Rev. sci. tech. Off. int. Epiz.

, 1995,14 (1), 57-74

Chemicals used as disinfectants:

active ingredients and enhancing additives
D.J. JEFFREY *

Summary: Active ingredients used in microbiocidal products in the European

Union constitute some 250 chemical entities. Approximately
100 of these
chemicals are commonly used in disinfectant products. The majority of these
substances may be classified into distinct chemical groupings. A brief review of
the chemical, physical and microbiological properties of each group is given,
together with some indications of additives which may be used to enhance their
properties, and factors which may detract from them. Some indications of usage
areas are given.
KEYWORDS: Additives - Chemicals - Disinfection - Microbicidals.

INTRODUCTION
As a result of t h e p r o p o s e d E u r o p e a n U n i o n Biocidal P r o d u c t s Directive,
r e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the disinfectants industry in E u r o p e were asked to identify t h e
number of active components used in products which were likely to come under the
scope of the Directive. Some 250 chemical entities were thus identified (8). Not all these
actives are in c o m m o n use: some have particular applications for a specific purpose
(so-called ' n i c h e ' p r o d u c t s ) , while others have applications as preservatives, water
biocides, 'slimicides', etc., and are not generally used in disinfectant formulations.
T h e list contains a wide r a n g e of chemicals, from simple inorganic molecules
(e.g. sodium h y d r o x i d e ) to relatively complicated molecules (e.g. polymerised
quaternary ammonium compounds [QACs] or substituted isothiozolones).
At first thought, one might wonder why such a plethora of active substances exists, if they
all kill microorganisms. However, on examination, the reason becomes obvious. The
physical and chemical properties of disinfectants can limit the choice for a particular
application. It would not be reasonable to use a sodium hydroxide solution on surfaces
containing tin, zinc or aluminium, as the solution would react with and corrode such
materials. It would be unwise to use hydrochloric acid on mild steel or iron for similar
reasons. Oxidising agents cannot be used in the presence of reducing substances, which
would neutralise their effect. Surface-active properties may be required for some purposes
but not for others, and a number of additional properties (tainting, staining, toxicity, etc.)
must also be taken into account, as they could render an active component unsuitable.
In addition to physical and chemical properties, the microbiological attributes of the
active substance must also be considered. Few active substances are able to kill all the
types of microorganisms (and their spores) which are likely to be e n c o u n t e r e d , and
these substances are not suitable in all applications for various reasons.
* Jeyes Limited, Brunei Way, Thetford, Norfolk IP241HF, United Kingdom.

58
Most chemical actives are not effective against bacterial spores, and most are only
mildly effective against mycobacteria or lipophobic viruses. Some actives are relatively
ineffective against fungi, while others are insufficiently effective against Pseudomonas
spp. Not all bacterial or fungal species are equally susceptible to a given concentration
of a given product, and even different strains of the same species of bacteria, fungus or
virus may vary in resistance.
For the above reasons, a large number of active chemicals are now commercially
available. It should be possible to choose at least one active substance (or a combination
of actives) to obtain the best results in any given situation.
Most of the active chemicals on the above-mentioned list (8) fall into particular
chemical groups, and most are well established. Only approximately one-third of the
available actives are commonly used in the veterinary field.
Active disinfectant substances may be classified into the following groups:
-

QACs
phenols
halogen-releasing compounds
halogenated phenols
aldehydes
biguanides and polymeric biguanides
amphoterics
iodine-based compounds
alcohols
acids
peroxygen-based compounds
alkalis
miscellaneous.

Details of the active ingredients are presented below, together with a discussion of
potential enhancing additives.

QUATERNARY AMMONIUM COMPOUNDS

All QACs have the basic structure shown in Figure 1.
R1 is nearly always a C -18 alkyl group. R may be a long- or short-chain alkyl group
or an aryl group. R and R are usually short-chain alkyl groups. X is usually a chloride
ion but may be a bromide ion.
8

A few Q A C s have a pyridinium ion with long-chain alkyl groups and some are
polymerised. The structure of most common types of QACs is given in Figure 2.

xFlG. 1
Basic structure of quaternary ammonium compounds

59
CH
C H
n

2n+

CH,

I
N CH

Br

i -

CnH:2n+1
n

CH,

C H

Cl

n + 1

CH,

alkyltrimethyl ammonium bromide

dialkyldimethyl ammonium chloride

CH
I

0 (CH )
6

(CH )n

CH

Br

CH
domiphen bromide
3

CH,
>-CH

CH3

l\T C H - C H 0 - CH - C H 0 - <

l
CH

I
CH3

benzethonium chloride

CH
+

C H

CH

CH 0
2

I
CH3

f
-CH N

CH3

i
i
C CH C - C H

cr

> N* ( C H ) C H
2

2 n + 1

1 5

Cl H 0
2

cetylpyridinium chloride

benzalkonium chloride
CH
c H
n

2 n + 1

r CH
I
CH
I
^
Cl

Cl
alkyI(dichlorophenyl)methyldimethyI chloride

CHoCI

CH,

0 C H C H N CH
2

C H N CH CH

CH
CH
polymeric quaternary ammonium compound
3

FIG. 2
Chemical structure of the common types of quaternary ammonium compounds

60
All Q A C s are cationic. The first use of these compounds dates back to 1916 (6) but
not until 1935, when the chemistry had been further developed, did Q A C s begin to
e n t e r c o m m o n use (3). Since then, Q A C s have b e e n widely used in disinfectants,
antiseptics, pharmaceuticals and cosmetics.
Since 1935, it has been shown that QACs are much more effective in preventing the
growth of bacteria than in killing them. Q A C s have been shown to be far more active
against Gram-positive bacteria than against Gram-negative bacteria, to have m o r e
bactericidal than fungicidal activity, and to be effective against lipophilic viruses but not
against lipophobic viruses. QACs may be sporostatic (7), but they are not sporicidal and
are relatively ineffective against mycobacteria (9). N o t w i t h s t a n d i n g the above
comments, the bactericidal activity of QACs against most bacteria is sufficient for them
to have found many applications.
Used alone, Q A C s possess a certain degree of surface activity, but they are usually
formulated with compatible non-ionic detergents to increase detergency. The activity of
Q A C s declines in the presence of h a r d water, and they are usually formulated in
combination with chelating agents (e.g. the salts of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid
[ E D T A ] ) or chemicals such as sodium citrate or t r i p o l y p h o s p h a t e (which r e m o v e
calcium and magnesium ions from the water). The activity of QACs is greatly reduced
in the presence of soiling matter, and it is therefore best to clean away heavy soiling
before using these c o m p o u n d s . Q A C s are not compatible with soaps or ordinary
anionic detergents; if these are used for cleaning, they must be rinsed off before
applying Q A C s or the disinfectants will lose much of their activity. Q A C s are m o r e
effective in alkaline conditions t h a n in acid conditions, and a n u m b e r of Q A C
formulations contain alkalis, such as sodium carbonate or metasilicate. Some care must
be taken in composing such formulations, as QACs can lose some of their activity if the
ratio of the various constituents is incorrect.
Q A C s are sometimes formulated in combination with o t h e r actives (notably
Chlorhexidine or polymeric biguanides) to increase their efficacy against some Gramnegative species, or they may be formulated in combination with glutaraldehyde to kill
the whole spectrum of microorganisms more rapidly than glutaraldehyde alone.
Q A C formulations (both alone and in combination with other substances) have been
widely used in veterinary disinfectants.
The action of these formulations is reasonably rapid, they have a high concentration
exponent, and a rise in t e m p e r a t u r e increases their activity. In use dilutions, Q A C s
are usually non-corrosive to surfaces, but strong concentrations can corrode mild steel
or iron.
A wide range of QAC-based products exists and selection is difficult. The literature
supplied by manufacturers should be consulted, but l a b o r a t o r y tests on these
formulations give highly variable results, and the only way to prove their efficacy in a
given situation is to assess the products in practice.

PHENOLS
Phenols are among the oldest established active disinfectant substances. Originally
derived from coal tar, they were extensively used in the early 20th century and still play
a major role in the disinfectant armoury today. In the United Kingdom and Ireland,
over 3 0 % of disinfectants used in veterinary applications are based on phenols.
However, in Germany, only 7% of veterinary disinfectants are phenolic (4). All these
substances are chemically based on the phenol molecule (Fig. 3).

61
Phenols

phenol

m-cresol

o-cresol

2,4-xylenol

2,6-xylenol

p-cresol

3,4-xylenol

o-ethylphenol

3,5-xylenol

o-phenylphenol

Chlorinated phenols
OH

OH
CI

CH,

CH,

CH

CH,
CI
4-chloro-3,5-metaxylenol (PCMX)
OH

CI
2,4-dichlorometaxylenol (DCMX)
OH
-CH,-

CI
4-chloro-2-o-phenylphenol (MCOPP)

CI
2-benzyl-4-chlorophenol (OBPCP)

PCMX: parachlorometaxylenol

FIG. 3

Phenols and chlorinated phenols

62
Phenol itself is rarely used now, as it is highly toxic and corrosive, but the higher
homologues (cresols, xylenols and ethylphenols) are still used. Phenols have a wide
spectrum of activity against bacteria, viruses, fungi and mycobacteria, while their
sporicidal activity is minimal. Phenols have poor surface activity and have therefore
traditionally been formulated in soap solutions to increase their penetrative power. The
choice of soaps which may be used is very limited: the sodium or potassium salts of
castor oil, linseed oil or resin acids have generally been used for this purpose. Soaps
based on tallow, tall oil or oleic acid markedly decrease the activity of phenols.
Phenolic disinfectants are divided into three categories, as described below.
Clear soluble phenols
'Clear solubles' are so called as they yield a clear, opalescent solution in distilled
water. T h e y essentially consist of cresol, xylenol, o-ethylphenol (alone or in
combination) dissolved (20-30%) in a liquid soap. Ethyl alcohols or glycols may also be
included in the formula. Such products are effective under conditions of heavy soiling
and are therefore among the products of choice where such conditions exist. Clear
solubles are incompatible with acids or strong alkalis. Acids break down the soap, and
alkalis convert the phenol to the phenate ion, which is less effective than the phenol
molecule and can cause resinification, resulting in loss of activity. Products based on
cresol are corrosive to skin, but those based on xylenols or higher phenols are less
corrosive. Clear solubles have a low concentration exponent and are almost as
bactericidal as bacteriostatic; they must therefore be used at the r e c o m m e n d e d
concentration or their activity will be lost.
White fluid phenols
'White fluid' phenols are produced by making a colloidal solution of a low boilingpoint tar acid fraction and so-called ' n e u t r a l ' oil (a complex eutectic mixture of
naphthalene, dimethylnaphthalenes, acenaphthene and other aromatic hydrocarbons)
in water. This is usually made in a colloid mill or in a homogeniser, but ultrasonics can
also be used. A small amount of soap is usually added and the emulsion is held together
by a colloid protectant (usually glue or casein). White fluids have a distinct advantage
over nearly all other types of disinfectant in that they can be diluted with seawater or
brackish water without breaking down or losing their activity (nearly all the navies of
the world formerly used these disinfectants). They are effective in conditions of heavy
soiling and have a wide spectrum of microbicidal activity. White fluid phenols have been
used extensively for terminal disinfection in farm buildings. However, they are toxic and
have a tarry odour, and if the emulsion breaks down they can leave tarry deposits.
Black fluid phenols
'Black fluid' phenols are based on a tar fraction of higher boiling-point than that used
for the white fluids. This tar fraction is a complex mixture of higher homologues of
phenol, naphthols, indanols, anthracols, etc. It is quite insoluble in water and must
therefore be solubilised in 'neutral' oil. This mixture is then solubilised with a soap
solution or an ethoxylated castor oil sulphonate; glycerols or glycols may also be added.
T h e high boiling-point tar acids used in these products do not have the same wide
spectrum of activity as those used in the white fluids. These products are effective
against a wide range of Gram-negative and Gram-positive bacteria, but are relatively
ineffective against Pseudomonas spp. and mycobacteria, and are not effective against
lipophobic viruses. However, their level of fungicidal activity is quite high.

63
Black fluid phenol products are effective in conditions of heavy soiling. They form
white emulsions w h e n diluted and h a v e a tarry odour. By formulating tar acids in
combination with sulphonic acids and acetic acid, highly bactericidal, fungicidal and
virucidal products have been formulated for farm use. Formulations have also b e e n
developed using triethanolaminedodecylbenzene sulphonate as an emulsifier.
One phenol worthy of special mention is o-phenylphenol. This can be incorporated
into clear soluble products and is quite often used in combination with halogenated
phenols to enhance their activity. It is less toxic and less corrosive than most other phenols.
Formulating with phenols requires great care, as the activity of the formulation relies
on both oil/water partition and micelle concentration.

HALOGEN-RELEASING COMPOUNDS
Sodium hypochlorite solutions are probably the best known of the halogen-releasing
compounds and are among the oldest and most common of all disinfectants. They are
extremely effective against all types of microorganisms (Table I) but lose much of their
activity in the presence of soiling. Sodium hypochlorite solutions do not wet surfaces
effectively and have consequently been formulated with various detergents (e.g. amine
oxides, soaps, alkane sulphonates and ether sulphates) to enhance their detergency.
These additions do not affect the microbicidal activity of these products.
The advantages of sodium hypochlorite solutions over other disinfectants include
low toxicity at use concentrations, ease of use and relatively low cost. Concentrated
solutions are corrosive to skin, metals and other materials. These products are usually
formulated with a little sodium hydroxide to enhance stability; otherwise, stability is
greatly affected by trace metals (particularly copper, nickel and c h r o m i u m ) , which
catalyse the rapid breakdown to salt and water. These solutions should never be mixed
with acids, as the resultant reaction releases toxic chlorine gas.
For many years, sodium hypochlorite solutions have been used in water treatment, in
dairying operations, in the food industry and in the home.
As the stability of hypochlorite solutions is exponentially related to concentration,
strong solutions lose more of their activity in a given time than weak solutions. Thus, in
six to nine months under normal storage conditions, a 10% solution would decrease to
5%; whereas a 5 % solution would fall to 2 . 5 % . With increasing quality assessment at
manufacture, the stability of hypochlorite solutions has improved in recent years and it
is possible to obtain 5 % solutions which only decay to 4.0% in nine m o n t h s u n d e r
normal storage conditions.
Potassium h y p o c h l o r i t e has p r o p e r t i e s similar to those of sodium hypochlorite.
Neither of these chemicals is stable in solid form, whereas lithium hypochlorite and
calcium hypochlorite are stable as solids, and may t h e r e f o r e be used to formulate
powders. Other powdered compounds which release hypochlorite ions in solution are
trichloroisocyanuric acid (giving 9 0 % active chlorine), sodium dichloroisocyanurate
(55-60%), d i c h l o r o d i m e t h y l h y d a n t o i n (55%), chlor.amine-T, h a l o z o n e , N-chlorosuccinimide (40%) and chlorinated trisodium phosphate (10%). Trichloroisocyanuric
acid, sodium dichloroisocyanurate and calcium hypochlorite have all been formulated
into tablets to give concentrated solutions of active chlorine in solution. Dichloro-

64

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dimethylhydantoin, N-chlorosuccinimide and chloramine-T are less soluble but have
also been incorporated into powder formulations with detergents and have all been
used for water treatment. Chlorinated trisodium phosphate has been incorporated into
various d e t e r g e n t sanitisers; it has the grease-emulsifying p r o p e r t i e s of trisodium
p h o s p h a t e , with the antimicrobial activity of active chlorine. Any tablet or p o w d e r
formulations containing this substance must be kept dry, as chlorine loses activity very
rapidly when wet. All these chemicals are extremely reactive, and care must be taken in
formulating with them. Non-ionic detergents generally react with these substances, but
p o w d e r e d anionic d e t e r g e n t s (e.g. sodium d o d e c y l b e n z e n e s u l p h o n a t e or alkane
sulphonate) are suitable.
A l t h o u g h b r o m i n e is m o r e antimicrobially active than chlorine, few b r o m i n e releasing p r o d u c t s have found a place in the disinfectant m a r k e t to d a t e .
B r o m o c h l o r o d i m e t h y l h y d a n t o i n has b e e n used for water t r e a t m e n t , and sodium
b r o m i d e is commonly a d d e d in p o w d e r e d sanitiser formulations containing active
chlorine products, as the chlorine releases bromine in solution. A number of powders
which can release chlorine dioxide have recently appeared on the market. Chlorine
dioxide is said to have greater antimicrobial activity than hypochlorite and to be more
environmentally friendly. These powders usually contain sodium chlorate or sodium
chlorite and an acid which releases chlorine dioxide in situ.

HALOGENATED PHENOLS
As suggested by the n a m e , in halogenated phenols one or m o r e of the hydrogen
atoms in the phenol molecule has been replaced by a halogen atom, usually chlorine or
bromine. Halogenation of the molecule significantly alters the phenolic properties.
These substances are less soluble, less corrosive and less toxic than the corresponding
phenol; they have a higher activity against b o t h Gram-positive and Gram-negative
bacteria but are less effective in the presence of soiling matter. Halogenated phenols are
generally formulated by dissolving in pine oil or other terpene hydrocarbons or alcohols
and then emulsifying the resultant solutions with liquid soap. T h e s e actives can b e
formulated with some anionic detergents, but most anionic, non-ionic and cationic
detergents reduce their activity.
Formulations containing parachlorometaxylenol (PCMX), 2,4-dichlorometaxylenol
(DCMX) and o-benzyl-p-chlorophenol (OBPCP) (see Fig. 3) have been widely used as
antiseptics. Together with monochlorophenylphenol, halogenated phenols have also
been used in pine disinfectants, sometimes in combination with o-phenylphenol. Some
have b e e n i n c o r p o r a t e d into clear soluble phenolic disinfectants to e n h a n c e their
activity. Halogenated phenols have an intense odour and can be very tainting; they
should therefore not be used near food.
The activity of these substances against Pseudomonas spp. is increased by including
chelating agents, such as E D T A or ethyleneglycoltetraacetic acid ( E G T A ) , in the
formulation.
Increasing the degree of substitution of halogen in the molecule decreases solubility
and generally decreases bactericidal activity, while increasing fungicidal activity.
Products containing halogenated phenols have not found wide use in veterinary
applications, although they have been used as fogging sprays.

67
T h e halogenated bisphenols, particularly trichlorsan, have found applications in
antibacterial hand soap formulations. They are very effective against Gram-positive
bacteria but much less effective against Gram-negative bacteria.

ALDEHYDES
Some aldehydes have a wide s p e c t r u m of activity against bacteria, fungi,
mycobacteria, spores and viruses. Formaldehyde is the best known, and certainly the
most established, of these substances. It has b e e n used extensively in liquid
p r e p a r a t i o n s , particularly in Germany, A u s t r i a and Switzerland; according to
Haskoning (4), 30% of veterinary disinfectants used in Germany are aldehydic.
F o r m a l d e h y d e has b e e n used extensively in liquid p r e p a r a t i o n s in the U n i t e d
Kingdom for disinfection of chemical toilets. It has also been used as a fumigant, by
boiling formalin solutions, reacting formalin with potassium permanganate or heating
p a r a f o r m a l d e h y d e . High relative humidity is r e q u i r e d for o p t i m u m efficacy.
Formaldehyde is not very penetrative.
Glutaraldehyde is said to be at least three times as active as formaldehyde, but lacks
chemical stability in strong solution. It has b e e n extensively used in solutions for the
chemical sterilisation of sensitive medical i n s t r u m e n t s (e.g. e n d o s c o p e s ) .
Glyoxaldehyde, glycidaldehyde and succindialdeyhyde have also been used in some
preparations but are generally less effective than glutaraldehyde.
All the above-mentioned aldehydes can work in conditions of heavy soiling; all act
rather slowly with a low concentration exponent. Aldehydes oxidise slowly and are
relatively reactive with other chemicals. Care must therefore be taken in formulating
with aldehydes to obviate these p r o b l e m s . C a r e must also be t a k e n in using these
substances, as they are potential respiratory sensitisers.
In more recent times, aldehydes have been formulated in conjunction with Q A C s or
amphoterics to achieve a synergistic effect, obtaining m o r e rapid action and higher
activity over a wider spectrum.

BIGUANIDES AND POLYMERIC BIGUANIDES

This section details the properties of alexidine, Chlorhexidine and the polymeric
biguanides.
All these actives h a v e a b r o a d s p e c t r u m of antibacterial activity, but they have
limited fungicidal and virucidal properties. They function across a limited pH: 5-7 in the
case of alexidine and Chlorhexidine, and 5-10 for the polymeric biguanides. They are all
incompatible with anionic detergents and inorganic anionic compounds.
Chlorhexidine itself is insoluble in water, but Chlorhexidine gluconate is quite soluble
and is the salt most generally used. Chlorhexidine gluconate is much more bacteriostatic
than bactericidal; it has virucidal properties but is not sporicidal or mycobactericidal. It
has been formulated in aqueous or alcoholic solutions for pre-operative skin treatment
and has been used in conjunction with quaternary ammonium compounds in antiseptic
and detergent sanitiser formulations.
Alexidine has mainly been used in oral antiseptics.

68
Polymerie biguanides have been used extensively in combination with either Q A C s
or non-ionic detergents in the brewing and food industries. They have a wide spectrum
of activity, and b o t h polymeric biguanides and Chlorhexidine are generally m o r e
effective against Pseudomonas spp. than QACs, although resistance to Chlorhexidine
has been reported. These substances cannot be formulated with alkalis.

AMPHOTERIC COMPOUNDS
A m p h o t e r i c c o m p o u n d s have b o t h positive and negative charges in t h e same
molecule (so-called 'switterions'). They can thus be formulated with either anionic or
cationic substances. In the 1950s, some amphoteric detergents were discovered to have
antimicrobial properties. Of these, one particular group based on alkyl betaines was
commercially exploited. Subsequently, increasing the number of amine nitrogens in the
molecule was found to increase the activity of these detergents. Amphoteric compounds
are less active than most QACs, but the spectrum of microbicidal activity is less biased
towards Gram-positive organisms. Amphoterics have good detergency in their own
right and are more easily rinsed off than most quaternaries. They have found extensive
use in the dairy and pharmaceutical industries.
Amphoterics cannot withstand heavy soiling, their virucidal activity is limited to
lipophilic viruses and they are ineffective against spores, although they are reported to
have some mycobactericidal activity (5). These substances have been formulated in
conjunction with flutaraldehyde and formaldehyde to give products with detergency
and a wider spectrum of activity.
Amphoterics can possibly be used to enhance the activity of some phenols (E. Reeve,
personal communication).

IODINE-BASED COMPOUNDS
Iodine itself is not very soluble and is generally too toxic, corrosive and staining for
use as a microbicidal active, although it is among the most active disinfectant substances
known.
In the early 20th century, iodine was used extensively as an antiseptic, in solutions in
which the iodine was dissolved in alcohol and potassium iodide. These tinctures of
iodine were found to be too irritative to skin and mostly fell into disuse. Iodine was
discovered to be reactive with neutral polymers, particularly polyvinyl pyrrolidine, to
yield a product which has found extensive use as a surgical hand-wash and antiseptic.
Iodine was also found to react with ethoxylated surfactants to p r o d u c e i o d o p h o r s .
These iodophors are usually stabilised with either acids or acidic buffers. They have an
extremely wide spectrum of activity against bacteria, spores, mycobacteria, fungi and
viruses, and have found extensive use in the veterinary field.
Iodophors have a low temperature coefficient compared to most other products, and
therefore work almost equally well at low and high temperatures.
Iodophors cannot be mixed with other products, nor can they be used in alkaline
conditions. They can cause staining if not used properly.

69

ALCOHOLS
Although some alcohols have been extensively used as skin disinfectants, they are
not particularly active. Ethyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol and M-propyl alcohol are most
active at 7 0 % concentration and retain some activity down to approximately 1 0 % .
However, alcohols have found extensive use as solvents and have b e e n used in
formulations of disinfectants in combination with phenols, halogenated phenols, QACs
and Chlorhexidine. Alcohols have the advantage of evaporating quickly and leaving no
residues; they have therefore been used as spray disinfectants in the food industry.
T e r p e n e alcohols also have s o m e germicidal p r o p e r t i e s and have b e e n used in
combination with halogenated phenols in so-called 'pine fluids'.
P h e n o x y e t h a n o l and phenylethyl alcohol have also been used in formulations to
increase activity against Pseudomonas spp.

ACIDS
Inorganic acids (e.g. nitric, hydrochloric, sulphuric, phosphoric and sulphamic acids)
are used as cleaners for removing limescale, milk stone, etc. They all have microbicidal
properties due to the low p H levels, but are generally slow-acting. Inorganic acids are
efficient cleaners, but have strict limitations due to corrosiveness to b o t h skin and
materials.
In addition, m a n y organic acids (e.g. formic, citric, lactic, mallic, glutaric and
propionic acids) have been used in disinfectant formulations to enhance virucidal and
fungicidal p r o p e r t i e s . Their activity is greatly e n h a n c e d in t h e p r e s e n c e of anionic
detergents of the sulphonate or ether sulphate type, and this property has been used in a
number of sanitiser formulations; these formulations usually use hydratropes, such as
substituted alkylmonocarboxylic acids.
Acetic acid and benzoic acid work through the action of the undissociated molecule.
Acetic acid has an acrid smell but has been used as a disinfectant in lavatory cleaners
and in combination with some phenolic formulations; it is a component part of peracetic
acid. Benzoic acid is most often used as a preservative in the soft drinks industry.
All acids are slow-acting and have a low concentration exponent.

PEROXYGEN-BASED COMPOUNDS
H y d r o g e n p e r o x i d e has good a n t i b a c t e r i a l p r o p e r t i e s and has b e e n used in
formulations at 5-20%. It is not very fungicidal, and t h e organisms which contain
catalase are resistant to low c o n c e n t r a t i o n s . H y d r o g e n p e r o x i d e is a very reactive
material, is not very stable and is destroyed by alkalis. To increase stability, the p H is
adjusted to approximately 5 and p h o s p h o n a t e s a r e a d d e d . H y d r o g e n p e r o x i d e has
found intensive use in sterilising cardboard packaging used for milk. The breakdown
products are water and oxygen, thus rendering hydrogen peroxide particularly suitable
for this purpose.
Of t h e o t h e r p e r o x y g e n - b a s e d p r o d u c t s , p e r a c e t i c acid has found use in food
processing and dairying. It is p r e s e n t e d in a mixture with acetic acid and hydrogen

70
p e r o x i d e . Peracetic acid has an acrid o d o u r but kills all types of microorganisms,
including spores, and is active in the presence of soiling matter.
Many other peroxygen c o m p o u n d s (e.g. p e r c a r b o n a t e p e r l a c t a t e , persuccinate
p e r b e n z o n a t e and pervalerate) have microbicidal properties, but they are generally
unstable and have found little use in the disinfectant industry.
Sodium and potassium monopersulphates have the property of producing chlorine
from salt solutions and peroxide in acid solution. This p r o p e r t y has b e e n used in
p o w d e r e d disinfectant formulations, one of which has b e e n extensively used for
veterinary disinfection.
Sodium metaperiodate has been added to some formulations to increase activity, as it
has chelating powers for some heavy metals.

ALKALIS
Sodium and potassium hydroxide have b e e n extensively used for their cleaning
properties in the food and dairy industries. They have microbicidal properties as well as
good grease- and debris-removing properties, but their activity is slow. The activity of
these chemicals is much increased by raising the t e m p e r a t u r e and using high
concentrations. Sodium and potassium hydroxide are very corrosive and must be
handled with care. They are used extensively in 'cleaning-in-place' systems, usually
followed by an acid rinse.
Quicklime (calcium oxide) has often been used to disinfect animal corpses. Sodium
carbonate and sodium metasilicate have little microbicidal activity but have been used
in formulations with other actives to increase their grease-removing properties, enhance
penetration and raise the pH.

MISCELLANEOUS MICROBICIDES
The list of miscellaneous microbicides is long, but it is probably worth mentioning a
few of these chemicals. Products for the hygiene of hands have been formulated using
1,3-propanediol, 2-bromo-2-nitro, 3,4,4'-trichlorocarbanilide and 3',4',5-trichlorosalicylanilide, while the hydroxybenzoates have been widely used as preservatives and
have found some application as additives to disinfectant formulations.
In the vapour phase, ethylene oxide and propylene oxide have been extensively used,
and ozone has been used in water treatment.

CONCLUSION
The formulator of microbicidal products is therefore faced with a wide choice, while
not all products are suitable for all applications. When deciding which formulation to
use for a particular application, the user must first define the conditions of use and then
ask some of the following questions:
- Is heavy soiling present?
- If cleaning is to be performed first, is the product compatible with the cleaning agent?

71
-

Is hard water to be used?

Will tainting pose problems?
How quickly should the required product work?
What is the working temperature?
Is corrosion or staining likely to be a problem?
What is the required price range?

T h e user should then select a few formulations which satisfy the criteria, read the
literature supplied by the manufacturer and then make a choice.
The types of product in use in the United Kingdom for particular applications in the
veterinary area are listed in the Appendix.

* *
PRODUITS DSINFECTANTS
ADJUVANTS. - D.J. Jeffrey.

CHIMIQUES

LMENTS

ACTIFS

ET

Rsum : Les composants des produits microbicides utiliss dans l'Union

europenne constituent quelque 250 entits chimiques. Une centaine de celles-ci
environ sont couramment utilises comme produits dsinfectants. La plupart de
ces substances peuvent tre classes en groupes chimiques distincts. L'auteur
passe brivement
en revue les proprits
chimiques, physiques
et
microbiologiques de chaque groupe. Il donne quelques indications concernant
les additifs qui peuvent tre utiliss pour renforcer leur activit ainsi que sur les
facteurs qui risquent de rduire cette activit. Il prcise galement les indications
d'emploi de ces diffrentes groupes.
MOTS-CLS : Additifs - Dsinfection - Microbicides - Produits chimiques.

*
* *
PRODUCTOS DESINFECTANTES
ADYUVANTES. - D.J. Jeffrey.

QUMICOS: ELEMENTOS

ACTIVOS

Resumen: Los componentes de los productos microbicidas usados en la Unin

Europea constituyen alrededor de 250 entidades qumicas. Unas cien de stas se
usan corrientemente como productos desinfectantes. La mayora de estas
sustancias pueden clasificarse en grupos qumicos distintos. El autor hace una
breve enumeracin de las propiedades qumicas, fsicas y microbiolgicas de
cada grupo. Da tambin algunas indicaciones acerca de los aditivos que se
pueden utilizar para reforzar su actividad as como sobre los factores capaces
de reducir esta actividad. Ofrece por ltimo indicaciones para el uso de cada
uno de los grupos.
PALABRAS CLAVE: Aditivos - Desinfeccin - Microbicidas - Productos
qumicos.

* *

Ellert ot
soiling

Active against fish Active in presence

pathogens
of slime, fish
(bacteria, fungi
scales or protein
and viruses)

Active against
Active in presence
organisms causing of milk
mastitis

Sheep pathogens

Active in presence
of straw, excreta

Active against fish Active in presence

Cold
pathogens
of fish, eggs and
(bacteria, fungi
related soiling
and viruses)

Sheep farming
Housing/lambing
pens

Eggs

Fish farming
Equipment/housing

Teat skin, udders

Calf pens

Efficacy

Regulatory
Standard tests

practice

codes
of

Use
CorrosionToxicological
temperature
properties

Typical products

Types of product in use in the United Kingdom for particular veterinary applications

Cold

Cold

Cold

Medicines Act
skin test

Lyophilised pig
iodophor

Non-corrosive

- Low toxicity in
use dilution

Non-toxic
to fish eggs

Diseases of BS 6734
Animals Act

MAFF Code of
Practice

sodium hydroxide

Phenolics, iodophors,
glutaraldehyde/
peroxygen products

Iodophors

iodophors, QACs,

hypochlorite,

Chlorhexidine,

Non-corrosive Low toxicity

MAFF Code BS 6734 Lime, chlorineto fish
of Practice
releasing products,

- Must not cause

irritation

Wide spectrum of Thorough clean Hot or cold

Non-corrosive LowtoxicityDiseases of
Foot and mouth
Chlorine-based
animal pathogens first if possible.
No taint
Animals Act
disease test
iodophors, QACs,
Active in presence
BS 5305
BS 6734
amphoterics; not
of milk
BS 5226
phenolics
Wide spectrum of Clean first.
Hot or cold
Non-corrosive Low toxicity in
Diseases of
Foot and mouth
Phenolics, iodophors,
animal pathogens Active in presence
use dilution
Animals Act
disease test
glutaraldehyde/
of straw, excreta
BS 6734
peroxygen products

Cattle farming/dairy
Housing/equipment

Application area

Appendix

72

Clean first. Some

soiling present but
generally light

BS 6424
BS 6471

Iodophors,
phenolics,
BS 541
BS 808

glutaraldehyde

Caustic products,
chlorine-releasing
products

CA: Crown agents

MAFF Code of

Diseases of BS 6734
Animals Act BS 2462

Non-tainting
Practice

MAFF: Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries and Food

Hot or cold

BS 808
CA test

BS 6734

Formaldehyde,
iodophors, chlorinereleasing products,
QACs

Non-corrosive
Low toxicity
Diseases of
to surfaces
Animals Act; BS 2462
and instruments
Medicines Act BS 541

Hot or cold

Phenolics, iodophors,
glutaraldehyde/
peroxygen
combinations
CA Test

Disease of
Swine vesicular
Glutaraldehyde,
Animals Act
disease test
iodophors,
BS 6734
phenolics
BS 2462
BS 541
BS 808
CA test

Diseases of BS 6734
Animals Act BS 2462
BS 541
BS 808

Low toxicity to
Diseases of
Newcastle disease Phenolics, iodophors,
poultry in use
Animals Act
(fowl pest) test
glutaraldehyde,
dilution.
BS 6734
formaldehyde
No taint
BS 2462
BS 808

Low toxicity to
pigs in use
dilution

Low toxicity to
horses in use
dilution

Non-toxic and
conditions non-staining

Cold

Cold

Cold

QAC: quaternary ammonium compound

Active in presence
Cold
of straw, excreta

Wide spectrum
Active in presence
required
of blood, excreta,
body fluids, fat,
protein. Clean first

Wide spectrum

BS: British Standard

Layerage

Abbatoirs
Housing/equipment

Wide spectrum
required

Controlled

Active against
Active in presence
poultry pathogens of litter, excreta.
Clean first if
possible

Active against pig Active in presence

pathogens
of dirt, straw,
excreta.
Clean first if
possible

Active against
Active in presence
equine pathogens, of dirt, hair, straw,
bacteria, fungi,
excreta.
viruses Clean first if
possible

Active against
Used on clean
poultry and
eggs
human pathogens

Veterinary practice

Eggs

Poultry farming
Equipment/housing

Pig farming
Equipment/housing

Equine practice
Equipment/housing

73

74

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Specialities, Lancaster, United Kingdom, 22 pp.
2. BLOCK S.S. (ed.) (1991). - Disinfection, sterilization, and preservation, 4th Ed. Lea &
Febiger, Philadelphia & London, 1,162 pp.
3. DOMAGK G. (1935). - Eine neue Klasse von Disinfectionsmitteln. Dt. med. Wschr.,
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4. HASKONING (1994). - Possibilities for future environmental policy on biocides in the
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5. ISHIKAWA M . & MYOSHI Y. (1980). - Bactericidal effect of several disinfectants against
Mycobacteria tuberculosis and Mycobacteria bovis. Bokin Bahai, 8 (4), 145-147.
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the quaternary salts of hexamethylene tetramine. J. expl Med., 23,569-599.

7. KLARMANN E.G. & W R I G H T E.S. (1950). - Are quaternary ammonium compounds
sporicidal? Am. J. Pharm., 122, 330-336.
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Savonnerie et de la Dtergence/Fdration Internationale des Associations de Fabricants
de Produits d'Entretien, Brussels, 10 pp.
9. SPAULDING E.H. (1967). - Recommendations for chemical disinfection of medical and
surgical materials. Public Health Service Publication 930 C-15. Department of Health,
Education and Welfare, Washington, D.C., Vol. 1,65-67.