XAct Paris

xAct
Efficient manipulation of tensor expressions

M. Martn Garca
Jose
Laboratoire Univers et Theories,

Meudon
&
Institut dAstrophysique de Paris
LUTH, Meudon, 21 April 2009
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Computers in science
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Human 102 flops vs. computer 109 1015 flops.
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Numerics: Approximate solutions to continuous problems.
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Computers are discrete-calculus machines!
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Computer algebra (CA): Exact solutions.
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Computer algebra (CA): Exact solutions.
Our problem: Efficient Tensor Computer Algebra (TCA).
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Summary
1. General purpose computer algebra (CA)

Focus: the canonicalizer.
2. Computer algebra for tensor calculus (TCA)
Focus: types of problems.
3. A Mathematica / C implementation: xAct
4. Case example: scalars of the Riemann tensor
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1. Computer algebra (CA)
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Definition:
Manipulation of symbols (even the program itself)
No truncation of information
In science: manipulation of symbolic mathematical expressions
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Definition:
Manipulation of symbols (even the program itself)
No truncation of information
In science: manipulation of symbolic mathematical expressions
Early history:
1950: ALGAE (Los Alamos)
1953: Kahrimanian, Nolan: differentiation systems
1963: ALTRAN / ALPAK (Bell Labs)
1960s: LISP: recursion, conditionals, dynamical allocation of memory,
garbage collection, etc.
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1b. Computer algebra systems (CAS)
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General purpose systems:
System
Language
Develop.
Release
Strengths
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System
Language
Reduce
LISP
Macsyma
LISP
Derive
LISP
Develop.
?
?
1979
Release
1968
1970
1988
Strengths
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System
Language
Reduce
LISP
Macsyma
LISP
Derive
LISP
Maple
C
Mathematica
C
Develop.
?
?
1979
1979
1986
Release
1968
1970
1988
1985
1988
Strengths
hashing routines
pattern matching
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System
Language
Reduce
LISP
Macsyma
LISP
Derive
LISP
Maple
C
Mathematica
C
Maxima
CLISP
Axiom
Aldor
Develop.
?
?
1979
1979
1986
1982
1971-91
Release
1968
1970
1988
1985
1988
1998
2002
Strengths
hashing routines
pattern matching
object-oriented
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System
Language
Reduce
LISP
Macsyma
LISP
Derive
LISP
Maple
C
Mathematica
C
Maxima
CLISP
Axiom
Aldor
Develop.
?
?
1979
1979
1986
1982
1971-91
Release
1968
1970
1988
1985
1988
1998
2002
Strengths
hashing routines
pattern matching
object-oriented
Specialised systems for:

Celestial mechanics
Quantum Field Theory
Group theory: MAGMA, GAP
Fluid mechanics
General Relativity
Industrial applications
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1c. CA. Memory limitations

Recursive algorithm xi+1 = f (xi ) with initial seed x0 :
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Numerical: reserve fixed memory per number and
xi+1 = Truncate[f (xi )]
CA: exact algorithm, reallocate memory.
Generic memory growth Generic computing-time growth
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Examples:
det(A + B)
n! 2n terms ( 4 109 for n = 10 )
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Examples:
Intermediate expression swell:

Simple input Complex intermediate steps Simple output
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Examples:
Linear systems with random integers |ci | 100. Timing (s):

100
Exact
Numerical
0.01
10
50 100
500
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1d. CA. Intrinsic limitations

Richardsons theorem (1968):
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Let be E a set of real functions such that
If A(x), B(x) E then A(x) B(x), A(x)B(x), A(B(x)) E.
The rational numbers are contained as constant functions.
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Then for expressions A(x) in E,
if log 2, , ex , sin x E then A(x) 0 for all x is unsolvable;
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if also x2 E then A(x) 0 is unsolvable.
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If furthermore there is a function B(x) E without primitive in E then
2
the integration problem is unsolvable. Example: ex .
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If furthermore there is a function B(x) E without primitive in E then
2
the integration problem is unsolvable. Example: ex .
Is Computer Algebra doomed to failure?
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1e. CA. The canonicalizer
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There are families of expressions for which a canonical form can always be
defined. Example: polynomials.
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Definition: A = B iff their canonical forms coincide.
There are different canonical forms for a family of expressions.
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The algorithm in charge of canonicalization is called the canonicalizer.
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Do not confuse
canonicalization: objective, given a canonical form
simplification: largely subjective. More difficult. Mathematica:
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Do not confuse
canonicalization: objective, given a canonical form
simplification: largely subjective. More difficult. Mathematica:
Simplify[ (x 1)(x + 1) ]
Simplify[ (x y)(x + y) ]
Simplify[ x4 x ]
1 + x2
(x y)(x + y)
x(1 + x3 )
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2. Computer algebra for (GR) tensors

Motivation: Long but simple problems
Perturbation theory
Bel-Robinson, super energy-momentum tensors, ...
4Babcd = Ca e b f Ccedf + Ca e b f Ccedf
Babcd = B(abcd)
Riemann polynomials:
1
Rabcd Ra e c f Rbf de = Rabcd Ra e c f Rbedf Rabcd Rab ef Rcdef
4
Lovelock (dimension-dependent) identities
Component expansions in numerics (code generation)
[ Kranc:
Husa, Hinder, Lechner 04 ]
Manipulation and classification of metrics

[ GRDB: Ishak, Lake 02; ICD: Skea 97]
Added benefits: reproducibility, error-free, ...

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2b. TCA. Early history
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R. dInverno 1969
ALAM

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R. dInverno 1969
ALAM

- R.A. Russell-Clark 1971
CLAM

- I. Frick 1974
ILAM

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R. dInverno 1969
- I. Frick 1974
ALAM
CLAM
ILAM

P

PP

PP
?
PP
q
)

LAM

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R. dInverno 1969
- I. Frick 1974
ALAM
CLAM
ILAM

P

PP

PP
?
PP
q
)

LAM

?

I. Frick 1977
SHEEP

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R. dInverno 1969
- I. Frick 1974
ALAM
CLAM
ILAM

P

PP

PP
?
PP
q
)

LAM

?

I. Frick 1977
SHEEP

?

dInverno & Frick 1982
SHEEP2

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R. dInverno 1969
- I. Frick 1974
ALAM
CLAM
ILAM

P

PP
PP
?

PP
q
)

LAM

?

I. Frick 1977
SHEEP

?

J. man 1987
dInverno & Frick 1982
L. Hrnfeldt 1988

CLASSI
SHEEP2
STENSOR

?

J. E. F. Skea 1988
RSHEEP

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2c. Classes: types of problems
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Component computations:
Give a metric in a coordinate system / frame.
Compute other tensors from that metric.
Key issues:
Component expansions. Many terms. Memory? [
Symmetries. Independent components? [ Klioner
Lake 03 ]
04 ]
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Key issues:
Lake 03 ]
04 ]
Abstract computations:
Define tensors with symmetries, connections, etc.
Compute and simplify expressions.
Key issue: canonicalization with symmetries and dummy indices.
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Key issues:
Lake 03 ]
04 ]
Abstract computations:
Define tensors with symmetries, connections, etc.
Compute and simplify expressions.
Key issue: canonicalization with symmetries and dummy indices.
Question: Component computations from abstract computations?
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2c-2. Classes: sources of complexity

General expression: tensor polynomial
. . . + 3r 2 Rabcd Raecf T b e f v d + Rabcd Rcdef Ref ab + ...
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Expand and canonicalize terms independently (parallelism).
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Tensor product: sort tensors and construct equivalent single tensor with
inherited symmetries [ Portugal 99 ].
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Canonicalize tensor with n indices and arbitrary symmetry:
Simple algorithms: timings are exponential in n.
Efficient algorithms: timings are effectively polynomial in n.
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Canonicalize tensor with n indices and arbitrary symmetry:
Simple algorithms: timings are exponential in n.
Efficient algorithms: timings are effectively polynomial in n.
Arrange dummy indices in full expression.
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2c-3. Classes: types of symmetries
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Monoterm symmetries (perm groups):
Rbacd = Rabcd ,
Rcdab = +Rabcd
Most packages use ad hoc exponential algorithms.

Polynomic algorithms to manipulate the Symmetric Group Sn , based on
Strong Generating Set representations
[ Schreier, Sims, Knuth, ... 70s, 80s ].
Applied to tensor/spinor canonicalization:
[ Portugal et al. 01 ]
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Monoterm symmetries (perm groups):
Rbacd = Rabcd ,
Rcdab = +Rabcd
Most packages use ad hoc exponential algorithms.

Polynomic algorithms to manipulate the Symmetric Group Sn , based on
Strong Generating Set representations
[ Schreier, Sims, Knuth, ... 70s, 80s ].
Applied to tensor/spinor canonicalization:
[ Portugal et al. 01 ]
Multiterm symmetries (perm algebras):

Rabcd + Racdb + Radbc = 0
No known efficient algorithms. Solutions?
Most elegant: Young tableaux [
Fulling et al. 92; Peeters 05 ]
Particular case: dimension-dependent identities [
Edgar et al. 02 ].
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2d. Tensor packages

M AXIMA : itensor, stensor / ctensor
R EDUCE : atensor, RicciR, ExCalc / GRG, GRLIB, RedTen
M APLE : Riegeom, Canon, MapleTensor / Riemann, Atlas, GRTensorII
M ATHEMATICA : MathTensor ($$), dhPark, Tensors in Physics ($), Tensorial ($),
Ricci, TTC, EinS, xTensor / GRTensorM, xCoba
Standalone: cadabra
Prototyping: Kranc, RNPL, TeLa
Many other small packages for component computations.
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2e. Example 1
Antisymmetric tensor Fba = Fab .
n Fh = 0
F ab Fbc ...
a
if number n of tensors is odd.
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2e. Example 1
Antisymmetric tensor Fba = Fab .
n Fh = 0
F ab Fbc ...
a
if number n of tensors is odd.
Timings (in seconds)

n
1
3
5
7
9
11
19
29
39
49
59
|Perm group|
2
48
3840
645120
185794560
8.2 1010
6.4 1022
4.7 1039
1.1 1058
3.4 1077
8.0 1097
MathTensor
0
0.01
0.02
1.12
350
107745
?
?
?
?
?
xTensor
0
0.01
0.03
0.05
0.07
0.09
0.28
0.94
2.7
6.5
13.7
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2e-2. Example 1
100000
100000
Day
10000
10000
Hour
1000
1000
100
100
Minute
10
10
Second
0.1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.01
10
20
30
40
50
0.001
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2e-2. Example 1
100000
100000
Day
10000
10000
Hour
1000
1000
100
100
Minute
10
10
Second
0.1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.01
10
20
30
40
50
0.001
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2e-2. Example 1
100000
100000
Day
10000
10000
Hour
1000
1000
100
100
Minute
10
10
Second
0.1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.01
10
20
30
40
50
0.001
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2e-2. Example 1
100000
100000
Day
10000
10000
Hour
1000
1000
100
100
Minute
10
10
Second
0.1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.01
10
20
30
40
50
0.001
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2e-2. Example 1
100000
100000
Day
10000
10000
Hour
1000
1000
100
100
Minute
10
10
Second
0.1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.01
10
20
30
40
50
0.001
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2e-2. Example 1
100000
100000
Day
10000
10000
Hour
1000
1000
100
100
Minute
10
10
Second
0.1
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.01
10
20
30
40
50
0.001
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2e-3. Example 2
Random monomial Riemann scalars:
g a 1 b 7 . . . g d n c 5 R a 1 b 1 c 1 d 1 . . . Ra n b n c n d n
1000
100
100
Minute
+
+
o
+
10
timings in seconds
1000
+
+
+
10
+
+
+o
+
+
+
++
o o o
+
+o+
+
o
ooo
+
o
o
o
o oo oo
o
o
o
o
o
+
oo
o
o+
+
o
+
o
0.1
0.01
0.001
Second
0.1
0.01
0.001
10
20
30
40
50
number of Riemann tensors
The algorithm uses the intersection algorithm, which is known to be

exponential in the worst case.
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2e-4. Example 2
A million random monomial Riemann7 scalars:
6
150000
A million
Riemann^7
125000
3.2 GHz
100000
0.5
1
1.5
Time HsL
75000
Nonzero: 558673
bin .005 s
50000
Zero: 441324
25000
0
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
Time HsL
0.08
0.1
0.12
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2e-5. Example 2
A million random monomial Riemann10 scalars:
15 000
CPU 1.7 GHz

bin: 0.0001 s
10 000
Zero: 424108
Nonzero: 575892
5000
0
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0.10
timings in seconds
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3. The xAct project
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3. The xAct project
xCore
Mathematica Tools

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3. The xAct project
xPerm
Permutation Group Theory

6

xCore
Mathematica Tools

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3. The xAct project
xTensor
Abstract tensor algebra

6

xPerm

6

xCore
Mathematica Tools

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3. The xAct project

xCoba
Component tensor algebra
[ D. Yllanes ]

6

xTensor

6

xPerm

6

xCore
Mathematica Tools

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3. The xAct project

xCoba

Harmonics
@
R
@
[ D. Yllanes ]

Tensor spherical hars.

6

xTensor
xPert
Perturbation Theory

6
[ D. Brizuela and

G. Mena Marugn ]
xPerm

6

xCore
Mathematica Tools

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3. The xAct project

Invar
Riemann tensor
[ R. Portugal ]

xCoba

Harmonics
@
R
@
[ D. Yllanes ]


6

xTensor
xPert

Perturbation Theory

6
[ D. Brizuela and

G. Mena Marugn ]
xPerm

6

xCore
Mathematica Tools

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3. The xAct project

xCoba

Spinors
Harmonics
@
R
@
[ A. Garca-Parrado ]
[ D. Yllanes ]


6

Invar
xTensor
xPert

Riemann tensor
Perturbation Theory
[ R. Portugal ]

6
[ D. Brizuela and

G. Mena Marugn ]
xPerm

6

xCore
Mathematica Tools

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3b. Features
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3b. Features
Strengths:
Fast monoterm canonicalization.
Mathematical structure, GR-oriented.
Free software (GPL).
Extensive, Mathematica-style documentation.
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3b. Features
Strengths:
Current weaknesses:
Multiterm canonicalization missing.
Tensor-editing interface missing.
Incomplete development of calculus with charts.
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3b. Features
Strengths:
Current weaknesses:
Multiterm canonicalization missing.
Tensor-editing interface missing.
Incomplete development of calculus with charts.
Other data:
c
20022009,
GPL. Version 0.7 in March 2004; currently in 0.9.8
17000 lines of Mathematica code + 2500 lines of C code.
31 articles have used it:
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3c. Results
Hyperbolicity analysis of the Einstein equations (Gundlach & JMM)
High order perturbation theory in GR (Brizuela & JMM)
Invariants of the Riemann tensor (JMM & Portugal)
The light-cone theorem (Choquet-Bruhat, Chrusciel & JMM)
Superfield integrals in string theory (Green et al.)
Dynamical laws of superenergy (Garca-Parrado)
Initial data sets for the Schwarzschild spacetime (GP & Valiente)
Cosmological perturbation theory (Pitrou et al.)
Post-Newtonian computations (Blanchet et al.)
Quantum Field Theory (lvarez et al.)
Galileon (Deffayet et al.)
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3d. What xTensor can do
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Define one or several manifolds, and products of them.
Define (complex) vector bundles on them.
Define tensors with arbitrary monoterm symmetries.
Define connections of any type. Automatic Christoffel, Riemann, ...
generation.
Define one or several metrics on each manifold. Warped metrics. Induced
metrics.
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generation.
metrics.
Parametric derivatives, Lie derivatives, Poisson brackets.
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generation.
metrics.
Single canonicalization routine (ToCanonical).
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generation.
metrics.
Transformation rules, which detect the character of the indices, the manifold of
the indices, the symmetries of the tensors, and take into account metrics.
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generation.
metrics.
Transformation rules, which detect the character of the indices, the manifold of
the indices, the symmetries of the tensors, and take into account metrics.
Use all machinery of Mathematica.
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3e. xTensor notations

Use always abstract tensor notation. Penrose abstract-indices.
Walds book conventions. Ashtekars approach to gauge.
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Symbols have a type: tensor, abstract-index, manifold, ...
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Notation for T a b ?
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T[a,-b]
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T[a,-b]
Tensor[Name["T"], Indices[Up[a], Down[b]]]
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T[a,-b]
Translator between internal / external notations
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T[a,-b]
Choice: T[a,-b]
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T[a,-b]
Choice: T[a,-b]
Notation for covariant derivatives:
(Penrose & Rindler) What are 2 v3 and 2v3 ?
Is it e2 a e3 b a vb or e2 a a e3 b vb
?
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T[a,-b]
Choice: T[a,-b]
Notation for covariant derivatives:
(Penrose & Rindler) What are 2 v3 and 2v3 ?
Is it e2 a e3 b a vb or e2 a a e3 b vb
?
Choice: a and a are operators: Cd[-a][expr]
Lie derivatives: LieD[ v[i] ][ expr ]

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4. The Riemann invariants

Scalar inv Rabcd Rab ef Rcdef , or differential inv Rab c d Racbd .
Used in the classification of spacetimes, GR Lagrangian expansions,
QG renormalization, etc.
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Haskins 1902: 14 independent scalar invs in 4d.
Narlikar and Karmarkar 1948: first list of 14 scalar invs:
(R, R2 , W 2 , R3 , W 3 , R2 W, W 4 , R4 , R2 W 2 ,
W 5 , R2 W 3 , R4 W, R4 W 2 , R4 W 3 ).
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(R, R2 , W 2 , R3 , W 3 , R2 W, W 4 , R4 , R2 W 2 ,
W 5 , R2 W 3 , R4 W, R4 W 2 , R4 W 3 ).
Other invariants are (possibly nonpolynomial) functions of them.
Completeness: polynomic basis for all invariants. Relations?
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(R, R2 , W 2 , R3 , W 3 , R2 W, W 4 , R4 , R2 W 2 ,
W 5 , R2 W 3 , R4 W, R4 W 2 , R4 W 3 ).
Sneddon 1999: 38 s-invs (deg 11). Complete basis. (Rotor calculus.)
Carminati-Lim 2007: graph-based construction of s-inv relations.
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(R, R2 , W 2 , R3 , W 3 , R2 W, W 4 , R4 , R2 W 2 ,
W 5 , R2 W 3 , R4 W, R4 W 2 , R4 W 3 ).
Sneddon 1999: 38 s-invs (deg 11). Complete basis. (Rotor calculus.)
Carminati-Lim 2007: graph-based construction of s-inv relations.
Fulling et al 1992: bases for d-invs up to 10 derivatives and R6 .
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4b. Riemann invariants up to degree 7

7 Riemann
28 indices
28! 3.0 1029
s-invs
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7 Riemann
28 indices
28! 3.0 1029
s-invs
Use monoterm symmetries: 16352 invariants
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7 Riemann
28 indices
28! 3.0 1029
s-invs

Use cyclic property: 1639 invariants
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7 Riemann
28 indices
28! 3.0 1029
s-invs

Antisymmetrise over sets of 5 indices in 4d: 4311 integer equations
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7 Riemann
28 indices
28! 3.0 1029
s-invs


Gauss elimination: Intermediate swell problem:
Original integers: |ci | 384
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7 Riemann
28 indices
28! 3.0 1029
s-invs


Final integers: |cf | 4978120
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7 Riemann
28 indices
28! 3.0 1029
s-invs


Largest intermediate integer:
41284320888114626312105608472587963577277605659619553121090337199745221229120263938390479190798331362
9332658685142520797678355583630907136564045657358541395134420154091637344181884734088835920651682654
5838550350981924166243854816386358011913196352080821446913112544207777945582431400973483457511551249
4271650405780114863779964319571108875740447236120954785394441817343113274871351581501474081446209153
5133993980627211654318697002059693685910102607365896788999230680327719504392651078493689021476459822
1917466623055176060658271638645490139036389024466375930303586688550738508615214422459534528028026604
3392962118745453989341765134526682155897073108863212658336777829476719031970391332987380834358579837
4768508365933468022268161668651405869982994847652173877241170117828300225631267244981449350418876807
8308059566617955048754211100127225300485494079978006577938025856377710049543176142178387315401497328
Required 8Gb RAM and 384-bytes integers (BigNum: GMP).
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7 Riemann
28 indices
28! 3.0 1029
s-invs


Largest intermediate integer:
41284320888114626312105608472587963577277605659619553121090337199745221229120263938390479190798331362
9332658685142520797678355583630907136564045657358541395134420154091637344181884734088835920651682654
5838550350981924166243854816386358011913196352080821446913112544207777945582431400973483457511551249
4271650405780114863779964319571108875740447236120954785394441817343113274871351581501474081446209153
5133993980627211654318697002059693685910102607365896788999230680327719504392651078493689021476459822
1917466623055176060658271638645490139036389024466375930303586688550738508615214422459534528028026604
3392962118745453989341765134526682155897073108863212658336777829476719031970391332987380834358579837
4768508365933468022268161668651405869982994847652173877241170117828300225631267244981449350418876807
8308059566617955048754211100127225300485494079978006577938025856377710049543176142178387315401497328
Required 8Gb RAM and 384-bytes integers (BigNum: GMP).
We get the 27 invs of Sneddons basis up to degree 7 (6 dual), plus all

polynomial expression of any other invariant. Invar package: CPC 2007.
Database of 645 625 relations up to 12 metric derivatives. CPC 2008.
xAct p.26/28
4c. Riemann invariants

Degree
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
A
1
3
9
38
204
1613
16532
217395
3406747
A
1
4
27
232
2582
35090
558323
A: Permutation symmetries,
C: Dim-dep identities,
B
1
2
5
15
54
270
1639
13140
B
0
1
6
40
330
3159
C
1
2
3
4
5
8
7
(9)
(11)
(9)
(9)
(9)
C
0
1
2
1
2
2
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(0)
(0)
D
1
2
3
3
3
4
3
(2)
(3)
(1)
(1)
(0)
D
0
1
2
1
2
2
(1)
(1)
(1)
(1)
(0)
(0)
B: Cyclic symmetry,
D: Products of duals ( ).
xAct p.27/28
5. Conclusions
xAct p.28/28
5. Conclusions
Brief review of the field of Computer Algebra, focusing on the importance of
the canonicalizer.
xAct p.28/28
5. Conclusions
the canonicalizer.
There are important problems in GR and other fields which require Tensor
Computer Algebra.
xAct p.28/28
5. Conclusions
the canonicalizer.
Computer Algebra.
For the first time we have tensor packages with efficient canonicalization
algorithms for monoterm symmetries, and they are free software!
xAct p.28/28
5. Conclusions
the canonicalizer.
Computer Algebra.
There are multiterm algorithms, but we need something more efficient. Idea:
databases of solutions (example: Invar package).
xAct p.28/28
5. Conclusions
the canonicalizer.
Computer Algebra.
There are multiterm algorithms, but we need something more efficient. Idea:
databases of solutions (example: Invar package).
xAct implements the fastest algorithms, in a GR-oriented structure based on
Penrose abstract indices. Well tested and documented.
http://metri .iem. si .es/Martin-Gar ia/xA t/

http://luth.obspm.fr/~luthier/Martin-Gar ia/xA t/
xAct p.28/28

XAct Paris

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Efficient manipulation of tensor expressions

Laboratoire Univers et Theories,

LUTH, Meudon, 21 April 2009

Human 102 flops vs. computer 109 1015 flops.

Human 102 flops vs. computer 109 1015 flops.

Human 102 flops vs. computer 109 1015 flops.

Human 102 flops vs. computer 109 1015 flops.

Human 102 flops vs. computer 109 1015 flops.

1. General purpose computer algebra (CA)

1. Computer algebra (CA)

1. Computer algebra (CA)

1. Computer algebra (CA)

1b. Computer algebra systems (CAS)

1b. Computer algebra systems (CAS)

1b. Computer algebra systems (CAS)

1b. Computer algebra systems (CAS)

1b. Computer algebra systems (CAS)

1b. Computer algebra systems (CAS)

Specialised systems for:

Quantum Field Theory

Group theory: MAGMA, GAP

1c. CA. Memory limitations

1c. CA. Memory limitations

1c. CA. Memory limitations

n! 2n terms ( 4 109 for n = 10 )

1c. CA. Memory limitations

Intermediate expression swell:

1c. CA. Memory limitations

Linear systems with random integers |ci | 100. Timing (s):

1d. CA. Intrinsic limitations

1d. CA. Intrinsic limitations

1d. CA. Intrinsic limitations

1d. CA. Intrinsic limitations

if also x2 E then A(x) 0 is unsolvable.

1d. CA. Intrinsic limitations

if also x2 E then A(x) 0 is unsolvable.

1d. CA. Intrinsic limitations

if also x2 E then A(x) 0 is unsolvable.

1e. CA. The canonicalizer

1e. CA. The canonicalizer

1e. CA. The canonicalizer

1e. CA. The canonicalizer

1e. CA. The canonicalizer

1e. CA. The canonicalizer

2. Computer algebra for (GR) tensors

Husa, Hinder, Lechner 04 ]

Manipulation and classification of metrics

Added benefits: reproducibility, error-free, ...

2b. TCA. Early history

2b. TCA. Early history

2b. TCA. Early history

2b. TCA. Early history

2b. TCA. Early history

2b. TCA. Early history

2b. TCA. Early history

2c. Classes: types of problems

2c. Classes: types of problems

2c. Classes: types of problems

2c. Classes: types of problems

2c-2. Classes: sources of complexity

2c-2. Classes: sources of complexity

2c-2. Classes: sources of complexity

2c-2. Classes: sources of complexity