Exercise 2

Members:
Catherine Cumlat
Francis Solomon
Selena Sombrito
Bea Tan
Noelle Villacorta
Introduction:
Soil is a collection of natural bodies of earth, composed of mineral and organic matter
and capable of supporting plant growth (Smith, 2012). Because the soil is rich in nutrients and
minerals and its capability to provide moisture to its inhabitants, it serves as habitat not only for
plants but also for other macro and microorganisms. Soil structure results from the interactions
of climate, biotic factors, topography, time, and parent material (Smith, 2012). Since the soil
serves as a reservoir of nutrients, terrestrial life depends on it. Plants get nutrients from the soil.
Animals, on the other hand, get nutrients from the plants that they eat. The nutrient status of
soil does not only limit plant growth but also the productivity of consumers down the food chain.
Therefore, knowing that nutrient availability is dependent on soil properties is very important.
Edaphic factors are ecological influences properties of the soil brought about by its
physical and chemical characteristics (Yadav). Soil profile and texture, soil temperature, pH,
moisture, organic matter and nutrients are the factors limit the abundance and distribution of
organisms.
Even though soils differ from one place to another, it generally has the same
composition organic and inorganic materials, water, and air. Soil profile is referred to as
horizons, layers of the soil, which differ from each other. Soil temperature varies as a response
to the biological processes that takes place in the soil surface. Soil pH is the measure of the
acidity and alkalinity of the soil. It is affected by several factors such as fertilizers and the
presence of cations and anions. Soil moisture is the quantity of water contained in the soil. It is
mainly affected by the climate of that region. Soil organic matter is the organic matter
component of the soil. It can be the living biomass of organisms, fresh and partially
decomposed residues, and humus.
The researchers are expected to achieve the following objectives: (1) Differentiate the soil
found in suburban (Alabang) and urban (LRT) areas and explain the factors affecting both areas
(2) Assess whether which soil is better in terms of fertility and plant growth based on the
obtained information and (3) Provide observations on organisms that inhabit the soil.
Results:

Discussion:
Soil Temperature

Soil temperature is the measurement of heat of the soil at a certain depth (in this
experiment, 6 inches deep). The temperature must be taken at a lower depth because the
shallower parts of the soil tend to get heated by the radiation of the sun. This factor is important
especially in seed germination, since most seeds are sensitive to heat. Most crop seeds
however, germinate at a slightly lower temperature with some exceptions (Alberta , 2000) with
respect to the temperatures taken from the suburban and urban areas, which are 31C and
30.5C respectively. The suburban area where the soil samples were taken was completely
exposed to the sun since there were no trees or buildings nearby to provide shade for the soil.
The urban soil sample on the other hand was sparsely covered by trees and is underneath the
LRT railway (fully covered). The explanation to the closeness of the temperature values is
possibly due to the moisture content of the soil, (25% for the suburban soil, and 14.5% for the
urban soil) since water has a high heat capacity that regulates temperature, which will be further
discussed later (USGS, 2013).
Soil pH
Soil pH, measured in pH where 7 is neutral, is an indication of acidity (pH < 7) or
alkalinity (pH >7) of the soil depending on the number of H+ ions and nutrients available in the
soil. Soil pH is an important factor because it affects solubility of most nutrient elements
necessary for plant growth (ESF, 2013). A strongly acidic soil (pH 5.5 below) leads to deficiency
of P, Ca, Mg, K and Mo due to H+ ions replacing them in soil, making these nutrients prone to
leaching. Highly acidic soils can also result to aluminum toxicity which is deadly to plants. Too
alkaline soils (pH 7.5 or more) results to deficiencies of P, K, Fe, and Zn and causes boron
toxicity, which is also deadly to plants (Hallare, 2013).
Similar to the temperature readings, the pH of both suburban soil and urban soil
measured by the pH meter is almost the same, having a pH reading of 6.28 and 6.30
respectively. On both soils, calcium and phosphorous were negative or absent while nitrate was
positive in the performed tests in the experiment which have might influenced the soils pH
which will be discussed later. The soils of both areas are categorized as slightly acidic (pH 6.16.5) which is an acceptable pH for plant growth. The soils pH can also influence plant growth
via bacteria and microorganisms living in the soil. Presence of nitrates might indicate nitrogen
fixing bacteria in the soil. Also, plants release H+ ions from their roots every time a cation is
absorbed in order to maintain electrical balance, causing the soil to become increasingly acidic
overtime. (Department of Agriculture and Food WA Government, 2007)
Soil Moisture
Soil moisture is the measure of the amount of water present in the soil. Soil
moisture levels rise when the amount of rainfall is greater than evapotranspiration (loss of water
from the soil both by evaporation and plant transpiration) and drainage of water in the soil
(Encyclopedia Brittanica, 2013). The maximum amount of water a soil can hold is called the field
capacity. Any additional water added to a soil in its highest field capacity or saturation point will
no longer absorb the water because there are no more spaces within the soil to accommodate
the water, hence leaching of nutrients from the soil may occur. Also, this soil is bad for plants
because there is no air available for the roots to breathe. This type of soil based on moisture
levels is called a saturated soil which leaves water on the palm of your hand when squeezed.
Not all water from the soil is available for the plants. This unavailable water is called
hygroscopic water, a portion of water that is adhered in the soil particles. Lastly, plants wilt when
the soil is at its wilting point, where plants can no longer regain its turgidity due to unavailability
of water in the soil (Hallare, 2013). A soil with no water is called a dry soil.

The soils water retention is directly influenced by the soils particle size or texture
with the smallest soil particles capable of holding the most amount of water while the largest soil
particles holds the least amount of water. This is due to the pore spaces in the soil and the
surface area to volume ratio of the soil particles. The suburban soil with water moisture of 25%
is considered a moist soil, while the urban soil with 14.5% water moisture is also a moist soil
because both soils are damped to the touch. Both soils have an increased amount of moisture
because it rained the night before the soil samples were taken.
Now looking at the soil textures of the suburban and urban soil which is silty clay
loam or silt and loamy sand respectively, this explains why the suburban soil has higher water
moisture content than the urban soil. Silt is a particle smaller than sand which means that the
silty clay loam can hold more water than the loamy sand since silt has more surface area and
much smaller but numerous pores. Plants planted on a silty clay loam will definitely have more
water available on the soil than the plants planted on loamy sand assuming that equal amounts
of water were added to the soil. As mentioned earlier, the temperature of the soil was regulated
because of the water in the soil. This property of water responsible for the regulation of
temperature is its high specific heat capacity, which means that water needs to absorb a
significant high amount of heat (4.184 Joules of heat per 1 gram) in order to raise its
temperature to 1C higher. This explains why the temperature of the urban soil is within
acceptable range despite it being directly under the sunlight. (USGS, 2013)
In testing for calcium, nitrates and phosphorous, the soil was mixed with water
and waited until the soil particles settle, leaving a supernate with free ions possible containing
the three nutrients.
Calcium
Calcium is a macronutrient, which means that it is needed in large amounts
(Hallare, 2013). Calcium is an essential nutrient in plants, and some symptoms of deficiency of
calcium is curling of young leaves, spotting on young leaves, poor growth, leaf tip
burns, stunted roots, and damage to fruit. In plants, calcium strengthens cell walls, promotes
proper cell elongation, regulates the stomata and is for protection of the plant from heat and
stress (Tetrachemicals, 2010). Calcium is a cation, hence is easily adsorbed by smaller soil
particles and some organic matter with negative ions. Calcium however forms insoluble
compounds with other ions, especially with phosphorous making it insoluble and not available
for plant use. Calcium is not toxic to plants, but increased amounts of calcium decreases the
plants absorption of other nutrients. Calcium is also responsible of water hardness.
In this experiment, two tests were performed to determine the amount of calcium
present in the soil. In the first test, an appearance of a milky-white precipitate indicates a
positive result for calcium ions in the supernate. This white precipitate is known as calcium
oxalate. Upon addition of dissolved ammonium oxalate in water to the supernate, the
ammonium ion is replaced by the calcium ion because calcium has a stronger activity series
than the ammonium ion, forming calcium oxalate. (SC Links)
Ca(aq) + (NH4)2C2O4(aq) CaC2O4(s) + 2 NH4(aq) (Chem 109 Introduction to Chemistry).
In the second test, a small handful of soil was placed in an evaporating dish and
was then poured with concentrated HCl. Effervescence indicates a positive result for calcium.
This effervescence is hydrogen gas forming and the reaction is shown below.

Ca(s) + 2HCl(aq) Ca2+(aq) + 2Cl-(aq) + H2(g) (WebElements, 2012)

On both soil samples (urban and suburban) calcium was negative on both tests.
Some explanations for this result is that the reagents used are contaminated, no calcium or very
small negligible amounts of calcium was present in the soil, calcium remained bound to the soil
particles, and human error. Also, calcium is present mostly in basic soils. It is possible that
calcium is absent due to both of the suburban and urban soil samples acidity with pH of 6.28
and 6.30.
Nitrates
Of all the nutrients, nitrogen is the far most important nutrient and the limiting
factor that is needed by plants. Although nitrogen is freely abundant in the air, nitrogen should
be first converted into usable forms (nitrates, nitrites, ammonia, and organic nitrogen). Nitrogen
is usually made available by nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil or by rhizobium symbiosis, or by
the use of ammonium fertilizers through nitrification. Nitrogen however is lost from the soil
through leaching, denitrification, volatilization, run off and consumption of plants and animals
(University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2013). Essentially most of the processes within the plant require
nitrogen.
In this experiment, the diphenylamine test (in sulfuric acid) is used to determine
the presence of nitrogen or its other forms in the soil. A presence of brown to blue coloration is a
positive indicator. This test however uses a sensitive reagent diphenylamine that oxidizes with
the existence of strong oxidizing agents such as nitrite, chromate, ferric salts, etc. (Roberts,
1949)
Both the suburban and urban soil samples showed positive results, with
suburban having a blue green precipitate while the urban soil having a milky + dark green
precipitate, indicating different oxidizing compounds present in the soil sample. In order to
identify all of the compounds that reacted in the diphenylamine test, different sets of test must
be made which is not part of this experiment. Since this test showed positive results, nitrates are
present in the soil which may have been due to nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil or by
rhizobium symbiosis or due to ammonium fertilizers. The presence of nitrates is one of the
contributors of the acidity of both soils in the urban and suburban places due to the release of
H+ ions upon nitrification of ammonia to nitrates.
Phosphorus
Phosphorous, like calcium and nitrates, is also an essential macronutrient for
plants. Phosphorous is also a limiting factor like nitrogen. Some uses of phosphorus include
crop maturity, protein synthesis, root growth, transfer of energy and growth of reproductive
structures in plants (University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2013). Phosphorous is only available in pH
ranges near the pH of 7. Too acidic or alkaline soils are deficient in phosphorous (Hallare,
2013). At acidic conditions phosphate is stable and is bounded with aluminum and is released
when the soil is saturated with water. Phosphorous is usually available in its organic state and
roots absorb them majority in their orthophosphate (an anion) form H2PO4- and HPO42-.
Phosphorus like any other nutrients is also prone to leaching. Sources of phosphorous include
decomposed organic matter, eroded rocks with phosphorus, mineralized phosphorus, and
phosphorus fertilizers. Now unlike calcium and nitrates, phosphorus is an anion, therefore is
adsorbed via anion exchange capacity (University of Hawaii at Manoa, 2013).

In this experiment, ammonium molybdate was use to detect phosphorous.

Ammonium molybdate in acidic solution readily reacts with phosphorous with the presence of a
reducing agent (in this experiment, tin) to form a blue colored complex that intensifies when
more phosphate ions are present. (Lancashire, 2002)
Both the suburban soil and urban soil showed negative results on phosphates
with a high possibility that the available phosphates were in organic form and is part of the
organic matter that was in the soil.
Organic Matter
Organic matter as an edaphic factor could be defined as the biodegradable or
carbon-containing component of the soil. The said edaphic factor is highly affected by other
edaphic factors. One of which would be the activity of organisms which directly affects the
presence of the decayed matter. Another would be the ration of Carbon and Nitrogen in the soil.
Then, the texture of the soil determines how much organic matter could be stored in the soil
itself. Lastly, the soil acidity or alkalinity affects the growth of microorganisms in the soil which in
turn affects the amount of organic matter. Based on the data that was gathered, the urban soil
(Organic matter: 21.3%) had a higher percentage than the suburban soil (Organic matter:
10%). This data gathered is not the same as what is expected since the suburban soil should
yield more organic matter since it is exposed to more decaying matter. This inconsistency with
the theoretical result may be attributed to the factor of the soil texture wherein the urban soil has
a better soil quality than the suburban soil in terms of holding organic matter.
Soil texture (Quantity and Quality)
Soil texture as an edaphic factor determines the quantity of the different soil
particles as well as the quality of the soil by which it is called in its entirety whether sand,
loam, silty clay, etc. Soil texture is a very important feature as an edaphic factor. Many essential
factors needed by the plants and soil inhabitants rely on soil texture. The soil texture controls or
influences the amount of air and water that is retained in the soil. Through this, soil texture
influences the number of inhabitants and the amount of organic matter that can be stored in the
said soil. Most importantly, soil texture is a great factor to be considered whether a certain type
of soil is viable for plant growth. Soil quality solely depends on soil quantity as the percentage of
the different soil particles such as sand, silt, and clay determine the soil quality. Based on the
data gathered, the urban soil is classified as loamy sand and the suburban soil is classified as
silty clay loam. The data gathered from the urban soil is consistent with their findings about soil
quantity but the data for soil quantity is not consistent with the soil quality for the suburban soil.
The urban soil has the breakdown of 19.8% gravel, 12.50%coarse sand, 44.87% medium sand,
14.32% fine sand, 4.48% very fine sand to clay. The suburban in the same manner of
arrangement of percentage has 73.68%, 9.21%, 10.53%, 5.26%, and 2.89%. The soil is
classified as silty clay loam but there is an enormous amount of gravel in the soil based on the
data gathered. This deviation from the expected result is due to the fact that during the drying
process of soil prior to the determination of the soil quantity, the soil had too much water and
given that it has much clay like properties, when it was subjected to too much heat in the oven,

the soil turned to a ceramic like state. Because of this, the soil particles did not separate
thoroughly resulting to the given data.
Inhabitants
The inhabitants in the soil include both microorganisms and some other bigger
invertebrates. The inhabitants in the soil not only live there as consumers, symbiotic partners,
and decomposers, as they die they also contribute to the nutrients in the soil. The abundance,
distribution, and types of inhabitants in the soil depend on all other edaphic factors. The
inhabitants live in the range between too much and too little of most of the edaphic factors as
the inhabitants choose to live at the optimum temperature, pH, and moisture. Using the BerleseTulgren apparatus and the observation in the field where the soil was taken, the inhabitants
were determined. From the data gathered, the inhabitants from the urban soil include
millipedes, red and black ants. The inhabitants from the suburban soil include gnats, beetles,
ants, earthworms, and cockroaches. The group of inhabitants are reasonable enough to exist
from where they were seen.
Conclusion:
Soil is necessary in sustaining life on Earth. Without it, plants will not thrive and in
turn animals will not have food. The quality of soil is determined by physical and chemical
conditions.
Various characteristics were studied to be able to differentiate the soil found in
suburban and urban areas. Based on the data, the soils from the suburban and urban areas
were similar in temperature, pH and nutrient content. The suburban soil was classified as silty
clay loam while the urban soil was classified as loamy sand. Though both soils were considered
moist, the suburban soil was moister due to its composition. From drying the soil, we found that
urban soil exhibited better soil texture than the suburban soil. The texture of the soil influences
the amount of air, water and organic matter that can be stored in the soil.

References:
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Chem 109 Introduction to Chemistry. (n.d.). Laboratory Exercise: Synthesis of Calcium Oxalate.
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