Chapter 7: Verbal Communication

I. The Power of Language in Intercultural Communication

II. Definition of Verbal Codes & Rules:
a. The Features of Language
i. Verbal Code: a set of rules about the use of words
in the creation of messages
b. Rule Systems in Verbal Codes
i. Phonology: combing phonemes basic sound units
of a language
ii. Morphology: for combining morphemes, smallest
units of meaning
iii. Semantics: the study of the meaning of words
1. Denotative: public, objective, and legal
meanings of a word
2. Connotative personal, emotionally charged,
private, and specific to a person, subjective
iv. Syntactics: the relationship of words to one another
- sequence
v. Pragmatics: the effect of language of human
perceptions and behaviors focuses on how
language is actually used
c. Interpretation & Intercultural Comm.
i. Difference between Translation and Interpretation
1. Translation: transfer of written verbal codes
between languages
2. Interpretation: the oral process of moving from
one code to another
ii. The role of interpretation in todays world
iii. Types of Equivalence: is accurate interpretation
possible?
1. Vocabulary equivalence to establish, the
interpreter seeks a word in the target language
that has the same meaning in their own
language.
2. Idiomatic equivalence trying to understand
the intended meanings of idiomatic
expressions and to translate them into the
other language.
3. Grammatical-syntactical equivalence verb
tense in Hopi language nonexistent vs U.S.
4. Experiential Equivalence differing life
experiences

5. Conceptual equivalence (refers to how different

cultures define reality)
III. Language, Thought, & Culture:
a. The Sapir-Whorf hypothesis of linguistic relativity;
i. Ver 1. Firmer view Language determines the way
we think. Like a prison
ii. Ver. 2 Softer view Language shapes how people
think/experience their world.
b. Variations in linguistic grammars
i. Words: For showing respect and the nature of the
relationship
ii. Pronouns: The capitalize I English and other
languages
iii. Linguistic relativity and intercultural communication:
1. Language shapes and influences
thoughts/actions
c. Language & Intercultural Communication
i. Ethnic group identity and dominance
1. Language plays an active role in relationship.
ii. Alternative versions of languages
1. Dialects: versions of a language
2. Accents: differences in pronunciation
3. Jargon: words shared in a profession
4. Argot: language of gang members
iii. Code Switching: refers to the selection of the
language to be used in a particular convo
IV. Verbal Codes & Intercultural Competence
a. Study another language.
b. Learn about other language grammatical features.
c. Motivation to want to learn about other cultures.
d. Know that you may fail.

Ch. 8: Nonverbal Intercultural Communication

I.

Definition of Nonverbal Codes

a. A multichannel process that is usually performed
spontaneously and subconsciously
b. Nonverbal codes and verbal codes are inseparably linked
together

II.

Defining Nonverbal Codes

a. Characteristics of Nonverbal Codes

i. Is a silent language
ii. Continuous and natural
iii. There are not dictionaries of formal sets of rules
iv. Is less precise
v. Multifunctional
vi. Multichannel: NV messages can occur in a variety of
ways simultaneously.
b. Relationship of Nonverbal to Verbal Comm.
i. Accent
ii. Complement
iii. Contradict
iv. Regulate
v. Substitute
III.

Cultural Universal in Nonverbal Comm. (Varona

disagrees!)
a. Shoulder shrug (I dont knowIdc)
b. Facial expressions and
c. The need to be territorial

IV.

Cultural Variations in Nonverbal Comm.: Body

Movements, Space, Touch, Time, Voice, Others...
a. NOTE: Nonverbal communication must be interpreted in
the context of the culture in which it occurs!
i. Cultures differ in the specific behaviors that are
enacted. Ex: body positions

ii. Cultures have unique sets of display rules for

nonverbal behaviors (what is required, preferred,
permitted, or prohibited)
iii. Cultures vary in the interpretations or meanings of
nonverbal behaviors
1. Types of interactions: random, idiosyncratic,
shared
b. Nonverbal repertoires (rules and interpretations) are NOT
TAUGHT VERBALLY.
V.

Nonverbal Messages in Intercultural Comm.

a. Kinesics (Body movements)
i. Emblems: nonverbal behaviors that have a direct
verbal counterpart (good-bye waving)
ii. Illustrators: NV behaviors that are directly tied to, or
accompany a verbal message
iii. Affect displays: facial and body movements that
show feelings and emotions (expressions of
happiness/sadness)
iv. Regulators: NV behaviors that help to synchronize
the back-and-forth nature of conversations.
1. Mmm, nodding, eye contact, postural shifts
2. Regulators used by speakers to indicate
whether others should take a turn, etc.
v. Adaptors: personal body movements that occur as a
reaction to an individuals physical or psychological
state
1. Scratching an itch, fidgeting, tapping pencil,
twisting hair, biting nails
2. Performed unintentionally, mindlessly
b. Proxemics (space): Halls 4 Spatial Zones High-low
context

i. How people differ in their use of personal space

ii. Territorality: 1) cultures can differ in the general
degree of territoriality that its members tend to
exhibit
c. Haptics (Touch)
i. Used for playfulness, means of control, for ritual
purposes, task-related (passing something)
d. Chronemics (Time) monochromic/polychromic
e. Vocalics: pitch, rate, volume
f. Others
i. Chemical
ii. Dermal
iii. Physical
iv. Artifactual code systems
VI.

Synchrony of Nonverbal Comm. Codes

a. Cultures train members to synchronize various nonverbal
behaviors
b. This synchronization forms a response pattern of the
culture
c. Variations in response patterns are clearly noticed.
d. Competent nonverbal behavior require appropriate
coordination
i. Ex: actors

VII.

Nonverbal Comm. and Intercultural Competence

a. The rules and norms that govern nonverbal comm, are
both cultural-specific and learned unconsciously.

b. Nonverbal comm. Operates largely outside of ones

conscious awareness.
c. Monitoring ones emotional reactions to differences in
nonverbal behaviors alerts a person to the interpretations
he or she is making.
d. Observe general tendencies in nonverbal behavior of
different cultural groups.
e. One can practice ability to observe, evaluate, and behave
in effective ways during intercultural encounters.

Ch. 9: The Effects of Code Usage in Intercultural

Communication
I) Preferences in the Organization of Verbal Codes
a) Cultures have distinct organizational preferences.
USA
Direct
Specific
Explicit

JAPAN
Indirection
Implication

HINDI
Digression (saying
circular things about
the topic w/o implying
or being direct)

Linear
Speaker-responsible
Rude and aggressive

Stepping Stone
Listener-responsible
Confusing
Imprecise

Circular
Illogical
Disorganized
Unclear

b) Organizational preferences in English

c) Organizational preferences in other Languages
II) Cultural Variations in Persuasion
Cultures differ in what is evidence, logic, and in persuasive styles.
USA
Physical evidence and
eyewitness accounts

Other Cultures
In some African Cultures to
speak out is regarded as

Quasilogical Style:
Statistics
Testimonial accounts

suspicion
Presentational Style:
emotional appeals pathos
Analogical Style: stories,
parables, and analogies
Ex: Jesus

a) Quasilogical style: resembles formal logic. Connect evidence to

persuasive conclusion.
b) Presentation Style: it is understood that people, rather than the
idea itself is persuasive, uses language, rhythmic qualities,
c) Analogical style: seeks to establish an idea/conclusion thru
stories/fables
i) Assumption that the collective experience of groups of
ppl/culture rather than the ideas are persuasive.
III) Cultural Variations in the Structure of Conversations
All convos differ on a number of important dimensions: how long
one talks, the nature o the relationship between the conservants,
the kinds of topics discussed.
a) Value of talk and silence p.216
i) Euro-Americans/African Americans: spoken word is seen as
reflection of persons inner thoughts .
(1)Legal oaths
(2)Silence: awkwardness, embarrassment, disapproval,
shyness, lack of verbal skills
ii) vs. Japanese, Chinese
b) Rules for conversations
i) Length
ii) Turn taking
iii) Kind of topics
iv) The way information is presented
v) What shows interest
vi) The nature of the relationship between the conversants
c) Rules of Conversations (2) p.220
Cultural Variations in Conversational Style
(Gudykunst & Tiny-Toomey dimensions)

Elaborate (Latino/Arab- frequent use of metaphors, fig

language) --- Succinct (long pauses, understatement)
Personal (individual is center of action) --- Contextual
(emphasis on social roles that ppl have in relationships w others)

Instrumental (comm is goal-oriented, depends on explicit,

verbal messages) --- Affective (emotionalm require sensitivity to
the underlying meanings)

IV) Effects of Code Usage on Intercultural Competence

a) Just knowing the syntactic rules of other languages is not
enough.
b) Understand that other cultures may organize their ideas,
persuade others, and structure conversations differently.
c) Look for differences in how people from other cultures converse
and use logic.
d) Avoid dismissing differences as illogical, irrational, or wrong.

Ch. 10: Intercultural Competence in Interpersonal

Relationships
I.

Cultural Variations in Interpersonal Relationships

a. Types of Interpersonal Relationships
i. Stranger: be friendly, be helpful vs. no obligation, no
relation
1. Collective: Stranger: Theyre not in my ingroup.
2. Individualistic: Treat all strangers the same.
3. Ex: Korea IDC, US fear strangers
ii. Acquaintance: someone you know, but only casually
1. Superficial interactions
iii. Friend
1. Friendships are voluntary
2. European: friends, allies, neighbors individ
3. S. Africans: brothers, sisters
4. Differs: whom is a friend, how long friendship
lasts,
iv. Romantic Partners
1. EU: dating casually
2. Spain: dating more serious
3. India: arranged marriages by parents
v. Family
1. Ex: nuclear family includes extended family vs.
nuclear family ONLY
2. How the family is defined, formality of roles,
importance of family in personal decisions, etc.
b. Dimensions of Interp. Relationships p.231

People throughout world use 3 primary dimensions to

interpret interpersonal messages:
i. Control: involves status or social dominance
1. the way supervisors can touch subordinates,
how you address teacher, CEO need more
personal space
2. Indonesia: speak Balinese which reflects their
caste
ii. Affiliation: used to interpret the degrees of
friendliness, social warmth that is communicated.
1. Ex: close physical proximity, touching, smiling,
friendly tone of voice
2. High- contact cultures: stand closer, fewer
barriers, warmer climates,
iii. Activation: refers to the way people react to the
world around them
1. Some react to things very excitedly, some very
calm or peaceful.
2. Thais, Malays neutralize their emotions in
convos whereas Iranians are very emotionally
expressive.
c. Dynamics of Interp. Relationships
i. Autonomy-connection dialectic (desire for
separation/connection)
ii. Novelty-predictability dialectic (desire for
change/stability)
iii. Openness-closedness dialectic (desire to
share/withhold info)

II.

The Maintenance of Face in Interp. Relationships

a. Face (everyone has desire to maintain face.)
i. Is the public (social) expression of ones inner self
ii. Is the favorable social impression that an
individual wants others

iii. Only meaningful when considered in relation to

others in social network
b. Three types of face needs: p.236
i. For control: autonomy (personal authority), freedom
1. In control of ones own fate, freedom of action
ii. For approval: honest, respectable
1. Related to ppls need for others to know their
friendliness and honesty
iii. For admiration: capabilities, accomplishments
1. For others to respect, acknowledge their
talents, skills
Facework refers to the actions taken to deal with the
face-needs of oneself and others.
(Face-threats:
control,
affiliation,
culture-specific: cultures make unique assessments about the
degree to which particular actions are inherently threatening to
ones face.)
III.

Improving Intercultural Relationships

a. DEFINE: Uncertainty & Anxiety Management
1. Uncertainty: refers to the extent to which a
person lacks the knowledgeto understand
and predict the intentions and behaviors of
others.
2. Anxiety: refers to an individuals degree of
emotional tension and inability to cope with
change (due to lack of knowledge)
ii. Causes
1. Expectations about further interactions
(wanting to know more about a person or not
based on seeing one another in future)
2. The incentive value:
a. Perceived likelihood that the other
person can fulfill various needs that you
have, you benefit
b. if you will benefit lots, want to know more
3. The degree of deviance from what you have
been expecting
a. When a person is acts deviant, anxiety
and uncertainty level is high b/c
unpredictable.
iii. Positive/Negative Consequences

1. Expectancy Violations Theory: All behaviors

that differ from expectations will increase
uncertainty in interaction.
a. Positive
i. Emotional: include increased levels
of self-disclosure, heightened
interpersonal attraction, increase in
intimacy behaviors, more frequent
nonverbal displays of emotion
ii. Informational: facts or inferences
about their culture, increased
accuracy in judgments made about
their beliefs, values, norms
iv. Strategies to reduce uncertainty avoidance
1. Make an accurate assessment about many
kinds of info:
a. Individ characterisics of person you
interact with
b. Social episodes that are typical of the
particular setting
c. Specific roles played
d. Rules of interaction that govern what
people say/do
b. Cultural Variations on Self-Disclosure
i. Breadth: range of topics
ii. Depth: degree of personalness
iii. Valence: positive/negative
iv. Timing: when the disclosure occurs
v. Target: to whom self-disclosure info is given
c. Conflict: Handling Differences in Intercultural Settings
Collectivistic
Person-oriented
Group-oriented
Indirect, non-confrontational
Face and relationship
orientation
Implicit communication
codes
IV.

Individualistic
Task or issue-centered
Individual-oriented
Direct, confrontational
Action and solution
orientation
Explicit

Intercultural competence requires:

a. Knowledge, motivation, skills

b. Appropriate/effective behaviors
c. Willingness to understand the face needs of people from
other cultures, try alternate relational dynamics

Chapter 11: Episodes, Contexts, and Intercultural

Interactions
I.

Social Episodes in Intercultural Relationships

a. The Nature of Social Episodes
i. Are interaction sequences that are repeated over and
over again
ii. Are very repetitive, predictable, and routine
behaviors
iii. Participants generally know what to expect, how to
behave, what to say, and how to interpret the
actions/intentions of others
iv. Ex: Class as a student
v. (give info on how to interpret verbal/nonverbal
symbols of the interactants
b. 5 Components of Social Episodes p.252
i. Cultural Patterns: shared judgments about what the
world is and what it should be, and widely held
expectations on how ppl should behave
1. The behaviors interpretations vary greatly,
depending on the cultural patterns the
person/culture has Chinese vs. Aussie
ii. Social Roles: set of expected behaviors associated
with people in a particular position
1. In many episodes, you play clearly defined
roles that guide you in how to act/behave
your expectations of your roles appropriate
behaviors

2. Even so, role varies widely between culture

iii. Rules of Interaction: provide a predictable pattern or
structure to social episodes and give relationships a
sense of coherence
1. Include aspects of what to wear, whats
acceptable to talk about, sequence of events
(main course or salad first)
2. Ex: ok to talk about work at dinner (US) or not
(France)
iv. Interaction Scenes: are made up of the recurring,
repetitive topics that people talk about in social
conversations.
1. Ex: talk about health/weather or business or
latest news
2. Varies between cultures
3. Extent of time spent on a topic varies too (what
u did, get to know you)
v. Interaction contexts: are the settings or situations
within which social episodes occur
1. Contexts impose a frame, a guide of what
actions mean what, what behaviors are
expected
II.

Contexts for Intercultural Communication

a. The Health Care Context
i. Cultural Patterns affect how people see and
understand health care...
ii. Three general approaches: p.259
1. Magical-religious (or personalistic): health
and illness are closely linked to supernatural
forces
a. Bc of good/evil, karma,

b. To treat: treatment directed towards

soothing, removing problematic forces.
Healers. (African & Asian cultures)
2. Holistic (naturalistic): humans desire to
maintain a sense of harmony with the forces of
nature
a. Emphasize illness when theres
imbalance inside body, not good health.
b. Some illnesses thought to be affected by
larger social, political, and environment
c. Wind, weather
d. Often explain illness in terms of persons
relationship to nature
e. Native Americans
f. Ex: Yin Yang harmony and balance
3. Biomedical (Western): ppl are thought to be
controlled by biochemical forces
a. Disease occurs when part of body breaks
down
b. Doctors target biochemical problem
affecting broken part
iii. Family and Gender Roles p. 261
1. Some cultures focus on health of whole family,
US just the individual
2. Certain females uncomf taking off clothes to
male doctors
iv. Intercultural Competence of professionals...
b. The Educational Context
Cultural patterns influence people's expectations about:

a) Learning styles
b) Teaching Styles
c) Evaluation styles
d) Classroom behaviors
e) The role of the family
c. The Business Context p. 274
Cultural patterns influence people's expectations about:
a. Communication Styles
i. Indiv: single person
ii. Collect: group of reps
b. Decision making styles
c. Reward systems expectations
i. Individual recognition or group
support/solidarity
d. Gender expectations p. 282
i. Either bluntly saying it (US) or saying it
formally in writing subtly (Japan)

III.

Episodes, Contexts, and Intercultural Competence

a. Intercultural competence requires an understanding of the
episodes and contexts within which interaction occurs.
b. Cultural differences related to episodes and contexts can
be a cause of misunderstanding in intercultural interactions

Chapter 12: The Potential for Intercultural

Competence
I.

Intercultural Contact
a. Intercultural contact to be successful needs to meet
certain characterisics.; otherwise it can reinforce negative
attitudes
b. Dominance and subordination between groups:
i. Dominant cultures have primary access to economic
and institution power and often devalue the language
of subordinate cultures
c. Attitudes among cultural members:
i. Some conditions should be met for positive
intercultural interactions, such as: support from top,
perceived gains, degree of perceived threat, degree
of typicality with which interactants are viewed, the
nature of interactants cultural stereotypes
d. Outcomes of Intercultural Contact:
i. Adaptation: the process by which people establish
and maintain stable, helpful relationship with others
in an unfamiliar setting

1. dominant culture: cultural group that has primary access to institutional and
economic power
2. muted group theory: individuals who do not belong to the dominant group are
often silenced by having a lack of opportunities to express their experiences,
perceptions, and worldviews.
1. in order to have concerns publicly recognized, subordinate group
members have to use dominant comm styles.
1. Contact Hypothesis - conditions that function together to reduce prejudice,
increase positive
1st - must be support on top ( for intercultural contact)
2nd - those involved have a personal gain in the outcome. (and something to
lose if they are unsuccessful)
3rd - the actual intercultural contacts are pleasing, constructive, and
enjoyable
4th - related to perceived outcome of interaction - if they both have common
goals, or both see benefit

II.

Cultural Shock Re-entry Shocks

a. Honeymoon > Crisis (when they dont like how people
look at them, do things, some people fall of here) >

Adaptation (once you adapt, you come back to the

honeymoon. IF it comes to your own country, you might
experience crisis) > Crisis > Adaptation
III.

Types of Adaptation (know the definition, the

difference!)
a. Assimilation: taking on a new cultures beliefs, values,
norms, and social practices; and it is not considered to be
important to maintain ones cultural identity.
b. Integration: occurs when an individual or group retains its
original culture identity and integrate other cultures values,
beliefs, norms, and social practices.
c. Separation: occurs when a culture does not want positive
relationships with another culture.
i. Amish,
d. Segregation: occurs when the dominant culture does not
want intercultural contact with other subcultures
e. Marginalization: occurs when an individual or group
neither retains their original culture nor maintain positive
contacts with other cultures.
i. Unless you like live in a cave or something

IV.

Intercultural/Global Personhood:
Becoming an Intercultural Competent Communicator
a. Individuals adapt in different ways and different rates.
b. Intercultural transformation refers to the process of
moving beyond the feelings and behaviors of ones own
culture to incorporate other cultural realities.

V.

The Ethics of Intercultural Communication

a. When in Rome
i. You dont want to assimilate. Implies assimilation.
NO.
b. Are cultural values relative or universal?
c. Do the ends justify the means?
i. Should all intercultural contacts be encouraged?
1. No, maybe not. If they are disrespectful.
ii. Is it ethical to go to another country unprepared?
1. No, we should prepare a bit. As not to cause
pain. Readings.
iii. Should those who are prejudiced seek intercultural
contact?
1. Yes, to overcome those prejudices. But if they
dont want to, maybe not

VI.

d. What is your code of ethics for intercultural interactions?

(ON THE TEST)
The Perils and Prospects for Intercultural Competence
a. Impacts of national and International events:
i. Destruction of the Twin Towers in NY (9/11)
ii. War on Iraq, 2003, now in AfghanistanTerrorism
b. Forces that pull together and apart:
i. Globalism and secularism (media, technology,
transportation)
ii. Nationalism and tribalism: to protect language,
religion, values, and way of lifewhat is seen as
unique but threatened
iii. The effects of culture on communication:
Interpretation of the meaning of messages across
cultures.
iv. Ones culture provides the filter, or the meaning
systems, through which all messages are
experienced and interpreted.