GEK1520/PC1322 Understanding the Universe

Observation and Study

of Impact Craters
Term Paper 39: Group Report

Group members:
Ng Woon Yong (A0094608X)
Tay Choon Ting (A0101344Y)
Noelyn Tan Huey (A0100090E)
Kho Ming Hao Alexander (A0096633X)
Phua Boon Weng Terence (A0100047B)

Table of Contents
1.

Introduction Crater and Impactors ..................................................................................... 1

2.

Types of craters ................................................................................................................... 2

2.1.

Simple Craters .............................................................................................................. 2

2.2.

Complex Craters ........................................................................................................... 3

2.3.

Elongate Craters ........................................................................................................... 4

2.4.

Multi-ring Basins ............................................................................................................ 4

3.

The Observations Moon Crater ......................................................................................... 5

4.

Craters on the Moon............................................................................................................. 5

5.

Observation Procedure......................................................................................................... 6

6.

Our Observations ................................................................................................................. 8

6.1

Distinct Craters on Moon ............................................................................................... 8

6.1.1.

Tycho (Crater) ........................................................................................................ 9

Drawing the crater Tycho.............................................................................................. 9

6.1.2.

Copernicus (Crater) .............................................................................................. 10

7.

Purpose of Experiment ....................................................................................................... 11

8.

Conduct of experiment ....................................................................................................... 11

9.

Procedure of experiment .................................................................................................... 11

9.1.

Experimental environment ........................................................................................... 11

9.2.

Experimental setup and procedures ............................................................................ 12

10.

Results ........................................................................................................................... 16

10.1.

Variable: Height of Drop........................................................................................... 16

10.2.

Variable: Mass of Object .......................................................................................... 17

10.3.

Variable: Angle of Impact ......................................................................................... 18

11.

Observations made from experiment .............................................................................. 19

11.1.

Terminologies .......................................................................................................... 19

12.

Conclusion ...................................................................................................................... 20

13.

References ..................................................................................................................... 21

1.

Introduction Crater and Impactors

Impact Crater
An impact crater is defined as an approximately circular depression in the surface of a solid
body in the Solar System. They are formed by the hypervelocity impact of a smaller body with
the surface. Such small bodies are mostly meteoroids or asteroids. The circular shape is due to
material flying out in all directions as a result of the explosion upon impact, not a result of the
impactor having a circular shape. Impact craters typically have raised rims; and floors that are
lower in elevation than the surrounding terrain. They range from a small and simple bowl shape
to large, complex, multi-ringed basins. Impact Crater, Wikipedia (n.d.)

Meteoroid, Meteor and Meteorite

Meteoroids generally refer to small particles of comets or asteroids that orbit around sun and
are smaller than asteroids. It can range from a size of a sand particle to a boulder. When these
objects enter the atmosphere they are then referred to as meteors.
A meteor is an asteroid or other object that burns and vaporizes upon entry into the Earth's
atmosphere. This is due to the meteoroid encountering friction with air molecules in the
atmosphere. If a meteor has sufficient mass and survives the atmosphere to reach the surface,
it's known as a meteorite. Marc Lallanilla (15 February, 2013)

Asteroids
An asteroid is a small rocky or metallic body that is in orbit around the Sun. They are larger than
meteoroids, yet smaller than a planet. Some sources refer to them as leftover fragments from
the formation of the solar system.
There are millions of asteroids orbiting the sun; most of them can be found in the asteroid belt,
a vast ring of asteroids located between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter. Asteroids can be as large
as hundreds of kilometres wide.
Occasionally, some of the asteroids can be deflected into the inner Solar System, due to the
strong gravitational influence by Mars and Jupiter, and can come into close proximity with Earth.
Asteroid, Wikipedia (n.d.)

2.

Types of craters

The size, speed and angle at which an asteroid/comet hits the lunar soil will determine the type
of crater it forms.
There are 4 main types of craters (in ascending order of size):

2.1.

Simple Craters

Most craters on the Moon fall under this category. They have diameters less than 15km and
have a simple, bowl-like structure with smooth walls. Impact Craters on the Moon, Enchanted
Learning (n.d.)

Figure 1: Parts of a Simple Crater

Figure 2: Picture of a Simple Crater

Figure 1: Different Types of Impact Craters, Janus (n.d.)

Figure 2: Chris Dann (15 March, 2010)
Figure 3: Moltke crater, a simple crater with a diameter of
7km Impact Craters on the Moon, Enchanted Learning (n.d.)

Figure 3: Moltke Crater

2.2.

Complex Craters

Complex impact craters have a single or multiple peaks in the middle of the crater. These craters
have diameters between about 20 and 175km, and the central uplift is usually one or a few
peaks. Impact Craters on the Moon, Enchanted Learning (n.d.)
The main difference between complex craters and simple craters is the gravity of the body being
hit and the strength of the target material. On the Moon, a larger asteroid or comet (10-20km)
is needed to reduce a complex crater with the correct characteristics. Chris Dann (15 March,
2010)

Figure 4: Parts of a Complex Crater

Figure 5: Picture of a Complex Crater

Figure 4: Different Types of Impact Craters, Janus (n.d.)

Figure 5: Chris Dann (15 March, 2010)

Figure 6: Euler crater, a complex crater with a

diameter of 28km and a depth of 2.5km
Impact Craters on the Moon, Enchanted Learning
(n.d.)

2.3.

Elongate Craters

Elongate craters depend on the angle of the impact of the asteroid or comet with the surface.
At an angle (e.g. 10) to the surface, the impact object tends to glance off and result in a crater
that appears elongated. Chris Dann (15 March, 2010)

Figure 7: Picture of an Elongate Crater Figure 8: Schiller Crater

Schiller crater is approximately 180km in length
and 70km wide. Geoffroynon (27 February,
2012)

2.4.

Multi-ring Basins
Multi-ring basins are basically the largest craters found on the
Moon surface. A basin has a rim diameter greater than 300km.
There are over 40 impact basins on the Moon. [14] They are
produced by the asteroid or comet hitting the hard Moon
surface and causing ripples in the layer beneath the
asthenosphere. The asthenosphere is viscous and moves upon
impact. The layer above the asthenosphere, the lithosphere,
ripples but is much firmer, and therefore cracks form in circles
around the impact. Chris Dann (15 March, 2010)

Figure 9: Multi-Ring Basin

Figure 10: Schrodingner
Schrodinger is 320km in diameter, and has an inner ring, which
is 150km in diameter and about 75% complete.
Impact Craters on the Moon, Enchanted Learning (n.d.)
4

3.

The Observations Moon Crater

Moon is selected as our observatory object as it has undergone the Late Heavy Bombardment 3
billion years ago, leaving behind many craters on its surface.

4.

Craters on the Moon

Impact craters on the moon are the remains of collisions between an asteroid, comet, or
meteorite and the Moon. These objects hit the Moon at a range of speeds resulting in different
types of craters, of varying shapes and sizes. Lunar Craters, Wikipedia (n.d.)

Figure 11: Moon Map

The surface of the moon contains many impact craters, due to the lack of atmosphere on the
moon to protect it potential impacts. With an atmosphere, impactors burn up as they collide
against air molecules in the atmosphere, hence reducing the impact objects size and resultant
impact. There is also little erosion from wind and other elements to wear away these craters, so
they remain largely unchanged over time.

These craters range in size up to hundreds of kilometres, but the larger craters have been
flooded by lava, and are known as Maria. Most of the craters on the Moon are circular in shape
and most craters having diameters smaller than 15 kilometres have a simple, bowl-like structure.
The size, mass, speed, and angle of the impactors determine the size, shape, and complexity of
the resulting crater. Generally, small objects which are slow-moving have a low energy impact
and cause small, simple craters. Conversely, large objects possess a lot of energy and form large,
complex craters. Owing to the angle of impact, the crater may be elongated in shape. Even
larger impactors can cause secondary cratering, as ejected material falls back to the ground,
forming a series of smaller craters. Impact Craters on the Moon, Enchanted Learning (n.d.)

5.

Observation Procedure

Our group used a Celestron 4-1/2 Newtonian Equatorial Telescope for our observation.

Figure 12: Parts of the Celestron

Instruction Manual, Celestron (n.d.)
6

Observation was made from NUS UTowns Town Green on 28th March 2013 at 9.15pm.

Figure 13: Set up demonstration pictures

1. Set the tripod with the equatorial mount attached in a standing position by spreading
the legs apart and tighten all bolts and wing nuts to ensure proper stability
2. Place the telescope optical tube onto the equatorial mount by removing the two bolts
and washers from the telescope tube mount bracket. Put the bolts through the saddle
bracket, into the telescope tube mount bracket and tighten.
3. Once telescope is ready, point it towards the moon
4. Observe the moon and also take photos of moon by placing camera lens in front of the
eyepiece
From our observations, 2 distinct craters could be seen with other small craters on the moons
surface. The craters varied in sizes, with different ejecta ray lengths and scatter patterns. The
two main craters clearly observed on that night were Tycho and Copernicus.

6.

Our Observations

6.1 Distinct Craters on Moon

Figure 14: Pictures of moon taken using a DSLR

Jedidiah Lim (25th March 2013)
From the photograph, we observed distinct features on the moon. In particular, 2 impact craters
stand out from the others, which are named Tycho and Copernicus.

Figure 15: Selenographic Coordinates of

the moon
Selenographic Coordinates, Wikipedia (n.d.)

It is to be noted that the perspective of our

photographed moon has a different
orientation as the one provided above due
to our position at the equator (the rabbit
in our photograph is rotated 90 degrees
anticlockwise when compared to the photo
on the left).
8

For the photograph (with coordinate lines) above, Astronomers defined the fundamental
location in the selenographic coordinate system by the small, bowl-shaped satellite crater
'Msting A'.

6.1.1. Tycho (Crater)

Tycho is the largest prominent crater observed on the moon
surface. From our perspective (equator), it is located around
the 2 oclock direction (as pointed out in Figure 14). It is a
circular crater surrounded by a bright ejecta blanket.
Figure 16: Image of Tycho
Tycho, Lunar and Planetary Institute (n.d.)

From the Selenographic coordinates system, it is found near to the southern polar region of the
moon with coordinates of 43.31S 11.36W. The bright and defined ejecta blanket suggests that
it is a relatively young crater compared to the other craters with dull surfaces.
Studies show that it has a diameter of approximately 85 km, depth of 4.8km and is about 108
million years old, which is relatively young compared to other craters. Tycho Crater, Wikipedia
(n.d.)

Drawing the crater Tycho

Figures 18 and 19: Drawings of Tycho on paper

Noelyn Tan (28th March, 2013)
9

6.1.2. Copernicus (Crater)

The second prominent crater is Copernicus crater, which is located at the south of the moon
from our observation.

Figure 17A: Picture of Copernicus

Crater Copernicus is a circular crater with prominent rays, and is easily identifiable with a
telescope. From our perspective (equator), it is located along the 6 oclock of the moons image
(as pointed out by the arrow above.)

Figure 17B: Picture of Copernicus

Space Telescope Science Institute Crater Copernicus, Wikipedia (n.d.)

10

It has a Selenographic coordinate of 9.7N 20.0W and is located slightly northwest of the center
of the Moon's Earth-facing hemisphere. The circular rim has a discernible hexagonal form and a
terraced inner wall.
Studies show that Copernicus Crater has a diameter of 93km, a depth of 3.8km and is about 800
million years old. Copernicus, Lunar and Planetary Institute (n.d.)

7.

Purpose of Experiment

Observations made from the telescope mainly showed circular craters. To better observe the
different structures of the crater, and also to understand how they obtained their respective
shapes, we decided to conduct an experiment to simulate the formation of impact craters.

8.

Conduct of Experiment

To get the different types of impact craters, as listed in the introduction, we have identified 3
main factors that affects its formation - the speed, mass of the impactor, and the angle of
impact. Knowing that it is difficult to quantify the changing speeds of the impactor, we indirectly
varied the speed by changing the height, which in turn varies the Gravitational Potential Energy
and corresponding Kinetic Energy. While the force of impact is difficult to quantify also, the
mass of the impactor is varied to change the resultant force of impact. Changing such
independent variables will allow us to create different types of craters. The change in angle of
impact would allow us to change the shape of the crater.
Hence, in our experiment, we vary the height of drop (which represents variance in velocity and
kinetic energy of the impactor), the mass of impactor (which varies force of impact) and the
angle of impact (which varies the shape of the crater) to obtain the formation of different types
of craters.

9.

Procedure of Experiment

9.1.

Experimental environment

The experiment was conducted in an enclosed area, under non-windy conditions. This was done
to reduce any deviation in the path of light-weighted impactors which could have changed the
angle of the impact and also the spread pattern of ejecta rays.

11

9.2.

Experimental setup and procedures

Part 1: General setup of the platform for the crater to form

1) Prepare an aluminium tray to hold the flour and ensure that there are no holes to avoid
leakage of the flour.
2) Add flour into the tray until the level is about 8 cm deep to ensure that there is sufficient
depth for a big crater to form.
3) Next, sprinkle coffee powder on the surface of the flour, making sure that it is just
sufficient to cover the flour and allow a brown surface to be seen.

Figure 18: Coffee powder spread on the surface of the flour

Part 2: Experimental part for varying masses of ball bearings
used, maintaining the size of ball and height of drop.
4) Starting with the lightest ball bearing (8.25 g), place a
metre ruler (100cm) beside the tray and drop the ball
bearing from a height of 50cm into the box. To ensure
greater accuracy, another ruler is placed perpendicularly
at the mark to ensure that the ball bearing is falling from
the correct height.

Figure 19: Setup of the experiment

12

5) Observe the spread of rays (flour) on the coffee powder and place a short ruler next to
the crater formed. Measure the length of the rays and the diameter of the crater using the
ruler. Use vernier callipers to measure depth of crater. Take a photograph of the crater for
evaluation.
6) Remove the brown coffee powder in the crater. Reset the experimental set-up by filling
the crater with the flour and covering the surface with coffee powder again.
7) Repeat step (3) to step (6) with the other ball bearings, in ascending order of their
masses (with 16.785g, 111.92 g). This would conclude the experimental part for varying
masses.
Part 3: Experimental part for varying height of dropping the ball bearing
8) In this part, the mass is kept constant by using the same ball bearing of mass 111.92 g.
Using the same tray used in Part 2, set the starting point on the ruler to the shortest height
first (40 cm) and place it at the side of the box, the same way it was done in step (4).
9) Place the ball bearing of mass 111.92 g at the 40 cm mark of the metre rule and drop it
into the tray.
11) Again, observe the spread of the flour on the coffee powder (rays) and place a short
ruler against the crater formed. Take a photograph of the crater for evaluation. Also
measure the diameter of the crater and the length of rays formed.

Figure 20: Example of observation of the crater for various heights

13

12) Remove the brown coffee powder in the crater. Reset the experimental set-up by
filling the crater with the flour and covering the surface with coffee powder again.
13) Repeat step (9) to step (12) by varying the height in ascending order (with 5cm, 60 cm,
80 cm and 100 cm). This would conclude the experimental part for varying heights.
Part 4: Experimental part for varying the angle of impact of the ball bearing
14) For this part of the experiment, in order for the angle of impact to be the only variable,
the mass of ball bearing used is kept constant at 13.93 g and the height has to fixed at 30cm.
15) Using 2 of the retort stands and the tube, create a path for the ball bearing to roll down,
as shown below:

Figure 21: Experimental set-up for varying angles of impact

The protractor seen in Figure 21 is used to change the angle of tilt of the black tube, allowing us
to vary the angle of impact.
16) Place the same tray, as used in the previous parts, diagonally against the end of the
black tube, allowing more space for the ball bearing to roll.
17) Adjust the angle of tilt of the black tube to 30 using the protractor (NOTE: Adjust the
height of the retort stands whenever necessary, as the retort stands helps to provide
support for the black tube).

14

18) Using a metre ruler, measure the position on the black tube, where it is 30 cm above
the ground. (NOTE: It is important to maintain the same height, in order to ensure that the
angle of impact is the only variable).
19) Place the ball bearing of mass 13.93 g at the measured position and without pushing;
allow the ball bearing to roll down the black tube.
20) Observe the spread of the flour on the coffee powder and place a short ruler against the
crater formed. Take a photograph of the crater for evaluation. Measure the diameter of
the crater formed and the length of rays created.
21) Remove the brown coffee powder in the crater. Reset the experimental set-up by
filling the crater with the flour and covering the surface with coffee powder again.
22) Repeat step (17) to step (21) by varying the angle of tilt in ascending order (with 60 and
90). This would conclude the experimental part for varying angles of impact.

15

10. Results
10.1. Variable: Height of Drop
Constants:

Mass of Object = 111.92g

Angle of impact = 90.0
Diameter of Ball = 3.0cm

Experiment

Height of
Drop (cm)

Diameter of
Crater with
Rays (cm)

Diameter of
Crater without
rays (cm)

Length of
Rays (cm)

Depth of Crater
(cm)

A
B
H
C
D
E

20
40
50
60
80
100

8.325
10.325
13.545
10.225
13.855
14.525

3.695
3.595
4.000
4.260
4.340
4.745

4.630
6.73
9.545
5.965
9.515
9.780

1.750
2.330
2.985
3.165
3.315
3.705

Correlation Co-efficient,

r = 0.7704

Length of Rays (cm) against Height of Drop (cm)

12.00
50.0, 9.545
10.00
8.00

100.0, 9.780
80.0, 9.515

40.0, 6.730
60.0, 5.965

Length
of Rays 6.00
(cm)
4.00

Length
of Rays
(cm)

20.0, 4.630

2.00
0.00
0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

120.0

Height of Drop (cm)

Figure 22: Length of Rays against Height of Drop

Conclusions: By plotting a graph of length of rays (cm) against height of drop (cm), there exists
a strong positive linear correlation between the two variables (r = 0.7704). Therefore as the
height of drop increases, the length of rays produced increases.
16

10.2. Variable: Mass of Object

Constants:

Height of drop = 50.0cm

Angle of impact = 90.0
Diameter of Ball = 3.0cm

Experiment

Mass of
Object (g)

Diameter of
Crater without
rays (cm)
2.625

Length of
Rays (cm)

Depth of
Crater (cm)

8.25

Diameter of
Crater with
Rays (cm)
8.875

6.250

1.290

16.785

10.955

3.675

7.280

1.605

111.92

13.545

4.000

9.545

2.985

Correlation Co-efficient,

r = 0.9722

Length of Rays (cm) against Mass of Object (g)

12.00
111.920, 9.545
10.00
8.00
Length
of Rays 6.00
(cm)
4.00

16.785, 7.280
8.250, 6.250
Lengt
h of
Rays
(cm)

2.00
0.00
0.0

20.0

40.0

60.0

80.0

100.0

120.0

Mass of Object (g)

Figure 23: Length of Rays against Mass of Object

Conclusions: By plotting a graph of length of rays (cm) against mass of object (cm), there
exists an almost perfect positive linear correlation between the two variables (r = 0.9722).
Therefore as the mass of object increases, the length of rays produced increases almost
proportionately.
17

10.3. Variable: Angle of Impact

Constants:

Mass of Object = 13.93g

Vertical Height of drop = 30.0cm
Diameter of Object = 1.50cm

Experiment

Angle from
Horizontal

J
K
L

30
60
90

Diameter of
Crater with
Rays (cm)
16.120
7.400
6.850

Diameter of
Crater without
rays (cm)
2.000
1.880
1.995

Length of
Rays (cm)

Depth of Crater
(cm)

14.120
5.520
4.855

1.025
1.650
1.930

Correlation Co-efficient,

r = -0.8964

Length of Rays (cm) against Angle from Horizontal ()

16.00

30.0, 14.120

14.00
12.00
10.00
Length
of Rays 8.00
(cm)
6.00

60.0, 5.520

Length
of Rays
(cm)

90.0, 4.855

4.00
2.00
0.00
0.0

20.0

40.0
60.0
80.0
Angle from Horizontal ()

100.0

120.0

Figure 24: Length of Rays against Angle from Horizontal

Conclusions: By plotting a graph of length of rays (cm) against angle from horizontal (), there
exists a very strong negative linear correlation between the two variables (r = -0.8964).
Therefore as the angle from horizontal decreases, the length of rays produced increases.
In addition, the smaller the angle of horizontal led to longer rays dispersed in a specific direction
while the larger the angle of horizontal led to shorter rays dispersed evenly in the shape of a
circle.
18

11. Observations made from experiment

From the experiments conducted, we noticed the basic structures of craters and sketched them
out. We noticed that larger craters tend to have flatter floors with a central uplift. Pictures of
larger craters online also showed signs of terraces.

Figures 25 and 26: Sketches of Craters

Noelyn Tan (23rd March, 2013)

11.1. Terminologies
Floor The bottom of a crater, either bowl-shaped or flat
Central peaks (observed in complex craters) Peaks formed in the central area of the floor of a
large crater. For larger craters (typically a few tens of kilometers in diameter) the excavated
crater becomes so great that it collapses on itself. Collapse of the material back into the crater
pushes up the mound that forms the central peak. At the same time, the rock beneath the
crater rebounds, or bounces back up to add to the peak.
Walls The interior sides of a crater, usually steep. They may have giant stair-like terraces that
are created by slumping of the walls due to gravity.
Rim The edge of the crater. It is elevated above the surrounding terrain because it is
composed of material pushed up at the edge during excavation.
Ejecta Rock material thrown out of the crater area during an impact event. It is distributed
outward from the crater's rim onto the planet's surface as debris.
19

Rays Bright streaks extending away from the crater sometimes for great distances, composed
of ejecta material. Impact Cratering, Lunar and Planetary Institute (n.d.)
An additional thing to note is the variety of minerals found in the ejecta blanket. The Moon has
minerals such as yttrium, lanthanum and samarium, which if successfully mined, can be used for
the making of high-tech products for civilian and military use (e.g. missiles or wind turbines).[20]
Bridie Smith (21 February, 2013)

12. Conclusion
From the results of the experiment conducted, it can be concluded that the length of rays from
craters formed are directly proportional to the kinetic energy of the impactor, the force of
impact and inversely proportional to the angle from the horizontal of the impactor. Therefore
the observation of different ray lengths for craters can be attributed to any of these factors or a
combination of them.
In addition, an observation from varying the angle of horizontal of the impactor was that a
smaller angle led to longer rays dispersed in a specific direction while larger angles led to
shorter rays dispersed evenly in the shape of a circle. With reference to the prominent lunar
crater, Tycho, the direction of the rays are slightly skewed towards a specific direction when
observed and this can be attributed to the impactor striking the surface at an angle to the
horizontal. Conversely for another lunar crater, Copernicus, the rays are evenly spread out in
the shape of a circle this can be attributed to the impactor striking at an angle perpendicular to
the horizontal.

20

13. References
Impact Crater, Wikipedia (n.d.)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Impact_crater
Marc Lallanilla (15 February, 2013). What are an Asteroid, a Meteor and a Meteorite?
http://www.livescience.com/27183-asteroid-meteorite-meteor-meteoroid.html
Asteroid, Wikipedia (n.d.) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Asteroid
Impact Craters on the Moon, Enchanted Learning (n.d.)
http://www.enchantedlearning.com/subjects/astronomy/moon/Craters.shtml
Different Types of Impact Craters, Janus (n.d.)
http://janus.astro.umd.edu/astro/impact/cratertypes.html
Chris Dann (15 March, 2010)
The Different Types of Impact Craters and How to Spot Them, Chris Dann (15 March, 2010)
http://www.weirdwarp.com/2010/03/the-different-types-of-impact-craters-and-how-to-spotthem/
Geoffroynon (27 February, 2012) Schiller Crater
http://blog.moonzoo.org/2012/02/27/schiller-crater/
Lunar Craters, Wikipedia (n.d.) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_craters
Jedidiah Lim (25th March 2013) Pictures of the moon
Selenographic Coordinates, Wikipedia (n.d.)
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Selenographic_coordinates
Tycho, Lunar and Planetary Institute (n.d.)
http://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/timeline/gallery/slide_61.html
Tycho Crater, Wikipedia (n.d.) http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tycho_(crater)
Noelyn Tan (28th March, 2013) Drawings of Tycho
Noelyn Tan (23rd March, 2013) Sketches of Craters
21

Space Telescope Science Institute Crater Copernicus, Wikipedia (n.d.)

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Space_Telescope_Science_Institute__Crater_Copernicus_(pd).jpg
Impact Cratering, Lunar and Planetary Institute (n.d.)
http://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/explore/shaping_the_planets/impact_cratering.shtml
Copernicus, Lunar and Planetary Institute (n.d.)
http://www.lpi.usra.edu/education/timeline/gallery/slide_39.html
Bridie Smith, The Sydney Morning Herald (21 February, 2013) Moon mining looks to uncover
hidden gems
http://www.smh.com.au/technology/sci-tech/moon-mining-looks-to-uncover-hidden-gems20130220-2eroa.html#ixzz2OoASZD3r

22