UNIFIED SOIL CLASSIFICATION SYSTEM

1. INTRODUCTION
Most soils are a heterogeneous accumulation of mineral grains not
cemented together. However, the term `soil' or `earth', as used by
engineers, includes virtually every type of uncemented or partially
cemented inorganic and organic material found in the ground. Only hard
rock which remains firm after exposure is wholly excluded.
In order for engineers, both in the field and in the office, to be able to
`speak the same language' with respect to soils, a standard method of
identifying and classifying soils regarding their engineering
characteristics rather than agricultural or geological or other
characteristics is needed. A system of describing the soil (identification)
and placing it into a category or group (classification) which has distinct
engineering properties enables engineers to exchange information and to
profit by one another's experiences. Borehole logs of soil profile
explorations containing adequate descriptions and soil classifications
(often from field identification) can be used in making preliminary
estimates to determine the extent of additional field investigation needed
for (a) final design, (b) planning an economical testing program, and (c)
extending test results to additional explorations. For final design of
important structures, however, visual soil classification must be
supplemented by laboratory tests to determine performance
characteristics of the soil, such as permeability, shearing strength, and
compressibility, under expected field conditions. Knowledge of soil
classification, including typical engineering properties of soils of the
various groups, is especially valuable to the engineer engaged in
prospecting for earth materials or investigating foundations for
structures. Initially much work was concentrated on grain size
relationships as illustrated by the U.S. Bureau of Public Roads
classification system shown in Figure 1 (Rose, 1924), however this was
found insufficient for engineering use.

Figure 1. Textural classification system found inappropriate for

engineering use.
In 1952, the Bureau of Reclamation and the Corps of Engineers, with
Professor A. Casagrande as consultant, reached agreement on a
modification of Professor Casagrande's airfield classification, which they
named the `Unified Soil Classification System' or `USCS' (Casagrande,
1948). Today (1996) the classification of soils is still base on the USCS
it is more extensive and is periodically updated by the American Society
for Testing Materials (ASTM) via their two Standards ASTM-D2457 and
ASTM-D2488. The system takes into account the engineering properties
of soils: it is descriptive and easy to associate with actual soils, and it

has the flexibility of being adaptable both to the field and to the
laboratory. Probably its greatest advantage is that a soil can be classified
readily by visual and manual examination without the necessity for
laboratory testing. The Unified Classification System is based on the
sizes of the particles, the amounts of the various sizes, and the
characteristics of the very fine grains. This method of classification of
soils is recommended for use by the Canadian Foundation Engineering
Manual and is described in the following text and summarized in Table
1.
2. SOIL COMPONENTS
(A) Size
(i) General
Particles larger than 76 mm (3 inches) are excluded from the Unified
Soil Classification System. However, the amount of such oversized
material may be of great importance in the selection of sources for
embankment material: hence borehole logs of explorations always
contain information on quantity and size of particles larger than 76 mm
(3 inches). Within the size range of the system (i.e. less than 76 mm)
there are two major engineering performance divisions. (A third division
is used for highly organic material, i.e. Peat):
(a) Coarse grained soils have 50% by weight of their particles greater
than the No. 200 sieve size (0.075 mm), approximately the smallest size
visible by the unaided human eye.
(b) Fine grained soils have 50% by weight of their particles less than the
No. 200 sieve size (0.075 mm) and thus no individual particle should be
visible by the unaided human eye.
(c) Organic material (Symbol Pt): - Organic soils composed of more
than 50% organic material by weight are known as Peat.
(ii) Coarse Grained Fraction
The coarse grain fraction is further divided into two soil types again
based on sizing. These two types form part of the initial identification
regarding engineering performance classification. For brevity they are
given an identification symbol. The soil types and their symbol are (a) Gravel (Symbol G) which
identifies a coarse grained soil
where 50% by weight of only that
fraction of the soil retained on the
No. 200 sieve (0.074 mm) is larger
than the No. 4 sieve size (4.75 mm
or about 3/16 inch).
Size Subdivision: In order to aid
the identification of particle sizes
gravel has two particle size
Figure 2. Ranges for coarse
subdivisions as shown on Figure 2
particle sizing.
and as given by:Coarse gravel -- 76 mm (3 inch)
to 19 mm (3/4 inch),
Fine Gravel -- 19 mm (3/4 inch) to 4.75 mm (No. 4 sieve).
There are no symbol identifications for size.
(b) Sand (Symbol S) which identifies a coarse grained soil where 50%
by weight of only that fraction of the soil retained on the No. 200 sieve
(0.075 mm) is smaller than the No. 4 sieve size (4.75 mm).
Size Subdivision: In order to aid the identification of particle sizes
sand has three particle size subdivisions as shown on Figure 2 and as
given by:Coarse sand -- No. 4 (4.75 mm) to No. 10 sieves (2.00 mm),
Medium sand -- No. 10 (2.00 mm) to No. 40 sieves (0.425 mm),
Fine sand -- No. 40 (0.425 mm) to No. 200 sieves (0.074 mm).
There are no symbol identifications for size.

Unified Soil Classification System -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond.

Grading/Fines Subdivision -- In actual fact the engineering

behaviour of the coarse grained soil is more dependent on whether it is
clean or not (less than 5% by weight of fines being clean and more than
12% by weight of fines being dirty). If clean, the gradation influences
performance and, if dirty, the fines influence performance. Thus in the
Unified Soil Classification System gravels and sands are subdivided for
classification purposes into (these subdivisions are defined under the
heading of grading):(i) Well Graded (Symbol _W) clean fraction,
(ii) Poorly Graded (Symbol _P) clean fraction,
(iii) Silt (Symbol _M) behaviour of fines of dirty fraction, and
(iv) Clay (Symbol _C) behaviour of fines of dirty fraction.
Note: Silt and Clay are also primary classification types for describing
fine grained soils. Their definitions are given later.
Extension -- Burmister (1951) proposed as an extension of the USCS
that the proportions of the minor fractions may be identified by adding
in small letters (percentages are by weight).
(i) a for `and' representing 35 to 50%
(ii) s for `some' representing 20 to 35%
(iii) l for `little' representing 10 to 20%
(iv) t for `trace' representing 0 to 10%
Thus a well graded sand with 5% gravel sizes would be SWtG. ASTM
D2488 uses the terms: Trace < 5%, Few for 5% to 10%; Little for 15%
to 25%; Some for 30% to 45%; and Mostly for 50% to 100%. In
addition Burmister suggested the size fractions in quantities larger than
the 10% are recommended as being identified as
(i) c where coarse sizes constitute more than 10%
(ii) m where medium sizes constitute more than 10%
(iii) f where fine sizes constitute more than 10%
so that, where all three sand sizes are each present in quantities greater
than 10% of the total, the identification would be `cmfS' placed after the
main classification type (i.e. Swtg cmfS).
These suggestions require little extra effort to include and may be
useful.
(iii) Fine Grained Fraction, or Fines
The fine grained fraction of the soil sample is that portion smaller than
the No. 200 (0.074 mm) sieve size. In the Unified Soil Classification
System fines are not subdivided by sizing but by behaviour. The fines,
if of inorganic origin, are of two types (these types are further described
later under the heading relating to moisture):
(a) SILT (Symbol M for the Swedish word Mo), and
(b) CLAY (Symbol C).
Older classification systems define clay as those particles smaller than
0.006 mm (6 microns) as seen on Figure 1 (some use 0.002 mm) and
define silt as fines larger than clay sizes. However, it is a mistaken idea
that the typical engineering characteristics of silt and clay correspond to
particular grain sizes. Natural deposits of rock flour that exhibit all the
properties of silt and none of clay may consist entirely of grains smaller
than 0.006 mm. On the other hand, typical clays may consist mainly of
particles larger than 0.006 mm, but containing small quantities of
extremely fine colloidal-sized particles. Thus in the Unified Soil
Classification System, no size distinction is made between silt and clay,
but rather, they are differentiated by their behaviour, and are further
subdivided according to the amount of water required to make them act
plastically or to flow as a semi liquid.
(iv) Organic Material (Symbol O)
Organic material is often a component of soil, but in the Unified Soil
Classification System it has no specific grain size. It is distinguished by
the composition of its particles rather than by their sizes which range
from colloidal-sized particles of molecular dimensions to fibrous pieces
of partly decomposed vegetable matter several inches in length.
Subdivision of organic soils is the same as for silt or clay. Organic soils
composed of more than 50% organic material by weight are known as
Peat (Symbol Pt). A useful classification system for peat (given at the

end of this section) is due to Von Post (1922).

(B) Gradation
The amounts of the various sizes of grains present in a soil can be
determined in the laboratory by means of sieving for the coarse grains
and sedimentation (wet mechanical analysis) for the fines. The
laboratory results are presented in the form of a cumulative grain-size
curve as shown in Figure 3. For soils consisting mainly of coarse grains,
the grain-size distribution reveals something of the physical properties
of the material. On the other hand, grain size is much less significant for
soils containing a preponderance of fine grains. In the Unified Soil
Classification System two gradings for coarse soils free of fines (less
than 12% by weight) are used. They are:
(a) Well Graded (Symbol _W) -Good representation of all particle
sizes from largest to smallest
(b) Poorly Graded (Symbol _P)
which includes:
Uniform
Gradation -- Most particles about
the same size, or Skip Gradation -Absence of one or more
intermediate sizes.
Note that a dual classification is
given if the fines are between 5%
and 12%.
In the field, soil is estimated to
be well graded or poorly graded by
visual examination. For laboratory
purposes, the type of gradation can
Figure 3. Definition
be determined by the use of criteria
requirements for soil to be
based on the range of sizes by
classified as well graded.
weight and on the shape of the
grain-size curve. The measure of
size range is called the coefficient of uniformity, Cu, which is the ratio
of the 60 percent finer than size (D60) to the 10 percent finer than size
(D10). The shape of the grain-size curve is given by the coefficient of
curvature, Cc, which is the ratio of the square of the 30 percent finer
than size (D30) to the product (D60) (D10). The definitions used
distinguish between well and poorly graded Gravel or Sand and are
shown in Figure 3.
(C) Shape
The shape of the particles is not a direct part of the Unified
Classification System but nevertheless has an important influence on the
physical properties of a soil (e.g. cubical shaped particles generally
interlock better than plate-like particles, and as previously presented
roundness effects void ratio). The following shapes are most common
and are a useful addition.
(i) Bulky or Equidimensional Grains -- These may be further
described as rounded, sub-rounded, subangular, and angular as illustrated
in Figure 4. The coarse-grained components of a soil are usually of the
bulky type, consisting chiefly of the minerals quartz and feldspar. The
interlocking ability of angular cubic particles is many times greater than
rounded or subrounded particles such that mainline railway ballast is
required to be from a quarried source (i.e. crushed rock).
(ii) Flat or Flaky grains, also called plate-like particles -- These are
present in appreciable quantities in many fine-grained soils and have
width/thickness ratios > 3. Mica and some clay minerals have this shape,
which is mainly responsible for their high compressibility.
(iii) Elongated Grains -- These are long needle shaped particles and
have length to width ratios > 3.
Length, Width and thickness are measured between two parallel plates.
Length and thickness are maximum and minimum possible distance
between two surface points measured by the two plates.

Unified Soil Classification System -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond.

10

Figure 4. Typical description of bulky or equidimensional

grains.
(D) Soil Moisture
The effect of soil moisture on the fines forms a major part of the
Unified Soil Classification System. A typical soil mass has three
constituents - soil grains, air and water. In soils consisting largely of fine
grains, the amount of water present in the voids has a pronounced effect
on the soil properties. Three main states of soils consistency are
recognizable -Liquid state in which the soil is either in suspension or has the nature of
a viscous fluid.
Plastic state in which the soil can be rapidly deformed or moulded
without elastic rebound, change of volume, cracking, or crumbling.
Solid state in which the soil will crack when deformed or will exhibit
elastic rebound.
(i) Consistency Limits
In describing these soil states it is customary to consider only the
fraction of soil smaller than the No. 40 sieve (0.425 mm) size. For this
fraction the water content in percentage of dry weight at which the soil
passes from the liquid state into the plastic state is called the `liquid
limit' (LL or wL) and is recorded as a whole number. A device
illustrated in Figure 5 which causes the soil to flow under certain
conditions (25 drops of the cup through 10 mm) is used in the laboratory
to determine the liquid limit. In practice the 25 blow moisture content is
often determined from a single test result using the equation
LL ' w L ' m/c

Blows
25

Figure 5. Liquid limit device.

(a) Low (_L) liquid limit, and

(b) High (_H) liquid limits
(c) Intermediate ? (an intermediate range is sometimes used, LL =
30-50).
These divisions are shown in Figure 6. By definition a clay soil has
limits which plot above the "A" line shown on Figure 6 and silts plot
below the "A" line with the exceptions shown in the range liquid limit
10-30 and plastic limit less than 7.

0.1

(1)

Similarly, the water content of the soil at the boundary between the
plastic state and the solid state is called the `plastic limit' (PL or wP) and
is recorded as a whole number. The laboratory test consists of
repeatedly rolling threads of the soil to 3 mm (1/8 inch) in diameter until
they crumble, and then determining the water content. The difference
between the liquid limit and the plastic limit corresponds to the range of
water contents within which the soil is plastic. This difference of water
content is called the `plasticity index' (PI or Ip). Highly plastic soils
have high PI values. In a non-plastic soil the plastic limit and the liquid
limit are the same (and the PI equals 0) or the liquid limit test is
impossible to perform.
These limits of consistency, which are called `Atterberg limits' after
a Swedish scientist, are used in the Unified Soil Classification System as
the basis for laboratory differentiation between materials of appreciable
plasticity (clays) and slightly plastic or non-plastic materials (silts). They
are also used to subdivide the silts, clays and organic materials into those
with

Figure 6. The plasticity chart.

With sufficient experience a soils engineer may acquire the ability to

estimate the Atterberg limits of a soil. Such an estimation may be
facilitated by three simple hand tests which have been found adequate for
field identification and classification of fine soils. These three tests
determine whether the fine-grained fraction of a soil is silty or clayey,
without requiring estimation of Atterberg limits. These hand tests, which
are part of the field procedure in the Unified Soil Classification System,
are Dilatancy (reaction to shaking)
Dry strength (crushing characteristics)
Toughness (consistency near plastic limit)
These tests are described in the next section. There use is given below:

Unified Soil Classification System -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond.

11

Soil

Dry Strength

Dilatancy

Toughness

ML
MH
CL
CH

None to Low
Low to Medium
Medium to High
High to Very High

Slow to Rapid
None to Slow
None to Slow
None

Low. Cannot form thread

Low to Medium
Medium
High

3. FIELD IDENTIFICATION TESTS

The procedures for field identification of the fine grained fraction are
performed on the minus No. 40 sieve (0.425 mm) size particles,
approximately 1/64 in. For field classification purposes, sieving or
screening is not intended, simply remove by hand the coarse particles
that interfere with the tests.
(A) Dilatancy
Dilatancy or reaction to shaking: -- After removing particles larger
than No. 40 sieve (0.425 mm) size, prepare a pat of moist soil with a
volume of about two cubic cm (one-half inch). Add enough water, if
necessary to make the soil soft but not sticky. Place the pat in the open
palm of one hand and shake horizontally, striking vigorously against the
other hand several times. A positive reaction consists of the appearance
of water on the surface of the pat which changes to a livery consistency
and becomes glossy. When the sample is squeezed between the fingers,
the water and gloss disappear from the surface, the pat stiffens, and
finally it cracks or crumbles. The rapidity of appearance of water during
shaking and of its disappearance during squeezing assist in identifying
the character of the fines in a soil.
Very fine clean sands give the quickest and most distinct reaction
whereas a plastic clay has no reaction. Inorganic silts, such as a typical
rock flour, show a moderately quick reaction. Typical criteria for
classification is:

Reaction

Visual Response

Low
Medium

No visible change.
Water appears slowly on shaking and disappears
slowly on squeezing.
Water appears quickly on shaking and disappears
quickly on squeezing.

High

(B) Dry Strength

Dry strength or crushing characteristics: -- After removing particles
larger than a No. 40 sieve (0.425 mm) size, mould a pat of soil to the
consistency of putty, adding water if necessary. Allow the pat to dry
completely by oven, sun, or air drying, and then test its strength by
breaking and crumbling between the fingers. This strength is a measure
of the character and quantity of the colloidal fraction contained in the
soil. The dry strength increases with increasing plasticity.
High dry strength is characteristics for clays of high plasticity index
which by deduction must also have a high liquid limit and thus must be
in the CH group or high range of the CL group. A low dry strength
indicates low plasticity index and thus a silt. Silty fine sands and silts
have about the same slight dry strength, but can be distinguished by the
feel after powdering the dried specimen. Fine sand feels gritty whereas
a typical silt has the smooth feel of flour. Typical criteria for
classification is:

Strength

Visual Response of Dry Specimen

None
Low
Medium
High
Very High

Crubles with handling.

Crubles with light finger pressure.
Breaks with considerable finger pressure.
Requires thumb pressure to break.
Cannot be broken with thumb pressure.

(C) Toughness
Toughness or consistency near plastic limit: -- After removing
particles larger than the No. 40 sieve (0.425 mm) size, a specimen of soil
about two cubic cm (one-half inch) volume in size is moulded to the
consistency of putty. If too dry, water must be added and if sticky, the
specimen should be spread out in a thin layer and allowed to lose some
moisture by evaporation. Then the specimen is rolled out by hand on a
smooth surface or between the palms into a thread about 3 mm (oneeighth inch) in diameter. The thread is then folded and then rerolled
repeatedly. During this manipulation the moisture content is gradually
reduced and the specimen stiffens, finally loses its plasticity, and
crumbles when the plastic limit is reached.
After the thread crumbles, the pieces should be lumped together and
a slight kneading action continued until the lump crumbles.
The tougher the thread near the plastic limit and the stiffer the lump
when it finally crumbles, the more potent is the colloidal clay fraction in
the soil. Weakness of the thread at the plastic limit and quick loss of
cohesion of the lump below the plastic limit indicate either inorganic clay
of low plasticity, or materials such as kaolin-type clays and organic silts
which occur below the A-line.
Highly organic clays have a very weak and spongy feel at the plastic
limit. Typical criteria for classification is:

Toughness

Response to Rolling 3 mm diameter thread.

Low
Medium
High

Slight pressure required to roll at PL.

Medium pressure required to roll at PL.
High pressure required to roll at PL.

4. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS (see Table 1).

(A) General
Soils in nature seldom exist separately as a gravel, sand, silt, clay, or
organic matter, but are usually found as mixtures with varying
proportions of these components. The Unified Soil Classification
System is based on recognition of the type and predominance of the
constituents, considering grain size, gradation, plasticity and
compressibility. As already described it divides soils into three major
divisions - coarse-grained soils, fine-grained soils, and highly organic
(peaty) soils. In the field, identification is accomplished by visual
examination for the coarse grains and by a few simple hand tests for the
fine-grained soils or fraction. In the laboratory, the grain-size curve and
the Atterberg limits can be used. The peaty soils (Pt) are readily
identified by colour, odour, spongy feel, and fibrous texture and are not
further sub-divided in the classification.
(B) Field Classification
A representative sample of soil (excluding particles larger than 76 mm
or 3 inches) is first classified as coarse grained or fine grained by
estimating whether 50 percent, by weight, of the particles can be seen
individually by the naked eye. Soils containing more than 50 percent of
particles that can be seen are coarse-grained soils, soils containing more
than 50 percent of particles smaller than the eye can see are fine-grained
soils. If the soil is predominantly coarse grained, it is then identified as
being a gravel or a sand by estimating whether 50 percent or more of the

Unified Soil Classification System -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond.

12

fraction of coarse grains are larger or smaller than the No. 4 sieve (4.75
mm) size (about 1/4 inch).
If the soil is a gravel, it is next identified as being `clean' and
containing little or no fines (by definition less than 5 percent by weight),
or `dirty' and containing an appreciable amount of fines (by definition
more than 12 percent by weight). For clean gravels, final classification
is made by estimating the gradation, the well-graded gravels belong to
the GW group, and uniform or well sorted (not to be confused with well
graded) and skip-graded gravels belong to the GP group. Dirty gravels
are of two types - those with non-plastic (silty) fines, GM, and those with
plastic (clayey) fines, GC. The determination of whether the fines are
silty or clayey is made by the three manual (i.e. by hand) tests for finegrained soils.
If a soil is a sand, the same steps and criteria are used as for the
gravels in order to determine whether the soil is a well-graded clean sand
(SW), poorly graded clean sand (SP), sand with silty fines (SM), or sand
with clayey fines (SC).
If a material is predominantly (more than 50 percent by weight) fine
grained, it is classified into one or six groups (ML, CL, OL, MH, CH,
OH) by estimating its dilatancy (reaction to shaking), dry strength
(crushing characteristics), and toughness (consistency near plastic limit),
and by identifying it as being organic or inorganic.
Soils that are typical of the various groups are readily classified by the
foregoing procedures. However, many natural soils will have property
characteristics of two groups because they are close to the borderline
between the groups, either in percentages of the various sizes or in
plasticity characteristics. For this substantial number of soils, boundary
classifications are used, that is, the two group symbols most nearly
describing the soil are connected by a hyphen, such as GW-GC.
If the percentages of gravel and sand sizes in a coarse-grained soil are
nearly equal, the classification procedure is to assume that the soil is a
gravel, and then continue in the chart until the final soil group, say GC,
is reached. Since we could have assumed that the soil is a sand, the
correct field classification is GC-SC, because the criteria for the gravel
and sand subgroups are identical. Similarly, within the gravel or sand
groupings, boundary classifications such as GW-GP, GM-GC, GW-GM,
SW-SP, SM-SC, and SW-SM can occur.
Proper boundary classification of a soil near the borderline between
coarse-grained and fine-grained soils is accomplished by classifying it
first as a coarse-grained soil and then as a fine-grained soil. Such
classifications as SM-ML and SC-CL are common.
Within the fine-grained division, boundary classifications can occur
between low liquid limit soils and high liquid limit soils as well as
between silty and clayey materials in the same range of liquid limits. For
example, we may have ML-MH, CL-CH, OL-OH and ML-CL, ML-OL,
CL-OL, MH-CH, MH-OH, CH-OH soils. A guide for a textural
classification of soils is shown in Figure 7. The textural properties can
be supplemented by manually performed tests already presented for field
classification purposes.
(C) Laboratory Classification
Although most classifications of soils will be done visually and by the
manually performed tests, the Unified Soil Classification System
provides a precise delineation of the soil groups by mechanical analyses
and Atterberg limits tests in the laboratory. Laboratory classifications are
often performed on representative samples of soils which are being
subjected to extensive testing for strength, compressibility, and
permeability. They also can be used to advantage in training the field
classifier of soils to improve his ability to estimate percentages and
degrees of plasticity.
The grain-size curve is used to classify the soil as being coarse
grained or fine grained, and if coarse grained, into gravel or sand by size,
using the 50 percent criterion. Within the gravel or sand groupings, soils
containing less than 5 percent finer than the No. 200 sieve (0.074 mm)
size are considered `clean' and are then classified as well graded or
poorly graded by their coefficients of uniformity and curvature. In order
for a clean gravel to be well graded (GW), it must have both a coefficient

of uniformity (Cu) greater than 4 and a coefficient of curvature (Cc)

between 1 and 3 (see Figure 3) - otherwise, it must be classified as a
poorly graded gravel (GP). A clean sand, having both a Cu greater than
6 and a Cc between 1 and 3, is in the SW group - otherwise, it is a poorly
graded sand (SP).

Figure 7. Guide for field soil textural classification using unified

system.

`Dirty' gravels or sands are those containing more than 12 percent of

fines, and they are classified as silty (GM or SM) or clayey (GC or SC)
by results of their Atterberg limits tests as plotted on the plasticity chart
shown. Silty fines are those which have a plasticity index (PI) less than
4 or which plot below the `A' line. Clayey fines are those which have a
PI greater than 7 and which plot above the `A' line.
Coarse-grained soils containing between 5 and 12 percent of fines are
borderline cases between the clean and dirty gravels or sands (GW, GP,
SW, SP, and GM, GC, SM, SC). Similarly, borderline cases may occur
in dirty gravels and dirty sands where the PI is between 4 and 7 (GMGC, SM-SC). It is theoretically possible, therefore, to have a borderline
case of a borderline case - but this is not permitted, and the rule for
correct classifications is to favour the non-plastic one. For example, a
gravel with 10 percent fines, a Cu of 20, a Cc of 2.0, and a PI of 6 would
be classified GW-GM rather than GW-GC.
Once a soil is determined to be fine grained by the grain-size curve,
its classification into one of the six groups is done by the results of
Atterberg limits tests as plotted on the plasticity chart, with attention
being given to the organic content. Inorganic fine-grained soils with PI
greater than 7 and above the `A' line are CL or CH, depending on
whether their liquid limits are below 50 percent or above 50 percent
respectively. Similarly, inorganic fine-grained soils with PI less than 4
or below the `A' line are ML or MH, depending on whether their liquid
limits are below or above 50 percent, respectively. Fine-grained soils
which fall above the `A' line but which have a plasticity index between
4 and 7 are classified ML-CL.
Soils which plot below the `A' line that are definitely organic are
classified as OL if they have liquid limits less than 50 and as OH if the
liquid limit is above 50. Organic silts and clays are usually distinguished
from inorganic silts and clays which have the same position on the
plasticity chart, by odour and colour. However, when the organic
content is doubtful the material can be oven dried, remixed with water,
and retested for liquid limit. The plasticity of fine-grained organic soils
is greatly reduced on oven drying, due to irreversible changes in the
organic colloids. Oven drying also affects the liquid limit of inorganic
soils, but to a much smaller degree. A reduction in liquid limit after oven
drying to a value less than three-fourths of the liquid limit before oven
drying is positive identification of organic soils.
5.
ENGINEERING
COMPONENTS

CHARACTERISTICS

OF

SOIL

Some of the main engineering properties of the various soil types are
given in summary form in Table 2 and typical safe bearing pressures and

Unified Soil Classification System -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond.

13

California Bearing Ratios (CBR) as used in main class highways and

airport design are shown in Figure 8. These may be considered
somewhat conservative for use with railroads whose support need not be
as rigid. A fifty percent increase in scale values is suggested for use with
railway track support subgrades

Figure 8. Safe Bearing Stresses developed for highway and

airport design (PCA, 1956).

.(A) Gravel and Sand

Both of the coarse-grained components of soil (gravel and sand) have
essentially the same engineering properties, differing mainly in degree.
The division of gravel and sand sizes by the No. 4 sieve (4.75 mm) is
arbitrary and does not correspond to a sharp change in properties. Wellgraded, compacted gravels, or sands are stable materials. The coarsegrained soils when devoid of fines are pervious, easy to compact, little
affected by moisture, and not subject to frost action. Although grain
shape and gradation as well as size affect these properties, for the same
amount of fines gravels are generally more pervious, more stable, and
less affected by water or frost than are sands. Similarly angular particles
result in stronger strengths than rounded particles.
As a sand becomes finer and more uniform, it approaches the
characteristics of silt with corresponding decrease in permeability and
reduction in stability in the presence of water. Very fine, uniform sands
are difficult to distinguish visually from silt. However, dried sand
exhibits no cohesion (does not hold together) and feels gritty in contrast
to the very slight cohesion and smooth feel of dried silt.
(B) Silt and Clay
Even small amounts of fines may have important effects on
engineering properties of the soils in which they are found. As little as
12 percent of particles smaller than the No. 200 sieve (0.074 mm) size in

sand and gravel may make the soil virtually impervious, especially when
the coarse grains are well graded. Also, serious frost heaving in wellgraded sands and gravels may be caused by less than 12 percent of fines.
Typically 6% fines at the surface results in some frost heave. The
allowable amount increases with depth.
Soils containing large quantities of silt and clay are the most
troublesome to the engineer. These materials exhibit marked changes in
physical properties with change of water content. A hard, dry clay, for
example, may be suitable as a foundation for heavy loads so long as it
remains dry, but may turn into a quagmire when wet. Many of the fine
soils shrink on drying and expand on wetting, which may adversely
effect structures founded on them or constructed on them. Even when
moisture content does not change, the properties of fine soils may vary
considerably between their natural condition in the ground and their state
after being disturbed. Deposits of fine particles which have been
subjected to loading in geologic time frequently have a structure which
gives the material unique properties in the undisturbed state. When the
soil is excavated for use as a construction material or when the natural
deposit is disturbed by driving piles, for example, the soil structure is
destroyed and the properties of the soil are changed radically.
Silts are different from clays in many important respects, but because
of their similarity in appearance, they often have been mistaken one for
the other sometimes with unfortunate results. Dry, powdered silt and
clay are indistinguishable, but they are easily identified by their
behaviour in the presence of water. The importance of the recognition
of the difference in behaviour of fines as being silt or clay is an essential
part of the Unified Soil Classification System.
(i) Silts
Silts are the non-plastic fines. They are inherently unstable in the
presence of water and have a tendency to become `quick' when saturated.
Silts are fairly impervious, difficult to compact, and are highly
susceptible to frost heaving. Silt masses undergo change of volume with
change of shape (the property of dilatancy) in contrast to clays which
retain their volume with change of shape (the property of plasticity).
Thus silts, at the same liquid limit, have relatively low plasticity
compared with clays. In terms of the classification chart (Figure 6) they
plot below the `A' line. The dilatancy property of silts, together with the
`quick' reaction to vibration, affords a means of identifying typical silt in
the loose wet state. When dry, silt can be pulverized easily under finger
pressure (has very slight dry strength), and will have a smooth feel
between the fingers in contrast to the grittiness of fine sand.
Silts differ among themselves in size and shape of grains which are
reflected mainly in the property of compressibility. For similar
conditions of previous loading, the higher liquid limit of a silt the more
compressible it is. This is also true for clays and a general pattern of
results for remould fine grained soils is shown in Figure 9 demonstrating
this point. The liquid limit of a typical bulky-grained inorganic silt is
about 30, while highly micaceous or diatomaceous silts (so-called
`elastic' silts) consisting mainly of flaky grains, may have liquid limits as
high as 100. The differences in quickness and dilatancy properties afford
a means of distinguishing in the field between silts of low liquid limit

Figure 9. Compressibility-Liquid Limit relationship for

remoulded soils (Skempton, 1944).

Unified Soil Classification System -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond.

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and those of high liquid limit.

(ii) Clays
Clays are the plastic fines. Thus they plot above the `A' line on the
plasticity chart (Figure 6). They have low resistance to deformation
when wet, but they dry to hard cohesive masses. Clays are virtually
impervious, difficult to compact when wet, and impossible to drain by
ordinary means. Large expansion and contraction with changes in water
content are characteristics of clays. The small size, flat shape, and
mineral composition of clay particles combine to produce a material that
is both compressible and plastic. The higher the liquid limit of a clay, the
more compressible it will be when compared at equal conditions of
previous loading (Figure 9), hence, in the Unified Soil Classification
System, the liquid limit is used to distinguish between clays of high
compressibility (symbol H) and those of low compressibility (symbol L).
{Note:- The low range is sometimes subdivided into low (L) and
intermediate (I).} Differences in plasticity of clays are reflected by their
plasticity indexes.
Since the plastic limit of a soil is rarely less than 15 the range of the
plasticity index (PI = LL - PL) for a clay at any given liquid limit is small
since they must plot above the `A' line on Figure 6. Thus clays are often
referred to as low or high plasticity clays rather than low or high
compressible clays. In general the higher the liquid limit and thus the
plasticity index the more cohesive is the clay at the same overburden
consolidation pressure, as seen in Figure 10 for Norwegian soft
(normally consolidated) clays. Field differentiation among clays is
accomplished by the toughness test in which the moist soil is moulded
and rolled into threads until crumbling occurs and by the dry strength test
which measures the resistance of the clay to breaking and pulverizing.
With a little experience in performing these tests, the clays of low
compressibility and also low plasticity, `lean' clays (symbol _L), can be
readily distinguished from the highly compressible and also highly
plastic `fat' clays (symbol _H). {Since the plastic index is less than the
liquid limit low or high compressibility for clays also means low or high
plasticity. This however is not true for silts. The subdivision L or H
refers to compressibility (Liquid Limit see Figure 9) and not plasticity.
This point is often misquoted.}
(iii) Organic Matter
Organic matter in the form of partly decomposed vegetation is the
primary constituent of peaty soils. Varying amounts of finely divided
vegetable matter are found in plastic and non-plastic sediments, and often
affect their properties sufficiently to influence their classification. Thus
we have organic silts and silt-clays of low plasticity and organic clays of
medium to high plasticity. Even small amounts of organic material in
colloidal form in a clay will result in an appreciable increase in liquid
limit of the material without increasing its plasticity index. Organic soils

are dark grey or black in colour, and usually have a characteristic odour
of decay. Organic clays feel spongy in the plastic range as compared to
inorganic clays. The tendency for soils high in organic content to create
voids by decay or to change the physical characteristics of a soil mass
through chemical alteration makes them undesirable for engineering use.
Soils containing even moderate amounts of organic matter are
significantly more compressible and less stable than inorganic soils,
hence they are less desirable for engineering use.
6. ACTIVITY
Although not part of the classification of soils Skempton (1953) has
defined the `Activity' of a soil as the ratio of the Plasticity Index to the
percentage by weight of the soil smaller than the 2 micrometre. The
results that accommodated Skempton's definition are illustrated in Figure
11 and were done on clays that were basicly 100% passing the 75 m
sieve. The value of obtaining the activity of the fines fraction is that high
activity is generally but not always associated with swelling soils.

Figure 11. Typical activity relationship for three natural soils

(Skempton, 1953).
7. VON POST CLASSIFICATION OF PEAT
Von Post's main classification of peat is for degree of decomposition
or "Humidification" symbol H.
Secondary subdivisions are for "Relative Moisture", symbol B;
"Number of Fibres", symbol F; "Number of Root Threads", symbol R;
and "Quantity of Wood" symbol V.
These classifications are given below (see after references):

Figure 10. Relationship suggested by Bjerrum (1954) between

undrained strength and plasticity Index.

8. REFERENCES
ASTM D-2487, "Classification of soils for engineering purposes",
American Society for Testing Materials. (TA401.A5S).
ASTM D-2488, "Description and identification of soils (visualmanual procedure)", American Society for Testing Materials.
(TA401.A5S).
Bjerrum, L. (1954), "Geotechnical properties of Norwegian marine
clays". Geotechnique, Vol. 4, pp. 49-69. (TA1.G3).
Burmister, D.M., 1951, "Identification and Classification of Soils".
Symposium on Identification and Classification of Soils, Special
Technical Publication No. 113, American Society for Testing Materials,

Unified Soil Classification System -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond.

15

pp. 3-24. (TA710.A5)

Casagrande, A., 1948, "Classification and Identification of Soils".
Transactions of the American Society of Civil Engineers, Volume 113,
pp. 901-991. (TA1.A5t)
Helenelund, K.V. (1968), "Compression, Tension and Beam Tests on
Fibrous Peat". Proceedings of the Third International Peat Congress,
Quebec, Canada, pp. 136-142. (TN837.I58)
"Peat Testing Manual", (1979). Technical Memorandum 125,
National Research Council of Canada, Ed. Com. Day, J.H., Rennie, P.J.,
Stanek, W, and Raymond G.P. (Chairman). (TA710.A1N27).
Portland Cement Association (1956), "PCA soil primer".
Portland Cement Association, Chicago, IL. 86p.
Rose, A.C. (1924), "Practical field tests for subgrade soils". Public
Roads, Vol. 5, pp. 10-15. (TE23.A4).
Skempton, A.W., 1944, "Notes on the compressibility of clays".
Quart. J. Geol. Soc., London, C, pp. 119-135. (QE1.G345).
Skempton, A.W., 1953, "The colloidal activity of clays". Proc. 3rd
International Conference on Soil Mechanics and Foundation
Engineering, Vol. 1, pp. 57-61. (TA710.I6t)
Von Post, L. (1922) "Sveriges geologiska undersknings
torvinventering och ngra av dess hittills vunna resultat" Sv.
Mosskulturfr", Tidskr, 1:1-27.

Secondary Classification for Peat

B. Relative
Moisture:

B1 Air dry
B2 Somewhat dry
B3 Normal moisture
B4 Wet
B5 Very wet

F. Number of
Fibres:

F1 No fibres
F2 Few fibres
F3 Plenty of fibres
F4 Mainly fibres

R. Number of
Root Threads:

R1 No root threads
R2 Few root threads
R3 Plenty of root threads
R4 Root threads forming main part of peat

V.

V1 No wood remainder
V2 Few wood remainders
V3 Plenty wood remainders
V4 Very many wood remainders

Quantity of
Wood:

Classification of Degree of Decomposition of Peat

H1
H2
H3

H4
H5

H6

H7

H8

H9
H10

Completely unhumified and muck-free peat; upon pressing

in the hand, gives off only colorless, clear water.
Almost completely unhumified and muck-free peat; upon
pressing, gives off almost clear but yellow-brown water.
Little humified and little muck-containing peat; upon
pressing, gives off distinctly turbid water, no peat
substances pass between the fingers and the residue is not
mushy.
Poorly humified or some muck-containing peat; upon
pressing, gives off strongly turbid water. The residue is
somewhat mushy.
Peat partially humified or with considerable muck-content.
The plant remains are recognizable but not distinct. Upon
pressing, some of the substance passes between the fingers
together with mucky water. The residue in the hand is
stronglv m1lshv
Peat partially humified or with considerable muck-content.
The plant remains are not distinct. Upon pressing, at the
most, one third of the peat passes between the fingers. The
residue is strongly mushy but the plant residue stands out
more distinctly than in the unpressed peat.
Peat quite well humified or with considerable
muck-content, in which much of the plant remains can still
be seen. Upon pressinR, about half of the peat passes
between the fingers. If water separates it is soupy and very
dark in color.
Peat weIl humified or with considerable muck-content. The
plant remains are not recognizable. Upon pressing, about
two-thirds of the peat passes between the fingers. If it
gives off water at alln it is soupy. The remains consist
mainlY of more resistant root fibres, etc.
Peat, very well humified or muck-like in which hardly any
plant remains are apparent. Upon pressing, nearly all of the
peat passes between the fingers like a homogeneous mush.
Peat completely humified or muck-like in which no plant
remains are apparent. Upon pressing all of the peat passes
between the fingers.

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Unified Soil Classification System -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond.

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Unified Soil Classification System -- GEOTECHNICAL ENGINEERING-1997 -- Prof. G.P. Raymond.

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