On The Optimisation of Viscoplastic Constitutive Modelling Using A Numerical Feedback Damping Algorithm 2005 Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and

Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg.
194 (2005) 21912210

www.elsevier.com/locate/cma
On the optimisation of viscoplastic constitutive

modelling using a numerical feedback damping algorithm
J. Pinho-da-Cruz *, F. Teixeira-Dias
Departamento de Engenharia Mecanica, Universidade de Aveiro, Campus Universitario de Santiago, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
Received 16 January 2004; received in revised form 18 June 2004; accepted 29 July 2004
Abstract
The authors propose a mathematical model that, in the presence of a constant time step algorithm and a smooth
evolution of a state variable, increases the performance of the numerical process, forces the convergence of the numerical solution and, consequently, improves the overall quality of the results. This method reduces the total number of
time steps of a simulation process and minimizes the necessary CPU time. The proposed algorithm is based on the
mathematical adjustment of the evolution of a chosen state variable. The resulting numerical signals are analysed
and properly characterised. Several numerical signals, obtained from dierent non-linear simulation examples and conditions, are studied. Based on the characterisation of the numerical signals and considering that the numerical results
reect the behaviour of a vibratory systemthe numerical codewith its own intrinsic mass, spring and dashpot elements, the authors develop a numerical damping algorithm and present its implementation. The algorithm is applied
and tested with a non-linear nite element example, using a viscoplastic constitutive model. The authors also present
a set of numerical validation tests consisting of the simulation of the development of residuals stresses that arise from
the fabrication process of particle reinforced metal matrix composites (MMC). The cooling down stage of an AlSiCp
20% vol. MMC is simulated. In order to evaluate the performance of the algorithms, some results, obtained with and
without the application of the optimisation algorithm, are presented and thoroughly compared. The numerical damper
algorithm proves to be very ecient.
2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Viscoplastic behaviour; Numerical damper; Optimisation; Incremental process; Finite element
Corresponding author. Tel.: +351 234 370830; fax: +351 234 370953.
E-mail address: jpc@mec.ua.pt (J. Pinho-da-Cruz).
0045-7825/$ - see front matter 2004 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.cma.2004.07.013
2192
J. Pinho-da-Cruz, F. Teixeira-Dias / Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg. 194 (2005) 21912210
1. Introduction
On the present day, a large number of numerical simulation processes involve the use of highly nonlinear algorithms, constitutive models and formulations. This is the case, for example, of some fabrication
processes involving large-scale plasticity or whenever strong stress gradients are induced. Non-linear formulations inevitably lead to the implementation of incremental algorithms with generical time steps
[tn, tn + Dt] and, consequently, often complex time integration procedures. Thus, the need for ecient
and low-cost time step optimisation algorithms is ever more needed.
Many algorithms for time step optimisation, adequate for non-linear behaviour models, can be implemented with automatic formulations that anticipate the evolution of the constitutive model parameters
and correct the time step in order to avoid divergence and withdrawal from the constitutive behaviour.
This constitutive evolution is often highly unstable. Consequently, in the present work, the authors propose a numerical stabilisation method based on an analogy with the dynamic response of a classic vibratory system. The proposed method is based on the mathematical treatment of the evolution of a chosen
internal state variablethe control variable. The evolution of this state variable, also called numerical signal, is analysed and characterised in terms of its dispersion and amplitude divergence. Based on this characterisation, the authors develop a set of numerical damping algorithms and implementation techniques
that are applied and tested with non-linear nite element examples, using a viscoplastic constitutive model
[1,2]. In this paper, only constant time increments Dt will be considered in the development of the optimisation algorithm.
2. Numerical damping model

Non-linear systems seem to prevail against linear systems whenever real problems are analysed. This is
mostly so because of friction forces, damping elements, resistive elements, etc., that often exhibit non-linear
behaviour. However, linear dynamics often lead to fairly good descriptions of real systems. In these systems
forces increase linearly with parameters such as position and velocity.
2.1. Stability states of the free motion of an SDOF system
The fundamental single degree-of-freedom (SDOF) vibratory system (schematically represented in Fig.
1(a)) can be described by a single mass m, suering the action of an external force f(t), connected to a spring
of stiness k and a dashpot c.
Newtons second law of motion applied to the SDOF vibratory system leads to the following well-known
non-homogeneous second-order ordinary dierential equation (ODE) of motion:
mx c_x kx f t
with initial conditions

xjt0 x0
and
x_ jt0 v0 :
The free vibration of an SDOF vibratory system, represented in Fig. 1(b), corresponds to
mx c_x kx 0:
In accordance to the values of the damping ratio, n, the SDOF system may be (i) underdamped (vd. Fig.
2), (ii) critically-damped or (iii) overdamped (vd. Fig. 3). Positive initial displacement (x0) and velocity (v0)
were considered for the representations of the system responses in Figs. 2 and 3.
2193
(a)
(b)
Physical response
Fig. 1. Schematic representation of: (a) a single degree-of-freedom (SDOF) vibratory system and (b) an SDOF with free vibration.
Time
Fig. 2. Free vibration of underdamped SDOF vibratory system.
The free motion of an SDOF vibratory system can be statically or dynamically stable/unstable. Considering a positive inertia, m, the various free motion stability states of a vibratory system can be related to the
algebraic signals of k and c.
A vibratory system is statically stable if any displacement from equilibrium induces a force that drives
the system back to its equilibrium position. The system is statically unstable if this force tends to drive it
away from its equilibrium position. Therefore, a positive value of spring stiness k is associated to static
stability, whereas a negative value is associated with static instability. On the other hand, dynamical stability of a vibratory system is related to the signal of the damping force. A positive damping force (c > 0) acts
in the opposite direction of the velocity vector, leading to the dissipation of kinetic energy of the system
and, consequently, to dynamic stability. Fig. 2 illustrates the free motion of a statically and dynamically
2194
Overdamped system
Physical response
Critically-damped system
Time
Physical response
Fig. 3. Free vibration of critically-damped and overdamped SDOF vibratory systems.
Time
Fig. 4. Free vibration of a dynamically unstable vibratory system (k > 0 and c < 0).
stable vibratory system having constant positive values of k and c. A negative damping force (c < 0) will
provide energy to the system instead of dissipating it, leading to an increase of the free vibration amplitudes
and, consequently, to dynamic instability. Fig. 4 illustrates the free motion of a statically stable and dynamically unstable vibratory system (k > 0 and c < 0). It should be noted that dynamic stability implies static
stability, but the reverse is not necessarily true: a statically stable system may be dynamically unstable [7].
2.2. Numerical damping algorithm
In the present work, authors assume that, at each integration point, the numerical results of a non-linear
nite element analysis (FEA) can reect the behaviour of a virtual vibratory systemthe numerical code
with its own intrinsic mass, spring and dashpot elements. Thus, when analysing the virtual system, the two
main hypotheses are:
2195
(i) The behaviour of the numerical solution, at each integration point, is similar to the free vibration of a
single degree-of-freedom system.
(ii) Each integration point is associated to constant values of mass 1 m and of spring stiness k, while the
damping coecient c depends on the overall process time t.
In this context, the numerical damping algorithm consists on the replacement, for every integration point
(IP), of some transformation function C of a chosen state variable W(t) by its arithmetic average aC in the
interval [tn, tn + Dt], where n 2 N is the number of the increment, i.e.
n 2 N 8IP :
: CWtn Dt Cwtn

aC:
CWtn Dt
2
Note that if C[W(t)] = W (t) (C is the identity transformation), then

: Wtn Dt Wtn
Wtn Dt

aW:
2
The value of state variable W(tn + Dt) is therefore replaced by its arithmetic average along [tn, tn + Dt], designated by
aW. On the other hand, if C[W(t)] = ln[W(t)] with W(t) > 0 "t (C is the logarithmic transformation), then
p
: lnWtn Dt lnWtn
ln Wtn DtWtn
lnWtn Dt
2
leading to
: p
Wtn Dt Wtn DtWtn cW:
The value of state variable W(tn + Dt) is therefore replaced by its geometric average along [tn, tn + Dt], designated by cW.
Some features of the presented algorithm can be related to the concept of feedback or to the closed-loop
method of Discrete-Time Control Systems [3]. In fact, the constitutive model (CM) of the nite element
code can be seen as an open-loop system (vd. Fig. 5(a)). With the implementation of the damping algorithm the CM turns into a sort of closed-loop system due to the fact of the previous value of the internal
state variable, at instant t, being fed back, along with its actual value, to the constitutive model at instant
t + Dt. This is numerically performed replacing the transformation function C by its arithmetic mean (vd.
Fig. 5(b)). In Fig. 5(b) Z1 corresponds to the hardware memory where the value of the internal state variable for the previous step is stored, and D is a delay [3].
This damping algorithm can be implemented in constitutive models with more than one internal state
variable that exhibit oscillatory numerical instabilities. When this is the case, the damping algorithm can
be applied simultaneously to all internal state variables.
It should also be noted that the philosophical background of the presented algorithm is substantially
dierent from those related to energy decaying schemes [46], which attempt to develop robust algorithms
for integrating time semidiscrete equations associated with sti non-linear nite element problems.
It should be noted that, even if the mass varies, i.e. m = m(t) with m(t) 5 0 "t, all the terms of Eq. (3) can be divided by m(t),
resulting in an equation that describes the free vibration of an SDOF system with unitary mass and specic values of damping
coecient, c 0 (t) = c(t)/m, and spring stiness, k 0 (t) = k(t)/m.
2196
Fig. 5. Feedback control analogy of the damping algorithm: (a) open-loop system and (b) closed-loop system.
3. Constitutive modelling
In order to test the optimisation algorithms described in the previous paragraphs, the authors deliberately
chose a numerical example that uses a highly non-linear constitutive model. This example is the numerical
simulation of the development of thermal residual stresses in multiphase materials, namely in particle reinforced aluminium matrix composites. To solve this example, a set of two constitutive models is used to describe the micromechanical behaviour of the two constituent materialsreinforcement and matrix. These
models are thoroughly described, for example, by Anand [8] and Teixeira-Dias and Menezes [9,10].
The constitutive model for the reinforcement is a classical thermoelastic model [11]. For most metallic
matrix composites, the temperature levels reached during some fabrication processes are frequently close
to the melting point of the matrix material. Thus, one should assume that the matrix material exhibits a
rate-dependent behaviour. Consequently, the behaviour model for the matrix material should be based
on the following physical aspects:
(i) plastic strains are highly rate-dependent and
(ii) the internal state of the material determines its mechanical and thermal response.
Additionally, when adopting such a constitutive model, it is often necessary to guarantee that it will be possible to model physical phenomena such as, for example:
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
the eects of strain-rate and temperature;

recrystallisation and restoration processes;
internal damage of the material and
the evolution of the crystalline structure of the material.
The use of a single state variable to represent all the physical phenomena described above is clearly a
limiting option. However, it is possible to model hardening and strain rate sensitivity with such a law
[12]. In order to do this, the model uses an internal state variable srepresenting strain resistanceand
2197
two other macroscopic external state variablesCauchys stress tensor r and temperature T. Thus, the
most appropriate model that can be used to represent the constitutive behaviour of the metallic matrix
material is a thermoelasticviscoplastic model.
To specify the constitutive relations for the matrix material it is rst assumed that the total strain rate
tensor, D, is decomposed as [10]
D De Dth Dvp ;
vp
8
e
th
where D is the viscoplastic strain rate tensor and D and D are the elastic and thermal strain rate tensors,
respectively. The viscoplastic strain rate tensor is assumed to be isochoric, i.e. tr(Dvp) = 0.
Most temperature- and rate-dependent constitutive models assume that the material is isotropic and that
the plastic strain rate depends on the stress state, the temperature and a set of state variables dening the
materials strain history [8,13,14]. Based on this assumption, the viscoplastic strain rate tensor is dened by
the following ow rule [12]:
p
3e_ 0
r;
2
r
is von Mises equivalent stress, dened as
where r 0 is Cauchys deviatoric stress tensor and r

1=2
3 0 0

r :r
r
:
2
Dvp
10
p
For the particular constitutive model considered in this work, the equivalent plastic strain rate e_ is a
function of
;
(i) the equivalent stress r
(ii) the internal state variable s, representing the strain resistance, and
(iii) the temperature T, i.e.
p
e_ f
r; s; T :
11
, s and T
The evolution of the internal state variable s is itself dened as a function of r
os
p
g
r; s; T e_ h
r; s; T :
ot
12
The denition of function f

r; s; T , necessary for the complete denition of the adopted ow rule (Eq. (9)),
is assumed to be the following [1518]:
1=m

Q
r
p
e_ f s; r
; T A exp
;
13
sinh n
Rg T
s
where A, Q, m and n are material parameters and Rg is the universal gas constant. The evolution of the
internal state variable s, dened in Eq. (12), is [10]
h
s a
s i
p

s_ e_ h0 1 H sgn 1 H ;
14
s
s
where h0 represents the hardening rate, a is a material parameter and sw is the saturation value of s, associated with a given temperature/strain rate pair of values [14], given by
p

n
e_
Q
sH s
exp
:
15
Rg T
A
2198
In the process chosen as example for the present work, it is reasonable to neglect rotations and consider
only small strains [19]. Thus, a generic small strains approach is adopted [20] and the evolution of the Cauchy stress tensor can be dened as
r_ CeM : De :
16
After some mathematical manipulation one can dene the following constitutive law for the metallic matrix
material [9,11]:

2
vp
_
r_ 2lM D D kM trD 3 kM lM aM T I;
17
3
where lM, kM and aM are the coecients of Lame and the coecient of thermal expansion for the matrix
material, respectively. T_ is the cooling rate and I is the second-order identity tensor.
4. Numerical modelling
The set of constitutive equations used in the present work have, among others, the big advantage of
using a scalar parameter to represent the internal state of the material. This parameter models the resistance
of the material to plastic ow. This kind of constitutive equations are numerically stable [21,22], which
facilitates their implementation into numerical simulation codes.
4.1. Numerical integration
The numerical integration of the constitutive models is made with a forward gradient algorithm, in the
form initially proposed by Peirce et al. [23] and afterwards developed by Anand et al. [21], Lush et al. [14],
Teodosiu and Menezes [12] and Teixeira-Dias and Menezes [10].
With the time integration procedure the correct values of all the state variables in conguration n + 1 are
determined from the known values of the same variables in the previous conguration, n. For this purpose,
the viscoplastic part of the strain rate tensor in the current conguration, Dvp
w , is approximated using a
weighting factor between its value in congurations n and n + 1. This approximation is made as
vp
vp
vp
Dvp
w jn1 D jn UD jn1 D jn ;
18
where U 2 [0, 1] is the weighting factor. The value of Dvp at instant n + 1, in the right-hand side of Eq. (18),
is determined with a rst-order Taylor approximation. The plastic strain increment can be determined from
this approximation as
Z tn1
p
Dvp dt
19
De
tn
Consequently, the increments of stress are calculated.

4.2. Virtual work principle
For the thermomechanical model described in previous sections, the virtual work principle can be written as [20]
Z
Z
rde dV tdu dS;
20
V
2199
where V is the volume of the solid body and S the external surface of the volume where stress is restricted as
t t. As external mechanical loads are not considered in the present example, principle (20) simplies to
Z
rde dV 0:
21
V
The metal matrix composite (MMC) is discretised in hexahedral three-dimensional nite elements with
eight nodes and eight integration points. In order to avoid the development of locking eects the volumetric
part of the displacement gradient is interpolated with a reduced selective scheme [22,24].
The nite element discretisation of Eq. (21), for time increment n, leads to the following standard linear
algebraic system of equations:
Kn Dun Df n ;
22
where Dun is the displacement increment vector, Kn is the corresponding global stiness matrix and Dfn is
the incremental nodal force vector, all evaluated at instant tn and corresponding to time increment Dt. The
solution of the system of equations (22) is then used to update the conguration of the system and all the
state variables.
5. Results and discussion

The case study used in this work is the simulation of the cooling down stage of an AlSiCp metal matrix
composite. Initial and nal process temperatures are Ti = 933 K and Tf = 293 K, respectively, and the cooling rate is T_ 100 K s1. All numerical simulations are performed using a three-dimensional unit cell representative of a spherical particle reinforced MMC with 20% volume fraction of reinforcement. The nite
element mesh developed for this analysis is shown in Fig. 6(a). The boundary conditions specied were such
that coordinate planes Oxy, Oxz and Oyz correspond to planes of symmetry. Fig. 6(b) shows the distribution of the normal stress rxx. Note that, as expected, during the cooling down stage, the gradient of normal
stresses tends to be higher near the matrix-reinforcement interface. This is mainly due to the discontinuity
in material properties and the mismatch between the thermal expansion coecients of the component
materials.
Fig. 6. (a) Finite element mesh and (b) distribution of the normal stress rxx of the spherical particle reinforced AlSiCp 20% vol. unit
cell.
2200
Fig. 7. Accurate evolution of the equivalent plastic strain rate (EPSR) with temperature (DT = 0.1 K and U = 0.7).
5.1. Accurate numerical results

An accurate reference solution was obtained, for comparison purposes, using a very small constant time
increment, Dt = 0.001 s, which corresponds to a temperature increment DT = 0.1 K, and a forward gradient time integration weighting factor U = 0.7 (see Eq. (18)) [10]. As stated earlier, this parameter U 2 [0, 1]
controls the estimation of the plastic strain rate increment in the forward gradient integration procedure. It
should be noted that U = 0, U 2 ]0, 1[ and U = 1 lead, respectively, to explicit, semi-implicit and implicit
integration schemes. The accurate, or optimal, equivalent plastic strain rate e_ (EPSR) evolution with the
temperature T is presented in Fig. 7. All numerical results were obtained on an integration point in the matrix material, close to the matrixreinforcement interface.
5.2. Non-damped numerical results
Several numerical simulations were performed considering U = 0.25 and time increments Dt between 0.01
and 0.02 s, which correspond to temperature increments 2 DT between 1.0 and 2.0 K. It should be noted
that, since the cooling rate is considered to be constant, the results can be analysed in terms of temperature,
instead of time, increments. Figs. 810 present the temperature evolution of the equivalent plastic strain
p
rate e_ with temperature for DT = 1.0 K, 1.4 K and 1.8 K, respectively. Similar results were observed for
the remainder of the temperature increments studied. For comparison purposes the accurate evolution of
p
e_ is also presented.
Analysing these results, the following can be observed:
(i) there is dispersion in all but the accurate results;
(ii) the results oscillate asymmetrically about the optimal evolution;
p
(iii) although temperature evolutions of the equivalent plastic strain rate e_ stabilise in the considered cooling temperature range for temperature increments of 1.0 K and 1.4 K, this is not the case for
DT = 1.8 K and
(iv) dispersion seems to increase proportionally with the size of the increment DT.
2
Although temperature increments DT are negative, i.e. are decrements, since T_ < 0, their absolute values will be considered in the
remainder of this paper.
2201
8
Optimal
Signal 1.0
EPSR [x 10 3 s -1 ]
0
950
850
750
650
550
450
350
250
Temperature [K]
Fig. 8. Evolution of the equivalent plastic strain rate (EPSR) with temperature (DT = 1.0 K).
24
Optimal
Signal 1.4
EPSR [x 10 3 s -1 ]
18
12
0
950
850
750
650
550
450
350
250
Temperature [K]
It should also be noted that the disappearance/appearance of numerical oscillations can be explained by
conditional stability of the semi-implicit integration method: if the time step is small enough, stability is
attained, otherwise instabilities (oscillations) will emerge. Therefore, non-damped oscillations vanish as
the time step size is reduced since it becomes suciently small to stabilise the semi-implicit integration
method and, consequently, lead to a non-oscillatory numerical solution.
In terms of the hypotheses presented in Section 2.2, there seems to be no similarity between the behaviour of these numerical results and a mechanical vibration. In fact, the asymmetrical character of the evolution of the numerical results seems to preclude such a fact. Therefore, a qualitative comparison of results
is only possible with symmetry of the numerical results. However, a detailed analysis of these results reveals
p
that, although the arithmetic averages of e_ , for each interval [Tn, Tn + DT], did not follow the general trend
of the accurate results, this was the case when the geometric average was considered. This observation suggests the existence of symmetry in the logarithmic evolution of the equivalent plastic strain rate. This fact is
illustrated in Figs. 1113 for temperature increments DT of 1.0 K, 1.4 K and 1.8 K, respectively. Similar
results were observed for the remainder of the temperature increments studied.
2202
30
Optimal
Signal 1.8
EPSR [x 10 3 s -1 ]
25
20
15
10
5
0
950
850
750
650
550
450
350
250
Temperature [K]
10
EPSR [x 10 3 s -1 ]
Optimal
Signal 1.0
1
950
850
750
650
550
450
350
250
Temperature [K]
Fig. 11. Logarithmic evolution of the equivalent plastic strain rate (EPSR) with temperature (DT = 1.0 K).
Note that a logarithmic transformation of the equivalent plastic strain rate leads to a symmetric evolution of the temperature about the accurate results. In the presence of symmetry, there seems to be a higher
qualitative similarity between the behaviour of these numerical results and a mechanical vibration. The evolution of the transformed results suggests that the system behaves as an underdamped, single degree-of-freedom, free vibrating system with variable damping coecient c. The amplitude variation of the numerical
results corresponds to an alternate dissipation/accumulation of the energy of the system, which, according
to the results shown in Figs. 2 and 4, can be associated to the existence of a time-dependent damping factor
c. On the other hand, the spring stiness k, hypothetically constant, has a positive value since every displacement from the equilibriumoptimalposition induces a force that drives the systemnumerical
resultback to its equilibrium position, i.e. the system is statically stable. However, since the damping coefcient c may be either positive or negative, the system is not necessarily dynamically stable, i.e. amplitude
may either decrease or increase.
2203
100
3 -1
EPSR [x10 s ]
Optimal
Signal 1.4
10
0.1
950
850
750
650
550
450
350
250
Temperature [K]
100
3 -1
EPSR [x10 s ]
Optimal
Signal 1.8
10
0.1
950
850
750
650
550
450
350
250
Temperature [K]
5.3. Implemented damping methodologies

As was referred previously, dynamic stability always assumes static stability, but the opposite is not always true. A statically stable system may be dynamically unstable [7]. Therefore, our system seems to t in
the second case: it is statically stable, but dynamically unstable. So, if dynamic stability is the main objective, it is essential to force the positiveness of the damping factor c. In physical terms, a positive damping
factor leads to energy dissipation and a decrease in the amplitude. Therefore, if a decrease of the oscillation
amplitude is forced, it may be possible to guarantee dynamic stability and, consequently, reduce dispersion.
In this context, the main objective of the numerical damping algorithm described in Section 2.2 is to reach
numerical dynamic stability. It forces the replacement of the actual numerical value, or its transformation,
by averaging it with its predecessor. This methodology refrains the unstable tendencies and, for oscillating
numerical signals, leads to the desired approximation to the optimalequilibrium positionresults. In the
p
p
present work W(t) and C[W(t)] correspond to the equivalent plastic strain rate e_ and lne_ , respectively, i.e.
C is the logarithmic function. The importance of C resides in the fact that symmetry of a non-damped
2204
numerical signal eliminates spurious factors that may distort the analysis of the damped results, since the
signal does not possess average value deviation.
The implemented damping methodologies correspond to the application of the algorithm presented in
Section 2.2 for both the identity and the logarithmic transformations. Thus, for all temperature intervals,
the value of state variable W(Tn + DT) is replaced by its arithmetic average aW in [Tn, Tn + DT]. This
approach will be henceforth denominated as a-method. Alternatively, the value of the state variable
W(Tn + DT) is replaced by its geometric average cW in [Tn, Tn + DT]. This approach will be henceforth
denominated as c-method.
5.4. Damped numerical results
Based on the previously referred damping methodologies, several numerical simulations were performed
in order to evaluate the performance and validity of both the a- and c-methods.
5.4.1. Damped numerical resultsthe a-method
Figs. 14 and 15 present the evolution of the a-damped equivalent plastic strain rate (EPSR) with temperature, for DT = 1.0 K and DT = 1.8 K, respectively. The corresponding non-damped results and accurate
results are also shown for comparison purposes. Similar results were observed for the remainder of the temperature increments.
It can be observed that the evolution of the a-damped numerical results have a behaviour similar to an
underdamped vibratory system (see Fig. 2). However, some degree of asymmetry can be observed on the adamped results. Moreover, both the underdamped amplitudes and stabilisation time seem to increase with
the temperature increment DT.
5.4.2. Damped numerical resultsthe c-method
Figs. 16 and 17 present the logarithmic evolution of the c-damped equivalent plastic strain rate (EPSR)
with temperature, for DT = 1.0 K and DT = 1.8 K, respectively. The corresponding non-damped results and
accurate results are also presented for comparison purposes. Similar results were observed for the remainder of the temperature increments.
It can be seen that c-damped results are almost symmetric. This is related to the fact that a symmetric
oscillating signal does not have average value deviation. c-damped results seem to behave like an underdamped vibratory system (see Fig. 2). Finally, as occurred for the a-method, both the underdamped ampli8
Optimal
Signal 1.0
- method
EPSR [x 10 3 s -1 ]
0
950
850
750
650
550
450
350
250
Temperature [K]
Fig. 14. Evolution of the a-damped equivalent plastic strain rate (EPSR) with temperature (DT = 1.0 K).
2205
30
Optimal
Signal 1.8
- method
EPSR [x 10 3 s -1 ]
25
20
15
10
5
0
950
850
750
650
550
450
350
250
Temperature [K]
Fig. 15. Evolution of the a-damped equivalent plastic strain rate (EPSR) with temperature (DT = 1.8 K).
10
EPSR [x 10 3 s -1 ]
Optimal
Signal 1.0
- method
1
950
850
750
650
550
450
350
250
Temperature [K]
Fig. 16. Logarithmic evolution of the c-damped equivalent plastic strain rate (EPSR) with temperature (DT = 1.0 K).
tudes and stabilisation time seem to increase with the temperature increment DT. In comparison to the amethod, the c-method leads to numerical results with slightly greater underdamped amplitudes, but with a
more uniform decrease and a smaller time to stabilisation.
The rst step (n = 1) of the application of the geometric average (c-method) to the logarithmic evolution
followed
of EPSR with temperature for DT = 1.0 K is illustrated in Fig. 18. It should be noted that point C
upwards instead of horizontally. This is in accordance with the inertia hypothesis. In fact, in the absence of
inertial eects there is no reason for the system to keep its previous numerical dynamical state. On the
other hand, the non-damped results clearly illustrate the existence of a positive spring stiness k, as well as
the alternating motion that it originates.
5.4.3. Dispersion resultsa- and c-methods
In order to evaluate the eciency of both the a- and the c-methods, relative dispersion of non-damped
and damped signals, for each DT, were determined using the root mean square deviation (RMSD), dened
by:
2206
100
3 -1
EPSR [x 10 s ]
Optimal
Signal 1.8
- method
10
0.10
950
850
750
650
550
450
350
250
Temperature [K]
Fig. 17. Logarithmic evolution of the c-damped equivalent plastic strain rate (EPSR) with temperature (DT = 1.8 K).
Fig. 18. Detail of the application of the damping c-method to the logarithmic evolution of equivalent plastic strain rate (EPSR) with
temperature (DT = 1.0 K).
RMSD
v
uNTS
uP
u CWT i CWH T i 2
t i1
NTS
23
p
where C is the transformation function, W(Ti) is the equivalent plastic strain rate e_ at temperature Ti,
w
W (Ti) is the accurate value at temperature Ti, and NTS is the number of temperature steps, given by
NTS
jT f T i j
:
jDT j
24
Fig. 19 shows the evolution of the relative a- and c-RMSD factors with the total number of temperature
steps. The relative RMSD factor was dened, for both the methods, by the ratio of the RMSD factors of
the non-damped and damped numerical signals, respectively. It can be observed that:
2207
10
9
method
- method
Relative RMSD
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
300
350
400
450
500
550
600
65 0
Number of temperature steps, NTS
Fig. 19. Evolution of the relative a- and c-root mean square deviation (RMSD) factors with the number of temperature steps.
(i) both a- and c-methods led to a maximum relative damping eect for around 530 temperature increments, i.e. for DT = 1.2 K;
(ii) for a number of steps smaller than 320, i.e. for DT > 2.0 K, the relative a-RMSD tends towards unity,
indicating that, for DT = 2.0 K, the dispersion of the non-damped and damped signals are quantitatively similar, although qualitatively distinct;
(iii) both relative a- and c-RMSD values decrease for DT < 1.2 K, and tend towards unity, since dispersion
tends to vanish for small values of DT. Note that, although the a-method seems to be more ecient
than the c-method, this is not true for a number of temperature steps over 470. In fact, the asymmetry
of the linear-scaled non-damped numerical signals, due to mean value deviation (see Figs. 810), leads
to an overestimation of the a-RMSD factors, which are minima for the logarithmic-scaled signals (see
Figs. 1113).
Although a symmetrising transformation leads to better convergence results, in practice, since it is usually unknown, the damping methodology must be implemented considering the identity transformation, i.e.
the arithmetic mean of the control variable. The main reason for considering the logarithmic transformation in this work was to investigate the inuence of symmetry on damped results. It can be concluded that
this leads to a better performance. Moreover, those dierences do not invalidate the general use of the identity transformation. The symmetrising transformation may be thought as the upper bound of the algorithm
eciency and not as a conditio sine qua non for its systematic implementation.
5.4.4. Damping numerical resultsnon-initial damper application
Numerical simulations were performed in order to observe the eect of a non-initial damping eect. A
temperature Td = 710 K was chosen for the application of damping. Figs. 20 and 21 show, respectively, the
temperature evolution and logarithmic evolution of the a- and c-damped equivalent plastic strain rate
(EPSR) for Td = 710 K and DT = 1.8 K. Non-damped results and optimal results are also presented for
comparison purposes. The accurate results are also presented. Similar results were observed for the remainder of the temperature increments.
It can be observed that the behaviours of the non-initially a- and c-damped numerical signal are similar
to the initially damped ones. However, the damping eect is more pronounced due to the sudden application of damping.
2208
30
Optimal
Signal 1.8
-method
25
EPSR [x103s-1]
20
15
10
5
0
950
850
750
650
550
450
350
250
Temperature [K]
Fig. 20. Evolution of the non-initially a-damped equivalent plastic strain rate (EPSR) with temperature (Td = 710 K and DT = 1.8 K).
100
EPSR [x103s-1]
Optimal
Signal 1.8
-method
10
0.1
950
850
750
650
550
450
350
250
Temperature [K]
Fig. 21. Logarithmic evolution of the non-initially c-damped equivalent plastic strain rate (EPSR) with temperature (Td = 710 K and
DT = 1.8 K).
6. Conclusions
A numerical damper algorithm applicable to the nite element simulation of non-linear behaviour of
materials was presented. It was considered that the evolution of the numerical results of a non-linear nite
element analysis can reect the behaviour of a virtual vibratory systemthe numerical codewith its own
intrinsic mass, spring and dashpot elements. The damping algorithm was applied and tested with a nonlinear nite element example, using a rate dependent constitutive model, in order to evaluate its capabilities.
The set of numerical validation tests consisted on the optimisation of the simulation of the development of
residuals stresses that arise from the fabrication process of particle reinforced metal matrix composites. The
cooling down stage of an AlSiCp MMC with 20% volume fraction of reinforcement was simulated [911].
The numerical damping algorithm forces the replacement of the actual numerical value of a state variable, or its functional transformation, by performing an average with its predecessor numerical value. Two
2209
distinct transformation functions were used: the identity and the logarithmic functions. The logarithmic
function was used because it symmetrises the evolution of the state variable. In the presence of a constant
time step nite element algorithm, the application of these two methodologies refrained the dispersion of
the oscillating numerical signals. Their application increased the performance of the process and forced
the convergence of the numerical solutions.
The symmetrising logarithmic transformation leads to the best convergence resultsthe upper bound of
the algorithm eciency. Moreover, in general implementations the identity transformation should be used.
The presented numerical damper algorithm allows the execution of simulation processes using larger
time steps, thus saving CPU time, and increases the precision of the numerical results.
This numerical damper algorithm proved to be very ecient and appropriate when predicting non-linear
thermomechanical behaviour of composite materials.
Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge nancial support given by FCTFundacao para a Ciencia e a Tecnologia;
Programa Operacional Ciencia, Tecnologia, Inovacao do Quadro Comunitario de Apoio III, FEDER.
References
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On The Optimisation of Viscoplastic Constitutive Modelling Using A Numerical Feedback Damping Algorithm 2005 Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and

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On The Optimisation of Viscoplastic Constitutive Modelling Using A Numerical Feedback Damping Algorithm 2005 Computer Methods in Applied Mechanics and

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Comput. Methods Appl. Mech. Engrg.

194 (2005) 21912210

On the optimisation of viscoplastic constitutive

2. Numerical damping model

with initial conditions

Fig. 2. Free vibration of underdamped SDOF vibratory system.

Fig. 3. Free vibration of critically-damped and overdamped SDOF vibratory systems.

: CWtn Dt Cwtn

Note that if C[W(t)] = W (t) (C is the identity transformation), then

the eects of strain-rate and temperature;

The denition of function f

Consequently, the increments of stress are calculated.

5. Results and discussion

5.1. Accurate numerical results

5.3. Implemented damping methodologies

Number of temperature steps, NTS

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