ROCK CYCLE

Like most Earth materials, rocks are created and destroyed in cycles. The rock cycle
is a model that describes the formation, breakdown, and reformation of a rock as a
result of sedimentary, igneous, and metamorphic processes. All rocks are made up
of minerals.
A mineral is defined as a naturally occurring, crystalline solid of definite chemical
composition and a characteristic crystal structure. A rock is any naturally formed,
nonliving, firm, and coherent aggregate mass of solid matter that constitutes part of
a planet.
TYPES OF ROCK'S
1. Igneous rocks
Igneous rocks- form in two very different environments. All igneous rocks start out
as melted rock, (magma) and then crystallize, or freeze. Bowen Reaction is a
proposed sequence of mineral crystallization from basaltic magma, based on
experimental evidence. Volcanic processes form extrusive igneous rocks.
Extrusive rocks cool quickly on or very near the surface of the earth. Fast cooling
makes crystals too small to see without some kind of magnifier. Basalt is dark rock,
gray or black on a freshly broken surface, and weathers brown or red, because it
contains lots of dark-colored minerals.
2. Metamorphic Rock
Metamorphic Rock- Metamorphic rocks form when sedimentary, igneous, or other
metamorphic rocks are subjected to heat and pressure from burial or contact with
intrusive or extrusive igneous rocks. ("Meta" means change, and "morph" means
form.)
Heat and pressure from burial cause molecules of flat minerals like mica to line up
perpendicular to the direction of greatest compression.
3. Sedimentary Rock
Sedimentary Rock- Sedimentary rocks are those rocks made up of pieces of other
rocks. We call the pieces of rock "clasts" (Clast means "broken piece").
A clast is a piece of rock broken off of another rock. Clasts of rock are eroded from
larger rocks, transported (moved) by wind or water and deposited in a basin.After
some period of time, the clasts are lithified (lithos is the Greek word for stone).

TERMS OF ROCK'S
1. Cementation
-The process by which clastic sediment is lithified by precipitation of
mineral cement, such as calcite cement, among the grains of the sediment.
2. Compaction
-Tighter packing of sedimentary grains causing weak lithification and a
decrease in porosity, usually from the weight of overlying sediment.
3. Deposition- The settling of materials out of a transporting medium.
4. Erosion- The processes that loosen sediment and move it from one place to
another on Earth's surface. Agents of erosion include water, ice, wind, and gravity
5. Lithification- The processes by which sediment is converted into sedimentary
rock. These processes include cementation and compaction.

6. Magma- Molten rock, generally a silicate melt with suspended crystals and
dissolved gases.
7. Melting- To go from a solid state to a liquid state.
8. Metamorphism- Alteration of the minerals and textures of a rock by changes in
temperature and pressure, and/or by a gain or loss of chemical components.
9. Pressure- The force per unit of area exerted upon something, such as on a
surface.
10. Sediment- Material (such as gravel, sand, mud, and lime) that is transported
and deposited by wind, water, ice, or gravity; material that is precipitated from
solution; deposits of organic origin (such as coal and coral reefs).
11. Transportation- The processes that carry sediment or other materials away
from their point of origin. Transporting media include wind, water and mantle
convection currents
12. Uplift
A structurally high area in the crust, produced by movements that raise the rocks,
as in a broad dome or arch.
13. Weathering- The processes by which rocks are chemically altered or physically
broken into fragments as a result of exposure to atmospheric agents and the
pressures and temperatures at or near Earth's surface, with little or no
transportation of the loosened or altered materials.
SULFUR CYCLE
WHAT is sulfur?
Atomic number: 16.
Symbol: S
Native form: is a yellow crystalline (crystal like) solid.
In nature: it can be found as the pure element, and as sulfide and sulfate minerals.
Commercial uses: fertilizers, gunpowder, matches, insecticides, fungicides,
vitamins, proteins and hormones.
It is critical in the environment, climate and the health of ecosystems.
Random facts: it can also be referred to as brimstone.
its the tenth most abundant element in the universe
Sulphur is one of the components that make up proteins and vitamins. Proteins
consist of amino acids that contain sulphur atoms. Sulphur is important for the
functioning of proteins and enzymes in plants, and in animals that depend upon
plants for sulphur. Plants absorb sulphur when it is dissolved in water. Animals
consume these plants, so that they take up enough sulphur to maintain their health.
SULFUR DISTINCTION: SMELLS LIKE A ROTTEN EGG
WHERE is sulfur found?
The majority of Earth's sulfur is stored:
In rocks underground!
In sulfur salts at the bottom of the ocean!

Steps
in Sulfur
Cycle:

Mineralization of organic sulfur into inorganic forms, such as hydrogen

sulfide (H2S), elemental sulfur, as well as sulfide minerals.
Oxidation of hydrogen sulfide, sulfide, and elemental sulfur (S)
to sulfate (SO42).
Reduction of sulfate to sulfide.
Incorporation of sulfide into organic compounds (including metal-containing
derivatives).

The Terrestrial Portion

Weathering of rocks release stored sulfur
Sulfur comes into contact with air and is converted into sulfate (SO4) ions
The sulfate is taken up by plants and microorganisms, converted into organic
forms
Animals consume organic molecules containing sulfur, sulfur moves through
the food chain
The death and decomposition of organisms release sulfur once again in
sulfate form and some of it becomes part of the biomass of microorganisms.
The Atmospheric Portion
Volcanic eruptions, breakdown of organic matter in swamps and tidal flats,
and the evaporation of water, especially seawater, release sulfur directly into
the atmosphere
Sulfur eventually settles to earth or comes down with rainfall
In the Oceans
In oceans, sulfur moves through the various marine food webs
Some sulfur is lost in the ocean by being incorporated into ferrous sulfide and
settling to the seafloor
Human Activities
The burning of fossil fuels and processing of metals releases huge quantities
of sulfur into the atmosphere
Human activities are responsible for one-third of all sulfur emissions and 90%
of all sulfur dioxide emissions
Sulfur dioxide emissions lead to acid rain as sulfur dioxide reacts with water
to form H2SO4 and sulfur trioxide reacts with water to form H2SO4

NITROGEN CYCLE
Nitrogen (N) is an essential component of DNA, RNA, and proteins, the
building blocks of life.
All organisms require nitrogen to live and grow.
The majority (78%) of the Earths atmosphere is N2.
How can we use N2?
WE CANT!
In order for plants and animals to be able to use nitrogen, N 2 gas must first be
converted to more a chemically available form such as ammonium (NH 4+) or
nitrate (NO3-).
Nitrogen cycle processes :
Four processes participate in the cycling of nitrogen through the biosphere:
Nitrogen Fixation
Decay or Ammonification
Nitrification
Denitrification

Nitrogen Fixation
N2 --> NH3 or NH4+
is the process in which the N2 compound in the atmosphere breaks and
combines with other compounds.
The nitrogen is fixed when it combines with hydrogen or oxygen.
Three ways to fix Nitrogen
Main process: Special BACTERIA
convert the nitrogen gas (N2) to
ammonia (NH3), which only some plants can use (peas, beans).
Lightning strikes convert N2 to N2O or NO3.
Industrial production. Chemical manipulation turns N2 into NH3 (Fertilizer)
Ammonification
Organic N --> NH4+
Decay of dead things, manure, etc.
Done by decomposers (bacteria, fungi, etc.)
During this process, a significant amount of the nitrogen contained within the
dead organism is converted to ammonium (NH 4+).

Nitrification
NH3 or NH4+ --> NO2- --> NO3 is the process that converts ammonia (NH3) into nitrites (NO2) and nitrates
(NO3) which most plants can use.
Note: Ammonia comes from both nitrogen fixation and ammonification
Denitrification
NO3- --> N2
(Denitrifying) Bacteria do it.
Denitrification removes nitrogen from ecosystems, and converts it back to
atmospheric N2.
Human Impact
FERTILIZERS!
Extra nitrogen fertilizer can runof, where it contaminates surface water or
infiltrates into ground water.

In drinking water, excess nitrogen can lead to cancer in humans and

respiratory distress in infants.

Some forms of nitrogen (like NO3- and NH4+) can also enter the atmosphere to
become:
1. smog- nitric oxide (NO)
2. Greenhouse gas- nitrous oxide (N2O)
3. Acid Rain(nitrogen oxides)

PHOSPHORUOS CYCLE
WHAT IS PHOSPHORUS?
Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants and animals in the form of ions
PO43- and HPO42-. It is a part of DNA-molecules, of molecules that store energy
(ATP and ADP) and of fats of cell membranes. Phosphorus is also a building
block of certain parts of the human and animal body, such as the bones and
teeth.
Phosphorus can be found on earth in water, soil and sediments. Unlike the
compounds of other matter cycle phosphorus cannot be found in air in the
gaseous state. This is because phosphorus is usually liquid at normal
temperatures and pressures. It is mainly cycling through water, soil and
sediments. In the atmosphere phosphorus can mainly be found as very small
dust particles.
Phosphorus moves slowly from deposits on land and in sediments, to living
organisms, and than much more slowly back into the soil and water
sediment. The phosphorus cycle is the slowest one of the matter cycles that
are described here.
Phosphorus is most commonly found in rock formations and ocean sediments
as phosphate salts. Phosphate salts that are released from rocks through
weathering usually dissolve in soil water and will be absorbed by plants.
Because the quantities of phosphorus in soil are generally small, it is often
the limiting factor for plant growth. That is why humans often apply
phosphate fertilizers on farmland. Phosphates are also limiting factors for
plant-growth in marine ecosystems, because they are not very water-soluble.
Animals absorb phosphates by eating plants or plant-eating animals.
Phosphorus cycles through plants and animals much faster than it does
through rocks and sediments. When animals and plants die, phosphates will
return to the soils or oceans again during decay. After that, phosphorus will
end up in sediments or rock formations again, remaining there for millions of
years. Eventually, phosphorus is released again through weathering and the
cycle starts over.
THE PHOSPHORUS CYCLE
The phosphorus cycle is the biogeochemical cycle that describes the
movement of phosphorus through the lithosphere, hydrosphere,
and biosphere. Unlike many other biogeochemical cycles,
the atmosphere does not play a significant role in the movement of
phosphorus, because phosphorus and phosphorus-based compounds are
usually solids at the typical ranges of temperature and pressure found on
Earth. The production of phosphine gas occurs only in specialized, local
conditions.
On the land, phosphorus (chemical symbol, P) gradually becomes less
available to plants over thousands of years, because it is slowly lost in runoff.
Low concentration of P in soils reduces plant growth, and slows soil microbial
growth - as shown in studies of soil microbial biomass. Soil microorganisms
act as both sinks and sources of available P in the biogeochemical
cycle. Locally, transformations of P are chemical, biological and
microbiological: the major long-term transfers in the global cycle, however,
are driven by tectonic movements in geologic time.
Humans have caused major changes to the global P cycle through shipping of
P minerals, and use of P fertilizer, and also the shipping of food from farms to
cities, where it is lost as effluent.

FUNCTIONS OF PHOSPHORUS
Ecological function
Phosphorus is an essential nutrient for plants and animals. Phosphorus is
a limiting nutrient for aquatic organisms. Phosphorus forms parts of
important life-sustaining molecules that are very common in the biosphere.
Phosphorus does not enter the atmosphere, remaining mostly on land and in
rock and soil minerals. Eighty percent of the mined phosphorus is used to
make fertilizers. Phosphates from fertilizers, sewage and detergents can
cause pollution in lakes and streams. Enrichment of phosphate can lead
to eutrophication of fresh and inshore marine waters, leading to algae
blooms.
Phosphorus normally occurs in nature as part of a phosphate ion (PO4)3-,
consisting of a P atom and 4 oxygen atoms, the most abundant form
is orthophosphate. On land most P is found in rocks and minerals. P rich
deposits have generally formed in the ocean or from guano, and over time,
geologic processes bring ocean sediments to land .Weathering of rocks and
minerals release P in a soluble form where it is taken up by plants, and it is
transformed into organic compounds. The plants may then be consumed
by herbivores. After death, the animal or plant decays, and P is returned to
the soil where a large part of the P is transformed into insoluble
compounds. Runoff may carry a small part of the P back to the ocean.
Generally with time (thousands of years) soils become deficient in P leading
to ecosystem retrogression
Biological function
The primary biological importance of phosphates is as a component
of nucleotides, which serve as energy storage within cells (ATP) or when
linked together, form the nucleic acids DNA and RNA. The double helix of our
DNA is only possible because of the phosphate ester bridge that binds the
helix. Besides making biomolecules, phosphorus is also found in bones,
whose strength is derived from calcium phosphate, in enamel of mammalian
teeth, exoskeleton of insects, and phospholipids (found in all biological
membranes). It also functions as buffering agent in maintaining acid
base homeostasis in the human body
PROCESS OF THE CYCLE
Phosphates move quickly through plants and animals; however, the
processes that move them through the soil or ocean are very slow, making
the phosphorus cycle overall one of the slowest biogeochemical cycles.
Initially, phosphate weathers from rocks and minerals, the most common
mineral being apatite. Overall small losses occur in terrestrial environments
by leaching and erosion, through the action of rain. In soil, phosphate is
absorbed on iron oxides, aluminium hydroxides, clay surfaces, and organic
matter particles, and becomes incorporated (immobilized or fixed). Plants and
fungi can also be active in making P soluble.
Unlike other cycles, P cannot be found in the air as a gas, it only occurs under
highly reducing conditions as the gas phosphine PH3