secretion of lymphokines,

More information on T-CELL AND B-CELLS.

Lymphocytes

Lymphocytes are a type of white blood cell. There are two types of lymphocytes of the acquired
immune system: T cells and B cells. There is a third type
of lymphocyte known as natural killer (NK) cells, but
these are a part of the innate immune system.
T cells: Mediated immunity
T cells account for about 80% of all lymphocytes. They
are named T cells because they mature in the thymus, a
gland found in the chest. There are three types of T cell
lymphocytes:

Cytotoxic T cells

Suppressor T cells

Helper T cells

These cells all play a role in the direct destruction of problem cells in the body, such as cells
infected with a virus, or cells with DNA damage (e.g. some cancer cells).
T cell production
T cells start out as stem cells (early types of cells that have not yet fully grown) and are produced
by bone marrow. To mature, these stem cells move to the thymus, where they can stay for up to
three weeks. About 99% of T cells do not make it to maturity. This is because the body is
very selective about what T cells are produced so that they do not cause damage to the
body's own cells. In the thymus, the T cells are given T cell receptors, of which there are
several types. The type of receptor received determines what type of T cell it will be, what
its role is, and which cells it can interact with.
T cell function
T cells function both through the release of substances into the blood, and by signaling B cells
through contact. They have several different roles:

Signaling for growth and activation of B cells

Activation of cells that can 'eat' foreign substances

Stimulation of cytotoxic T cells during a viral infection

Signaling growth in cells, including other T cells, macrophages and

eosinophils

T cell activation
T cells cannot detect foreign substances without assistance, and require a complex system to help
them work. They need the help of cells called antigen presenting cells (APCs). These cells
will eat the foreign substance, be it a bacteria, virus-infected cell or toxin, break it down, and
present part of it to the T cell so that it can mount a response. APCs have a special type of
molecule on their surface that allows them to communicate with helper T cells. Once a
response is activated, lots and lots of T cells of different types are released into the blood
stream. The released cells are responsible for the destruction of the foreign substance.
Helper T cells

Helper T cells are by far the most common T cell. They make up more than three quarters
of the T cell population.
Helper T cells help the immune system in many different ways, and serve as a major regulator
of virtually all immune functions in the body. They mainly act through the release of substances
that help control the other parts of the immune system. These substances (called
lymphokines) stimulate the other types of T cells to grow and attack. They also help B cells
grow and mature into their active form.
In acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS), there is a loss of helper T cells, leaving
the body open to infection. Also, due to the influence of helper T cells on B cells, B cells may
be inactive in cases where the T cells are damaged.
Cytotoxic T cells
Cytotoxic T cells are important in defending against virally infected cells, in the rejection of
tissue grafts, and in the immune response to certain tumour types. Cytotoxic T cells require
activated APCs, and rely on the presence of helper T cells.
Following activation by helper T cells, cytotoxic T cells prepare for the destruction of their
target. Inside the cells, substances are formed which are incredibly dangerous to cells. They
create a protein called perforin, named because it has the ability to 'perforate' infected cells
by punching holes in them. Cytotoxic T cells can also release enzymes that destroy the cell
structure.
To destroy a cell, a cytotoxic T cell first latches on to it, then releases the
aforementioned substances directly onto the cell. Consequently, there is no damage to any other
cell that happens to be nearby. The released substances cause the cell to self-destruct rather than
explode. Thus, if there are any viral particles in the cell, they will be destroyed with the cell
rather than be released to spread. After the cell is destroyed, the cytotoxic T cell can detach itself
and leave to destroy other infected or otherwise damaged cells.
Suppressor T cells
Suppressor T cells are, as the name suggests, capable of suppressing the functions of both helper
and cytotoxic T cells.
It is believed that suppressor cells function as regulators of the other cells of the immune system,
stopping them from causing excessive damage to the body's own tissues. It is probable that
suppressor T cells play an important role in protecting against autoimmune attack.
B cells: Humoral immunity

B cells account for 1015% of circulating lymphocytes. They are called B cells because they
were first discovered to mature in the 'bursa of Fabricius' organ in birds. Humans no longer have
this organ, and so B cell maturation now takes place in human bone
marrow. B cells circulate around the body in the blood stream.
When activated, they release huge amount of antibodies.
B cell production
B cells start out as the same type of stem cell as the T cells.
Instead of moving to the thymus, however, B cells move to bone
marrow to mature. There they are given cell receptors, and are
then released into the blood. Once released, they move to the
lymphoid tissue of the body, where they are located nearby, but
distinctly separate from, the T cells.
The production of B cells involves some incredibly complex
genetics that is not worth speaking about here. Generally, imagine
that the body has an enormous pile of building blocks with which to make something that will
recognise a foreign substance. These building blocks can be placed together in millions of
different combinations, and each will be able to recognise a certain substance. The body makes
almost all possible combinations in the form of immunoglobulins and places them onto the
surface of B cells, allowing them to recognise foreign substances.
B cell function
B cells play two major roles in the protection of the body:

Ensuring antibody production against the appropriate target antigen; and

Presenting antigens to T cells and providing signals for T cell activation.

B cell activation
The majority of B cell activation takes place in the lymph nodes. Certain types of cells in the
lymph nodes eat anything foreign and present them to B and T cells. Any B cell that shares a
receptor for this substance will be activated and start to multiply. B cells can also be activated by
helper T cells. After activation, active B cells migrate around the body and change into plasma
cells.
Plasma cells

Plasma cells are B cells that remain committed to the production and secretion of a single
antibody type. This secretion gives rise to the antibodies found in the circulation. Immunity is
kept for as long as the plasma cell continues to secrete antibodies.
Memory B cells
Memory B cells can also be formed after stimulation. These cells migrate to the lymph
nodes, where they remain ready for further rounds of activation should the specific antigen
ever be encountered again. If it is, then a very quick response can be made because memory
B cells are ready and waiting to multiply.

Summary!
B cells produce antibodies, known as humoral immunity

Protection by antibodies can be acquired from infection

(active immunity) or by acquistion of antibodies from
another person (passive immunity)

Cell mediated immunity involves T cells

T-cells

1. Three types of T cells: helper (CD4+), cytotoxic (CD8+) and regulatory.

2. Helper T cells secrete interleukins which activate both B cells and cytotoxic T
cells.
3. Cytotoxic T cells destroy infected cells.
4. Antigens are presented to T cells cells via the MHC molecules
5. Tumor cells are usually combated by cytotoxic T cells or natural killer cells
6. Diseases of the immune system include autoimmune diseases and allergies