III.B.

5 Stability Analysis with G( j )

Contour Mapping
- F(s) is any function of complex variable s
- s is any contour in s-plane
- Contour F formed by mapping every point si on s
to become a point F(si ) in F(s)-plane
F(s)-plane
S-plane

F(s)

F(s1)

F(s2)
Contour s

Contour F

- Convention: clockwise as +ve direction

Testing #1
Zero
of H1(s)

s
2j

H1(s)

-2

-3

H1(s) (s 3)
2j

2
-2j

-2j

H1(A)

H1(B)

H1(D)
H1(C)
Contour H
1

Contour s

If Contour s does not encircle any zero or pole of the mapping function H1(s)
mapped contour H encircles origin of H 1 ( s ) -plane 0 times
1

Testing #2
s
A
Zero of
H1(s)
-2

2j

-1

H1(s)
H1(A) 2j

-1

H1(B)

3
-2j

-2j
D

H1(s) (s 1)

H1(D)

Contour s

H1(C)

Contour H
1

If Contour s encircles 1 zero of the mapping function H1(s)

mapped contour H encircles origin of H 1 ( s )-plane +1 times
1

Testing #3

s
2j

H1(s)

Pole
of H1(s)
-2

H1(s)

1
s

H1(D)

0.25j

-0.25

0.25
-0.25j

H1(A)

H1(B)

-2j
D

H1(C)

Contour H
1

Contour s
If Contour s encircles 1 pole of the mapping function H1(s)

mapped contour H encircles origin of H 1 ( s ) -plane -1 times

1

Testing #4
s
A

2j

H1(s)

H1(s)
-2

-1

(s 1)
s

0.25j

H1(D)

H1(C)
1.5

0.5
-0.25j

H1(A)

H1(B)

-2j
D

Contour H
1

Contour s
If Contour s encircles 1 zero and 1 pole of the mapping function H1(s)

mapped contour H encircles origin of H 1 ( s )-plane (+1) + (-1) = 0 times

1

Testing #5

H1(s)

s
A

2j

H1(s)
-2

(s 1)
(s 1)2 1

-1

H1(D)

H1(A)

H1(C)
H1(B)

-2j
D

C
Contour s

Contour H
1

If Contour s encircles 1 zero and 2 pole of the mapping function H1(s)

mapped contour H encircles origin of H 1 ( s )-plane (+1) + (-2) = -1 times
1

 Principle of the Argument (Cauchys Theorem):

If s encloses Z zeros and P poles of F(s), and
not passes through any zeros and poles of F(s),
then contour F encircles the origin of the F(s)-plane
N = (Z - P) times
F(s)-plane
S-plane

F(s)

F(s1)

o
x
o

x
x
o

P poles and Z zeros

of F(s) inside contour

Contour s

s encircles P poles and

Z zeros of F(s)

F(s2)
Contour F

F encircles origin
of F(s)-plane (Z-P) times

 Apply Argument Principle to stability analysis

- Given
+
R(s)
-

G(s)

- Closed Loop Transfer Function:

Y (s)
KG ( s )

R ( s ) 1 KG ( s )

Y(s)

- Characteristic equation:

a(s) 1 KG(s) 0
- With

G (s)

C (s zi )
i 1
n

i 1

(s pi )

( Let C=1 or absorb C into K)

(s p ) K (s z )
i

a ( s ) 1 KG ( s )

i 1

i 1

(s p )
i

i 1

Hence, zero of a(s) = closed loop system poles

poles of a(s) = poles of G(s)

- Consider contour mapping by picking (i) s on the s-plane to

encircle the entire RHP and (ii) mapping function F(s) = a(s)
s-plane

a(s)

a(s)-plane

.
Contour s

Contour a

- By Argument Principle: Z - P = N, where

Z = # of zeros of a(s) in s = # of unstable closed loop poles
(which we want to know)
P = # of poles of a(s) in s = # of unstable poles of G(s)
(which is usually known)

N = # of clockwise encirclement of origin of a(s)-plane by a

(to be counted after contour mapping)
- Moreover: should we use KG(s) as mapping function instead of a(s), then
because a(s) 1 KG(s), resulting KG is a shifted to the left by unit 1
s-plane

a(s)-plane

Contour s

Contour a

KG(s)-plane

N = # of clockwise encirclement of
the point (-1,0) of the KG(s)-plane
by contour KG
Contour KG

- Above results lead to Nyquist Stability Criterion

Step (i) Construct contour mapping KG
Step (ii) Count N, # of clockwise encirclement of (-1,0)
by KG
Step (iii) Obtain P, # of unstable poles of G(s)
(information usually available)
Step (v) Then, # of unstable poles of closed loop system
given by Z=P+N.

- Details on Step (i): Construction of KG

Contour

Contour KG

s re j
r
s-plane

s j

: 0
s j

: 0

: 900 0 900

KG-plane

is complex
conjugate of 1
Normally
maps to origin

is polar plot
of KG(j)

- Example 9.1 in textbook

K
(
)

,1 1, 2 0.1
KG
s
*
(1s 1)( 2 s 1)

* Consider K=1
Step (i)
(a) Mapping portion 1 of s: Polar Plot of G(s)
1
G( j )
( j1 1)( j 2 1)

( j1 1)( j 2 1)
(1 212 )(1 2 22 )

(1 21 2 )
(1 2 )

(1 212 )(1 2 22 )
(1 212 )(1 2 22 )
(i) When 0, G( j ) 1, Polar plot starts at point (1,0)

(ii) When , G( j )

C'

0 j 0

-- Polar plot approaches origin in the 3rd quadrant (-ve

real part, -ve imaginary part)
-- Imaginary part goes to zero faster than real part,
polar plot approach origin along the real axis
(iii) Special point(s)? When
* Polar plot for 1 1, 2 0.1

1 2

, Real part=0, G( j ) j

1 2
( 1 2 )

20

=0 rad/sec
=0.1 rad/sec

Special point at:

3.2 rad/sec
G( j ) j 0.2875

4
=3.2 rad/sec
=2 rad/sec

=1 rad/sec

=0.5 rad/sec

(b) Mapping portion 2 of s:

1
r (re j 1)(re j 1)
1
2
1
e j 2
lim 2
r r
1 2

G(s) lim

0e j , : 1800 0 1800

( Corresponding portion of G
constitutes a rotation at the origin)
(c) Mapping of Portion 3 of s : complex conjugate
of polar plot of 1

(d) Combining the three portions:

2

K=1
G(s)

1
1

-1
3

-0.2875j

Step (ii) check: no encirclement of (-1,0): N=0

Step (iii) G(s) poles at s=-1/1,s=-1/2, all stable P=0
Step (v) # of unstable closed loop poles: Z=P+N=0
Conclusion: Closed loop system stable (for K=1)

* Stability for other values of K?

Contour KG is contour G with magnitude scaled
by factor K
K=3
K=2
K=1

-1

b
b

Contour KG

In this case, contour KG has no encirclement of

(-1,0) for all values of K>0, i.e., always N=0.
With P=0 still,
Z=P+N=0
Closed loop system stable for all value K>0!
(Same conclusion as obtained from root locus method)

 Modified contour for G(s) with pole(s) on imaginary axis

Example:

K
KG( s )
s( s 1)2

- Contour s pass through pole at origin

Principle of argument not applicable!
- Can use either contour s' or s" as shown

s'
s"

P = 0 for KG(s)
P = 1 for KG(s)

- s' and s" lead to same conclusion regarding stability

- s' and s" contain additional portion 4

1

s'

4 : s e i ,
0

4 : s e i ,

0
: 90 0 90

s"

: 90 180 270

- Example 9.3 in textbook

K
(
)

,1 1, 2 0.1
KG
s
*
s(1s 1)( 2 s 1)

* Consider K=1
Step (i)
(a) Mapping portion 1 of s: Polar Plot of G(s)
1
G( j )
j ( j1 1)( j 2 1)
( 1 2 )
(1 21 2 )

j
2 2
2 2
(1 1 )(1 2 )
(1 212 )(1 2 22 )
(i) When 0, G( j ) ( 1 2 ) j
-- Polar plot starts along the line at distant (1 2 )
(left of imaginary axis) with very large negative
imaginary part

(ii) When , G( j )

C'

0 j 0

-- Polar plot approaches origin in the 2nd quadrant (-ve

real part, +ve imaginary part)
-- Real part goes to zero faster than imaginary part,
polar plot approaches origin along the imaginary axis
1 2
1
, G( j )
, Imag part =0
(iii) Special point(s)? When
(1 2 )
1 2
* Polar plot for 1 1, 2 0.1

=1 rad/sec

=2 rad/sec

1 2

G( j )

3.2

1 2
0.0909
( 1 2 )

3.2

4.0
0.0909

=0.5 rad/sec

20

(b) Mapping portion 2 of s:

1
1
j 3

lim
e
r re j (re j 1)(re j 1)
r r 3
1
2
1 2

G(s) lim

0e j , : 2700 00 2700
( Corresponding portion of G constitutes a rotation at the origin)

(c) Mapping of Portion 3 of s : complex conjugate

of polar plot of 1
(d) Mapping portion 4 of s :
G( s) lim

1
e j ( e j 1 1)( e j 2 1)

lim e j
0

e j , : 900 0 900
(Corresponding portion of G constitutes half circle of infinite
radius going from (1 2 ) j to j 0 to (1 2 ) j )

(e) Combining the four portions:

1

K=1
G(s)

4
2

-1
3

s'

G
1 2
( 1 2 )

Step (ii) check: no encirclement of (-1,0): N=0

Step (iii) G(s) poles at s=0, s=-1/1, s=-1/2 P=0
Step (v) # of unstable closed loop poles: Z=P+N=0 (for K=1)
Stability for other values of K?
For K such that

K 1 2
1
( 1 2 )

N=2 clockwise encirclement of (-1,0)

With P=0 still Z=N+P=2 Two closed loop unstable poles!

( 1 2 )
K

Conclusion: Closed loop system unstable for

1 2

Contour mapping to see if closed loop poles have

stability margin > :
The line
s=-+j

s j

: 0

s j

: 0

s re j
r

: 900 0 900

-1
3

III.B.6. Gain Margin and Phase Margin

Given

+
-

G(s)

Normally, open loop system G(s) stable, i.e., P=0

for the contour s
Nyquist stability criterion: Z=N+P
Closed loop stability depends on whether Polar
plot G(j) encircles the point (-1, 0) or not
Stability Margin:
Relative stability of close loop system measured by how
close the Polar plot G(j) is about to encircle (-1,0)

 Two measures of how close G(j) is about to encircle (-1,0)

(A) Gain Margin (GM)
- Point A is where polar plot G(j) cuts -ve real axis
- Point A has coordinate (-d, 0) and corresponding
frequency =A
- At point A, G(j) described by | G(jA)| = d
and LG(jA)= -180
= )
- For d<1 no encirclement of (-1,0)
closed loop system stable for K=1
LG(j)= -180
- Maximum value of K to still have
at Point A
1
KG(j) not encircling (-1, 0): GM
d
i.e., GM is maximum value of K to
Polar Plot of G(j)
still maintain closed loop stability
A

- For system stable to begin with: d<1 GM>1

(B) Phase Margin (PM)

- Point B is where G(j) is an unit distance from the origin
(take -ve value)
- Point B has corresponding frequency =B
- At B, G(j)| described by | G(j)| = 1 and LG(jB)=
- For , no encirclement of (-1,0)
closed loop system stable
- Maximum rotation of Polar plot G(j)
and still NOT encircling (-1, 0):
PM = = - (-180)

G ( j ) 1

at B

- Def of PM:
Maximum clockwise rotation of polar Polar Plot of G(j)
plot G(j) (about origin) to still maintain
closed loop stability

- Obtain GM from Bode Plot

* From phase plot, use the fact LG(j) = -180 to identify
point A and corresponding frequency A
* Obtain ddb from magnitude plot at A
(For stable system, ddb < 0 db because d <1)
* GM db d db

GM * d 1 GM

db

d db 0 db GM

db

d db

- Obtain PM from Bode Plot

* From magnitude plot, use the fact |G(j)|=1, or
|G(j)| db =0 db, to identify point B and frequency B
* Obtain = LG(jB) from the phase plot at B
* PM = LG(jB) - (-180)

G( j ) db

ddb (-ve for stable

CL system)

0db

GMdb= - ddb
(+ve for stable system)

d db
-20 db
-40 db

for stable
CL system

Point B: |G(jAB)|=0 db

log

LG(j)
-90
PM=LG(jB) - (-180)
(+ve for stable system)

=LG(jB)
-180

Point A: LG(jA)=-180o

-270
B

log

- Example in III.B.2
1
* G( s) s( s 1)2

* From Polar plot

At Point A:
rad/sec
d=0.5
GM=2
At Point B:
rad/sec
= -160o
PM=20o

A
B

* From Bode plot:

At Point A:
ddb=-6db, or GMdb=6db

Point B

rad/sec

-180

At Point B:
=-160o, PM=20o
Identify Point A using
LG(j) = -180

rad/sec

 Effects of increasing K
- Magnitude |KG(j)| increased by factor of K over |G(j)|
Phase of KG(j) same as Phase of G(j)
- Resulting changes in polar plot:
* Any point P becomes P at same ,
with |PO|= K |PO|

|KG(j)|

|G(j)|

* GM now dictated by point A:

* PM now dictated by point B
* Both GM and PM reduced by
increased K; Polar plot KG(j)
more likely to encircle (-1,0)
system less stable
* Further increase in K will have A, B coincide at (-1,0),
then GM=1 (or 0db), PM=0; system critically stable!

 Resulting changes in Bode plot

- With |KG(j)|=K|G(j)|,
|KG(j)|db =|K|db +|G(j)|db

|KG(j)|db
|G(j)|db

- Magnitude plot of KG(j) =

Magnitude plot of G(j) lifted
up by |K|db

GM of
KG(j)
GM of G(j)

- Phase plot not changed

- Similar interpretation as polar
plot, GM and PM reduced as
K increases
- Further increase in K moves
B to coincide A, system
becomes critically stable

PM of G(j)

PM of KG(j)

 PM and damping coefficient

- Given

R(s)

+
-

PM of G(j) is related to
of closed loop system!

G(s)

Y(s)

- PM of G(j) generally related to damping coefficient

of the complex poles of the closed loop system
- Use 2nd order system to get insight, let
n 2
G( s )
s( s 2 n )
2
Y
(
s
)

n
* Standard 2nd order form,
,
2
2
R( s ) ( s 2 n s n )

i.e., closed loop system has damping coefficient

* Solved analytically, PM occurs frequency B:

|G(j)|=1 B2 n 2 [2 2 1 4 4 ]

* PM of G(j) at B is given by:

2
1
PM tan
2 2 1 4 4
* Rough approximation: PM 100 (see Fig. 9.21)

0.01PM

- Relation PM 100 assumed roughly applicable to all unity

feedback systems for all G(s)

- Example:
* Polar plot PM=20o
(21.4o by exact calculation)

+
-

1 1
2
s ( s 1)s2

* Damping coefficient
of CL system according
to PM 100 :

0.2 or 0.214

PM

* Exact close loop

system poles:

1.75

0.1226 j 0.7449

Polar plot
1
of

s ( s 1) 2

Actual closed loop damping

coefficient =0.1624.
Close enough! Difference due to
2nd order system approximation

 Principle of controller design in Frequency Domain

Obtain PM of G(j)

R(s)

G(s)

Check damping coefficient

of closed loop system,
0.01PM
Yes, enough
damping

Y(s)
Not enough
damping

Done

Design C(s) so that CG(j)

has larger PM

R(s)

+
-

C(s)

G(s)

Y(s)

Larger damping coefficient

of closed loop system of
CG(s)

PM=?

- Example:

G( s )

C(s)

1
s2

* Case 1: Gain controller C(s) = K = 8

KG ( s )

8
s2

Polar plot CG(j) has PM = 0

Closed loop system has 0
(which in this case happens to be the actual result)

* Case 2: Dynamic controller C1 ( s)

C1 ( s )G( s )

8( s 1)
s 2 ( s 4)

8( s 1)
( s 4)

Polar plot C1G(j) has PM = 40

Closed loop system has 0.4

(System is third order, Actual damping coefficient of

closed loop complex poles = 0.5)

Polar Plot
of 82
s

With C(s)=8 as
compensator, PM=0o

With C1(s) as compensator, PM=40o

Polar Plot
8 ( s 1)
of s 2 ( s 4 )

Case 2 as viewed by Bode Plot C1(s) in this case is a Phase Lead compensator
because it adds more PM to the system

Compensated PM
Compensated
Bode of C1G(s)

Uncompensated
Bode of G(s)=1/s2
Uncompensated PM=0

B for C1G(s)
B for G(s)

 Concept: Phase Lead Compensator

- Consider KG(s), with K utilized to
satisfy requirement on ess
- Uncompensated system:
small PM small for C.L. system
Too small PM

+
KG(s)

- Compensated system with Gc(s):

increased PM increased

Larger PM

+
-

Gc(s)

KG(s)

0db cross-over
frequency c
before
compensation

New 0db cross-over

frequency c > c
after compensation

 Concept: Phase Lag Compensator

- Consider KG(s), with K utilized to
satisfy requirement on ess
- Uncompensated system:
small PM undesirably small
+

KG(s)

- Compensated system with Dc(s):

increased PM increased
+
-

Dc(s)

KG(s)

Note: Increased PM in this case due to

magnitude attenuation in high frequency

0db cross-over
New 0db cross-over frequency c
frequency c < c before
after compensation compensation