Researching Companies and Yourself

Writing an effective cover letter and preparing for interviews require that you know yourself
pretty well and have a good sense of what the companies need. As preparation for writing your
cover letter, then, you should spend some time thinking about what you want and researching
prospective employers.

Finding Out What You Want

Before you can write an effective cover letter, you really need to think carefully about what you
can contribute to a company and what you're personally looking for in a company. In general, you
should analyze your background and skills, your values and needs, and the kind of setting you'd
like to work in. The following guidelines will give you a start.

Consider your background and marketable skills.

Think about your education, work, and activities. Why did you choose the specific
classes and projects you selected, the jobs you worked at, and the campus and
community activities in which you were the most involved? What did you enjoy
most and why?
Look at the following list of skills. What words describe best the things you like to
do best? Which describe your real strengths, those skills and abilities that set you
off from other applicants?
adapted
administered
advertised
advised
aided
analyzed
answered
applied
arranged
assessed
assigned
audited
collaborated
completed
communicated
compiled
conducted
coordinated

determined
developed
directed
edited
employed
established
evaluated
expanded
guided
headed
hired
identified
implemented
improved
increased
initiated
introduced
led

originated
oversaw
planned
prepared
produced
programmed
raised
rated
recruited
regulated
researched
revised
scheduled
served
settled
sold
solved
started

corrected
counseled
created
delegated
designed

managed
negotiated
operated
ordered
organized

supervised
systematized
taught
trained
wrote

Which skills do you prefer not to use?

Think about what you value and need to have in a company you work for.

What values do you consider essential in any company you'd chose to work for?
What personal needs must be fulfilled for you to be happy working for a particular
organization?
What sorts of working environments would enable you to do your best work?
Do you prefer a formal or an informal environment?
Do you thrive on change? Or do you prefer a more constant environment?
Do you prefer working in an atmosphere with a lot of interruptions or
working without interruption?
Do you like a quiet or noisy atmosphere?
Do you prefer a fast pace with tight deadlines or a more leisurely pace?
Do you do your best work under pressure or not?
Do you prefer working independently or under supervision?
Do you prefer working alone or in a group?
Do you like positions requiring decision-making or not?
Do you enjoy detail-oriented tasks or more global tasks?
Do you have any geographical preferences or requirements?
Are there any other factors or conditions that would determine whether or
not you would want to work for a particular company? If so, what are
they?

Finding Out What Companies Want

There are lots of avenues for researching specific companies. Print resources can give you a start;
people can fill in a lot of useful details. The discussion below provides specific places you can
check for information that will enable you to target your letters to specific organizations.

Print Resources include the following:

Yearly publications which provide recent information on companies:
College Placement Annual
Funk & Scott -- Index
Moody's Manuals
Everybody's Business by Milton Moscowitz
Peterson's Guides
Standard & Poor's Register of Corporations, Directors, and Executives
Articles on companies or fields in such publications as Fortune or The Wall Street
Journal

Indexes listing articles on companies

Applied Science and Technology
Business Periodicals
The New York Times Index
The Reader's Guide to Periodical Literature
Popular press books, like Richard Bolles' What Color is Your Parachute. Perhaps
the best book on searching for a job, Bolles' book is updated yearly and includes
bibliographies of employment sources for specific fields and locations.
People Resources are probably the best sources of information on particular companies.
Talk to every professional in your field that you can think of -- professors in your
department, people who hold positions like the one you want to get, people who
work for competing firms -- as well as family and friends to find out what they
know about the company and position. This networking is perhaps the best way to
find out about companies and positions available.
Use information interviews, interviews with company representatives at their
place of business, to locate particular information about specific positions and the
company itself. But go into the interviews prepared -- prepared with general
background about the company and a specific list of questions you wish to ask.

In general, your goal in information interviews is to find out whether you're

interested in pursuing a position with the company; this strategy shows that you're
carefully considering where you want to work, that you don't plan to go with the
first company that gives you a job offer, and that you're confident about your own
abilities. For more detailed guidelines on information interviews, visit Career
Planning and Placement.

General Resume Tips

Employers often receive more than 100 resumes each day; they skim each of these in 7 to 15
seconds. In order to catch a prospective employer's attention and fuel his or her interest in you as
a potential employee, refer to the following tips. Remember, most resumes end up buried in a file
cabinet or wind up in the "circular file." So invest your time in developing an eye-appealing and
informative resume that sells your skills and gets your foot in the door for an interview.

Eye Appealing
Because resumes are read quickly, appearance is very important. Resumes should be designed so
that layout is inviting and information very easy to locate. To accomplish this, you should

invest some time in developing an effective format

use a readable typeface
select appropriate paper for the sorts of businesses you'll be contacting

Informative
Information in resumes is carefully selected to convince prospective employers that you have the
necessary qualification for the position you're seeking. The following categories of information
are normally presented in the order given. However, as job applicants gain more experience, the
experience section is normally moved before the education section.
Notice that no personal information section is included. Prospective employers cannot ask about
your age, marital status, or health; therefore, they're nervous if you provide this sort of
information. In other words, no personal information should be included on your resume.

Identification
Career or Professional Objective
Education
Experience
Activities and Honors
References

General Cover Letter Tips are also available.

General Resume Appearance

Because resumes are read quickly, appearance is very important. Resumes should be designed so
that layout is inviting and information very easy to locate. To accomplish this, you should invest
some time in developing an effective format, use a readable typeface, and select appropriate
paper for the sorts of businesses you'll be contacting.

Formatting

Incorporate horizontal and vertical white space effectively to make your resume open and
easy to read. Consistent indentation and effective use of lists help readers process
information quickly.
Use bulleted lists rather than sentences presented in paragraph form to enable readers to
comprehend quickly what you've accomplished. Notice how difficult it is to find
information in the example below because of its uses of full sentences and paragraph
form.

United Way Voluntary Action Center, St. Cloud, MN

I explored printing options, and expense estimates for a fund raising
project by making phone calls and personal visits to area print shops
and lumber companies. I also wrote a weekly newspaper column for
the local newspaper as well as news releases and promotional
materials. I organized, promoted, and participated in a fundraising
event during the annual community summer festival. I created and
presented a two-hour workshop, "Persuasive Writing Strategies for
Promotional Materials," to 18 volunteer coordinators.

The next example is much easier to read -- even though the information is the same -because of its use of strong verb phrases and list form.
United Way Voluntary Action Center, St. Cloud, MN
o
Explored printing options, and expense estimates for
a fundraising project by making phone calls and personal
visits to area print shops and lumber companies.
o
Wrote a weekly newspaper column for the local
newspaper.
o
Prepared news releases and promotional materials
for the local newspaper.
o
Organized, promoted, and participated in fundraising
event during the annual community festival.
o
Created and presented a two-hour workshop,
"Persuasive Writing Strategies for Promotional Materials,"
to 18 volunteer coordinators.

Use boldface and underlining judiciously to help readers find information they need. Too
much of either can lessen readability, as the sample below shows.

EDUCATION
Bachelor of Science, November 1995
St. Cloud State University, St. Cloud, MN
Majors in Finance and Economics, 3.4 GPA (on a 4 point scale)
North Dakota State University, Fargo, ND, 1990-1992
Took courses in business, economics, and general education.

PROFESSIONAL EXPERIENCE
Assistant Manager. A & W Drive-In, Brainerd, MN, 1994-present.
Opened and closed restaurant. Supervised up to seven employees.
Handled customer complaints. Balanced tills and cash accounts.

High School Soccer Coach. Wyoming High School, Cincinnati,

OH, 1992.
Coached boy's junior varsity and assisted varsity teams. Supervised
team members. Arranged transportation, equipment and referees.

Use side headings rather than centered headings: centered headings interrupt the normal
reading line and slow readers down.

Typeface

Select an easily readable typeface (such as Times or Palatino) no smaller than 10 pts, and
avoid script fonts and italics. Prospective employers read a lot of print information; don't
make them squint.
Use the same typeface throughout: multiple fonts will draw the reader's attention to the
fonts you've used and away from what you're saying.

Paper

Use good quality paper -- ideally linen, lade, or parchment and a minimum of 20 lb.
weight.
Select a paper color appropriate for your readers: a bright color may be exactly what you
want if you're applying for an advertising position with a progressive firm, but it would
offend prospective employers looking for a CPA. Ivory, off-white, beige, and pale gray
are safe choices.
Currently, most companies are divided between preferring one-page and two-page
resumes. Carefully select and present your information, keeping your resume as
informative and brief as possible.

Identification at the Top of Your Resume

An identification section is always the first part of a resume. Identification should include your
name, address(es), and phone number(s). Your name should always be highlighted in some way -through boldface, underlining, and/or spacing.
If you're living at home and going to school, your name, address, and phone number will be set
up as one block of information, as the following samples show:

Jan V. Anderson
2352 Mitchell Drive
Sauk Rapids, MN 53892
(320)555-8024

Jan V. Anderson
2352 Mitchell Drive
Sauk Rapids, MN 53892
(320)555-8024
However, if your hometown is in one place and you're going to school in another, two addresses
and phone numbers will be needed, and you name will appear in a separate block. Sometimes it
will even be necessary to specify when you'll be at the various addresses. The examples below
show two different ways to set up multiple addresses:

Jan V. Anderson
Campus Address
2352 Mitchell Drive, Apt. 382
Sauk Rapids, MN 53892
(320)555-8024

Permanent Address
1184 W. Main
Brandenburg, WI 83207
(814) 555-9982

Jan V. Anderson
Campus Address (until
May 28, 1995)
2352 Mitchell Drive, Apt.
382
Sauk Rapids, MN 53892
(320)555-8024

Permanent Address (after

May 28, 1995)
1184 W. Main
Brandenburg, WI 83207
(814) 555-9982

Identification on Two-Page Resumes

If your resume goes to a second page, you'll need to include a second-page identification. If your
second page gets separated from your first, this identification will enable prospective employers
to put the pages back together again. Several appropriate second-page identifications follow:

Jan V. Anderson, page 2

Jan V. Anderson
page 2

Jan V. Anderson
page 2

Jan V. Anderson

page 2

Professional or Career Objectives

in Resumes
Advantages of Including a Career Objective
Developing a functional career or professional objective for your resume provides several
advantages:
1. Developing a functional career or professional objective forces you to think about what
you want -- the particular type of position or positions you'll seek, the specific skills or
functions you wish to perform, the size or locations of companies you'll apply to.
2. A natural part of refining a career objective is thinking about your strengths -- skills and
abilities you have, functions you've performed in jobs or activities -- and where and how
you'd like to put these strengths to work.
3. Once you've developed your objective, that objective will help you focus the rest of the
information you present in your resume.
4. Readers use this objective to match their needs with yours.
Note: Some fields, especially very competitive ones, do not encourage professional
objectives in resumes. Mass communications and journalism are two examples. If you're
unsure whether or not you should include an objective, ask a professional in your
department or in the workplace.

Strategies for Developing a Career Objective

Career objectives should be stated as verb phrases rather than sentences. Carefully
selected verbs will make you sound forceful and confident; a sentence, which would
inevitably start with "I," would simply sound "I-centered."
Create a clear, concise career objective that is focused on prospective employer's needs.
Omit "I-centered" or obvious statements, such as "where I can learn" or "which will
enable me to advance." Prospective employers expect you to want to learn and advance.
Boldly saying so simply starts your resume off with a "gimme" perspective and
emphasizes not what you can offer but what you expect to gain. Notice the difference
between the following two objectives, the first which is "I-centered" and the second
which focuses on prospective employer's needs.
Professional Objective
A summer internship in the public relations field that could develop
into a full-time position as a public relations specialist beginning
this fall.
Professional Objective
A position as an interior designer, using design concepts while
completing projects that will further the firm's goals.

Your objective should be as concrete as you can make it. Specify the position you'd like
and perhaps the general atmosphere or geographical location you'd prefer.
Professional Objective
A position as Economic Development Specialist with the St. Cloud
Area Economic Development Partnership.

If you're using a functional format to present your experience, you'll probably want to
emphasize in your objective functions you'd like to perform.
Professional Objective
A position in Production Supervision or in the support areas of
Manufacturing with emphasis on material or quality control.

If you're using a skills format to present your experience, you'll probably want to
emphasize skills you can bring to the position you're seeking.
Professional Objective

A position with a construction company which requires skills in

field engineering, cost controlling, planning, scheduling, and
estimating.

If you're looking for a part-time, summer, or internship position, your objective should let
readers know this.

Job Objective
A summer job in buying for a nationally expanding retailer of
household goods.

Job Objective
A summer internship in financial accounting with a large, public
accounting firm.

Presenting Your Education

in Resumes
For job applicants just finishing degrees, the education section of the resume is crucial. At
minimum, you should include the degrees you received, months and years of graduation, and the
schools you attended as well as their locations.
If you hold more than one degree, you should list them all in reverse chronological order, as the
samples below show.
EDUCATION
St. Cloud State University, St. Cloud, MN, Bachelor of Science,
May 1995
Major: Marketing
Minor: Economics
GPA: 3.2
Marketing Coursework
Marketing Channels, Consumer Behavior, Marketing

Management,
Marketing Research, International Marketing, and
Transportation Management
Brainerd Community College, Brainerd, MN, Associates Degree,
May 1993
EDUCATION
St. Cloud State University, St. Cloud, MN
Master of Science in Educational Administration, May 1995
Masters Thesis: "Designing Multicultural Curricula for
Secondary Classrooms"
GPA: 3.75
Colorado State University, Fort Collins, CO
Bachelor of Science in Social Work, June 1988
Yet if you're going to convince prospective employers that you've got the background they need,
the education section of your resume should include much more
EDUCATION
St. Cloud State University, St. Cloud, MN
Bachelor of Science in Mass Communications (News Editorial
Sequence), May 1995
Significant Coursework: Advanced newswriting and
reporting, advanced editing, makeup, visual
communications, photojournalism, mass media law, and
print journalism production workshop
Bachelor of Arts in English (Writing Emphasis), May 1995
Significant Coursework:
Theories of persuasion and rhetoric in writing, business
writing, advanced expository writing, and numerous
literature and poetry courses
If you've earned a minor, list that under your major.
If you've earned a high grade point average, in your major, minor, or overall, include one or a
combination of those GPAs. Listing GPAs of a B or better is always safe. If your GPA is lower
than a B, check with your advisor or professionals in the field before listing it.
EDUCATION
St. Cloud State University, St. Cloud, MN

Bachelor of Arts in English, Rhetoric and Composition

Emphasis, November 1995
GPA: 3.22 (4.0 scale)
EDUCATION
St. Cloud State University, St. Cloud, MN
Bachelor of Science in Supervision, May 1995
GPA Overall: 3.22/4.0 scale ; GPA in Major: 3.68/4.0 scale
Minors: Management and Psychology
If you've earned special certification that are relevant to the position you're seeking, list them
here.
EDUCATION
St. Cloud State University, St. Cloud, MN
B.S. in English and B.S. Minor in Information Media
School Librarian/Audiovisual Coordinator Licensure, May 1995
Summa Cum Laude, May 22, 1995
GPA: Major and minor 4.0; Overall 3.97
EDUCATION
St. Cloud State University, St. Cloud, MN
B.S. in Marketing, May 1995
Management Minor
University of Minnesota Extension, Minneapolis, MN
Certificate of Forestry Management, July 1990
Minneapolis Technical Institute. Minneapolis, MN
Diploma in Word Processing, June 1989
If you've taken classes that would set you off from other applicants with the same degree(s),
list them. Be sure that you include only advance coursework, and organize it from most to least
important in terms of your job objective, grouping together class titles from the same areas.
EDUCATION
St. Cloud State University, St. Cloud, MN
Bachelor of Science in Supervision Technology
August 1995
Supervision Courses
Supervisory Management, Personnel Management, Motion
and Time Studies, Occupational Safety and Health, Worker
Motivation, Employee Training and Development,
Managerial Development, Organizational Communication
You can even make this easier to process by categorizing and naming groups of courses, as the
sample below illustrates:

EDUCATION
St. Cloud State University, St. Cloud, MN -- AACSB Accredited
Degree: Bachelor of Science in Marketing, May 1995
Minor: Economics
Marketing Courses:
Marketing Channels, Consumer Behavior, Marketing
Management, Marketing Research, International Marketing,
and Transportation Management
Economics Courses:
Microeconomics, Macroeconomics, Business Cycles and
Forecasting, Money and Banking, and History of Economic
Thought
If you've taken seminars or workshops, or completed special projects that closely correspond to
your career objective, include them. Remember that "hands-on" experience, whether in the
classroom or in the workplace, demonstrates that you understand class concepts well enough to
apply them.
TEACHER PREPARATION
Partners in Alternative Teacher Education (PATE): a pilot
program in District 742, emphasizing experiential learning and
involving area teachers, university faculty, and education majors
Phase I: nine weeks classroom observation and seminars
Phase II: ten weeks student teaching
Phase III: debriefing
Pre-Student Teaching Experience: one week at Kimball High
School, Kimball, MN, prior to 1995-1996 school year: Included
workshops on Effective Elements of Instruction and Madeline
Hunter Lesson Design
Independent Study: Tutoring Practicum, Writing Center Materials
and Research
Major and Minor Courses: Research Writing, Creative Writing,
Advanced Expository Writing, Business Writing, Reference and
Bibliography, Selection and Evaluation of Media, Microcomputers,
Photography
EDUCATION
Purdue University, West Lafayette, IN
Major: Building Construction and Contracting
Bachelor of Science, May 1994
Significant Courses
Plans & Specifications, Bidding, Field Operations, Surveying,
Occupational Safety and Health, Scheduling, Structural Systems,
Temporary Structures, Mechanical and Electrical Systems, Soils
and Foundations, Construction Supervision

Relevant Projects
Analyzed field operations of earthwork at construction site
of Caterpillar Manufacturing Plant in Lafayette, IN

Performed field ratings on the construction site of the

Purdue Athletic Facility in West Lafayette, IN

Given the highly technical and global nature of today's workplace, consider including
computer skills and any foreign languages you speak fluently (as well as long-term overseas
experience, such as study abroad programs.
SYSTEMS & HARDWARE
Hardware
Gateway 5250 Workstation (running Windows NT)
Powerbook
Power Macintosh G3
Ink Jet Printer
Laser printer
LAN (Local Area Network)
Digital camera
Software
Microsoft Office98
MSWord
WordPerfect
Microsoft Excel
PowerPoint
Filemaker Pro
QuarkXPress (Passport)
Adobe Photoshop
Various html editors
Email (both server and client software)
The major web browsers
Foreign Language Facility
Bilingual in English and Spanish; fluent in French
Overseas Experience
Study Abroad Program, Costa Rica, Fall and Winter 1994
Study Abroad Program, Alnwick Castle, England, Summer
1994
Extensive travel in France, Spain, Italy
Sometimes, students who have completed internships, co-op experience, or student teaching ask
whether they should include this experience under the education section of their resumes.
However, such experience is usually detailed under the experience section of a resume.

Presenting Your Experience in Resumes

Experience sections of resumes demonstrate specifically what you have accomplished during
your paid or volunteer work experience. But to be effective, you must describe your experience in
concrete terms using language that presents you as you would like to be seen.

In general, you need to describe your past accomplishments and current work experience
in concrete terms. Clarify results with numbers wherever possible since numbers,
especially large ones, impress prospective employers.
Teaching Assistant
Mechanical Engineering Technology; Purdue University, 7/9712/97

Trained and supervised 83 students in gas and arc

welding

Provided oral and written evaluation for three

major projects for each of these students

Supervised 6 work-study students who maintained

lab equipment
Residence Hall Counselor
Windsor Halls; Purdue University, 8/97-5/98

Supervised activities of 51 floor residents

Planned, implemented, and promoted talks by 12

academic and community members for special program
called "Developing Leadership Skills for the 21st
Century"

Served as liaison between residents and the

administration

Use action verbs like "organized," "coordinated," or "sold" to start descriptions rather than
vague lead-ins like "I was responsible for" that lead readers to wonder exactly what you
did or what you're hiding. The partial list below may help you think of your work
experience in more concrete terms.
adapted
administered
advertised
advised

determined
developed
directed
edited

originated
oversaw
planned
prepared

aided
analyzed
answered
applied
arranged
assessed
assigned
audited
collaborated
completed
communicated
compiled
conducted
coordinated
corrected
counseled
created
delegated
designed

employed
established
evaluated
expanded
guided
headed
hired
identified
implemented
improved
increased
initiated
introduced
led
managed
negotiated
operated
ordered
organized

produced
programmed
raised
rated
recruited
regulated
researched
revised
scheduled
served
settled
sold
solved
started
supervised
systematized
taught
trained
wrote

Use common vocabulary to market qualifications related to the career area you're
applying for. If this area has special grammatical conventions or technical terms, be sure
to use them.
Bechtel Power Corporation
Gaithersburg, Maryland; Summer 1998
Summer Intern with Nuclear Staff Thermal-hydraulics Group

Calculated three Mile Island reactor drain-down

and dry steady-state simulations, which were part of the
successful effort to lift the Unit 2 reactor pressure vessel
head

Completed Farley Reactor Cavity Analysis that

produced force and moment histories for the revision of
the Farley Final Safety Analysis Report
Bechtel Power Corporation
Gaithersburg, Maryland; Summer 1997
Summer Intern with Nuclear Staff Thermal-hydraulics Group

Asssisted senior engineers with calculations of

simulated main steamline breaks, subcompartment and
containment analysis

Assisted with hydrogen generation calculations for

equipment qualifications and igniter box performance

Prepared a post data processor for a

subcompartment analysis computer code

Fabricated a summary chart of containment and

subcompartment analysis results of the Thermalhydraulics Group

If you have a great deal of non-professional experience, consider splitting it into jobrelated and non-related categories.
Employment Objective
A position in management or human resource development, using
my communication, training, and supervisory skills

Although this document has described general guidelines for presenting your experience to
prospective employers, you'll also need to decide upon the format you'll use to organize your
experience. Experience can be presented chronologically, can be ordered according to skills
developed or functions performed (job titles). For jobs requiring creative ability, experience can
even be presented imaginatively. For more information about these methods of organizing
experience in your resume, select a method listed below:

Chronological Resumes
Skills Resumes
Functional Resumes
Imaginative Resumes

Chronological Resumes
When designing your resume, you'll want to spend some time deciding on the format that
presents your background most favorably. Chronological resumes, most frequently used in the
past, are the most conservative type of resume. They're the sort of resume frequently used for
more traditional firms, and they are required for government positions.
In general, chronological resumes organize work experience chronologically, beginning with the
most recent job and working backwards to the least recent job. For example, one section of a
chronological resume might look like the following:
Engineering Co-op, Bell Helicopter Textron, Fort Worth, Texas
Summer 1998, Rotor Dynamics Group
Used flight dynamics simulation computer programs such as DNAWO6
(Myklestad), C81, and DNAWO1/02
Evaluated rotors, rotor-fuselage combinations, and test stands using data from

simulation programs
Summer 1997, Research Design Group

Drafted rotor parts for research and flight test programs

Designed simple parts, such as tail rotor balance fixture

Summer 1996, Materials and Methods Lab

Tested composite specimens to verify materials specification

Fabricated composite structures for research programs

If you're thinking about using a chronological resume, consider the following:

A chronological resume is appropriate if . . .

o you're applying for a position with a conservative firm.
o your most recent job or jobs are similar to the position you're applying for.
o your work history isn't spotty -- with embarrassing "holes" which you'd need to
explain: chronological organization will emphasize any gaps in your work history.
o you have a strong, continuing work history -- with progressively more responsible
positions -- related directly to the career direction you're pursuing.
A chronological resume is challenging because . . .
o dates tend to dominate the resume.
o dates are emphasized; thus, an original layout that downplays dates is difficult to
design. Remember, dates do not sell your skills.
o it's hard to highlight significant aspects of a work history.

Two complete examples of chronological resumes are available:

1. A good example of a chronological resume documenting an engineering major who is still
in school and who has had two strong industry internships
2. A good example of a chronological resume documenting an accounting major who is still
in school and who has gained technical skills through work experience

Skills Resumes
When designing your resume, you'll want to spend some time deciding on the format that
presents your background most favorably. Skills resumes, which have become very popular

recently, stress abilities demonstrated through work experience and volunteer activities. In
general, this type of resume describes what the job applicant has done to demonstrate skills
relevant to his or her career objective.
Prospective employers like this type of resume for two reasons:
1. Skills resumes require that an applicant select three or four of his or her strongest skills
and organize experience under these categories. The skills selected should be relevant to
the applicant's career objective. In other words, to develop a skills resume effectively,
applicants must know themselves and the company's requirements pretty well. Therefore,
a skills resume demonstrates the applicant's analytical ability as well as job skills.
2. Because skills resumes emphasize the job applicant's abilities, regardless of where they
were acquired, prospective employers don't need to sort through a list organized by dates
or position titles to figure out what the applicant's strengths are.
The process for developing a skills resume is fairly straightforward. First, select three or four of
your strongest skills -- skills, of course, that are essential for the position you're seeking. Then,
select details from your work experience and activities that demonstrate how and when you have
successfully applied these skills. Finally, order these skills and the details under them from most
to least important.
For example, one section of a skills resume might look like the following:
Communication
designed and presented a three-hour workshop on editing
strategies for 34 writers on staff of the Chronicle, St. Cloud
State University's (SCSU) student newspaper
wrote a feature article on SCSU students' views of the
Minnesota State University System merger for the St. Cloud
Times
created a 20-minute educational video on careers in
journalism, which will be used as a marketing tool for high
school juniors and seniors by SCSU's Mass
Communications department

trained 32 undergraduate Mass Communications majors to

use QuarkXpress during three four-hour workshops

If you're thinking about using a skills resume, consider the following:

A skills resume is appropriate if . . .

o your skills are more impressive than your job titles or length of experience.
o you've been active in campus or community activities since these can be included
with paid work experience under specific skills.

o
o
o

you're a nontraditional student with little paid work experience but lots of
volunteer experience.
you've recently changed career goals. In fact, when career goals change, a skills
resume is the only way to go.
you want to show that you've taken the time to analyze your capabilities and their
relevance to the position you're seeking as well as to market your strongest
attributes.

Because some people have used skills resumes to obscure problems in their employment
histories, it is very important to be clear about when and where you demonstrated the skills you
claim to have. One way to achieve this clarity is to include an "Employment" section that lists job
titles, names of companies or organizations, and dates you worked there.
Each skill, then, should be linked directly to a particular job in the Employment section.

Sample Skills Resumes

Although the following sample resumes are for specific jobs and reflect specific experience,
consider looking at them all for a wider range of ideas and strategies.
personnel management job sought, recent college graduate
industrial management job sought, recent college graduate
human resources management job sought, college graduate
summer internship in public relations sought, college student in M.A. program
economics development specialist job sought, recent college graduate with lots of
unrelated experience
human resources management job sought, recent college graduate with lots of volunteer
experience

Functional Resumes
When designing your resume, you'll want to spend some time deciding on the format which
presents your background most favorably. Functional resumes visually emphasize the positions
you've held. These resumes arrange work experience, and sometimes campus or community
activities, in descending order of importance based on your professional objective.
In general, functional resumes organize work experience according to position titles or functions
(i.e.systems analyst, special events coordinator, probation officer). Each function is then
described using action statements detailing responsibilities held, duties performed, and results
achieved.
If you're thinking about using a functional resume, consider the following:

A functional resume is appropriate if . . .

you're interested in emphasizing positions and accomplishments rather than job

time spans, skills, and employers.
o your background fits one of the following three categories.
1. You've had impressive job titles and duties.
2. You can't list work experience in chronological order without gaps.
3. You've held a variety of jobs or assignments not directly related to your
intended career but have performed functions directly related to your
career objective.
A functional resume is inappropriate if . . .
o you've had little paid or volunteer experience since this approach depends on
actual job titles for its effectiveness.
o

Sample Functional Resumes

Although the following sample resumes are for specific jobs and reflect specific experience,
consider looking at them all for a wider range of ideas and strategies.
management information systems position sought; recent college graduate
position in mass communications sought; no objective, which is appropriate for this
discipline
entry-level position in production supervision sought; unusually good work experience
and lots of honors
position in finance department in industry sought; showing multiple schools for education
with lots of unrelated but good experience
position in building construction and contracting sought; showing projects completed and
relevant work experience
academic position sought; resume includes publications, presentations, and a category
listing significant academic projects

Imaginative Resumes
When designing your resume, you'll want to spend some time deciding on the format that
presents your background most favorably. Imaginative resumes may include the same type of
information that chronological, functional, and skills resumes do. However, the presentation of
imaginative resumes leaves more room for creativity. In fact, imaginative resumes market
qualifications and artistic ability simultaneously, which is important if a creative or artistic person
is begin sought.
For example, one section of an imaginative resume might look like the following:

Writing . . .

Speaking . . .

write five original news

stories daily for
WJON/WJJO newscasts
create and produce
scripts for the "St. Cloud
Area Chamber Report"
business program
write and edit special
feature series reports on
local business and
education issues
file stories with the
Associated Press and
Minnesota News
Network
rewrite and edit copy
from wire services and
news reports

X
P
E
R
I
E
N
C
E
D

anchor up to six
WJON/WJJO newscasts
daily
contact officials and
others daily for
interviews and news
stories
anchor live coverage of
various local events
report live from the scene
of breaking news stories
narrate commercials and
scripts for Westel
Communication
address college and high
school classes on
WJON/WJJO and
broadcast newswriting

If you're thinking about using an imaginative resume, consider the following:

An imaginative resume is appropriate if . . .

o your artistic skills, used to enhance the visual design of your resume, market your
creativity in an appropriate way given your prospective employer and the position
you're seeking.
o your qualification are highlighted in an effective yet unusual way to catch an
employer's attention.
An imaginative resume is challenging because . . .
o designing a professional looking resume can be extremely difficult; creativity
cannot be overdone, or employers will be "turned off" rather than impressed.
o you must analyze your audience carefully to be sure that a creative resume is
appropriate. Imaginative resumes and conservative or moderately conservative
prospective employers do not mix!

References in Resumes

At some point during the selection process, most prospective employers will want to check
applicants' references, people who have agreed to recommend the applicants to prospective
employers. Usually, the last section of the resume will handle references in some way.

Most job applicants indicate their willingness to provide references in the last line of their
resume: References available upon request.
Many SCSU job applicants list the address and phone number of Career Planning and
Placement and their placement file number under references. Then, prospective
employees wanting letters of reference can simply contact Career Planning and
Placement.
Some prospective employees want references listed right on the resume.
o If you list references on your resume, include a balance of academic and
nonacademic references.
o Include references' professional titles and their work addresses and phone
numbers.
o Make sure that you've asked permissions before you include people as references:
don't assume that they're willing to write you a letter of support, that they'll write
you a favorable reference, or that they have time to write you a reference. Such
assumptions will inevitably backfire. And if you list people without their
permissions, even if they are willing to serve as a reference, they probably won't
be prepared to talk about you if people call asking for references.
If you're unsure whether or not you should list references on your resume, check the job
listing or a professional in your field for advice.
If you don't list references on your resume, prepare a separate reference sheet that you can
take to interviews; then, when prospective employers ask for a list, you'll be prepared.
Take a look at a sample reference sheet to see a standard format.

Sample References
References for James Esterman
433 Colby Hall
Hutchinson University
Hutchinson, IL 60353
(847-555-2733)
esterj01@hutch.edu
Dr. Pat Wombat
Professor of Psychology
Hutchinson University
Hutchinson, IL 60353

Dr. Chris Murphy

Professor of Biology
Hutchinson University
Hutchinson, IL 60353

wombatp@hutch.edu
(847-555-3212)
Dr. Wombat was my supervisor in
the Human Subjects Research Lab.

Mr. Michael McCollins

Project Director
The Acme Corporation
112221 Main Street
Hutchinson, IL 60353
(847-555-2813)
Mr. Murphy supervised my internship
at the Acme Corporation.

(847-555-2733)
Dr. Murphy was my professor in
Biology 425: Special Research Projects.

Ms. Sonia Ramirez

Manager
The Rasmussen Corporation
1192 Elston Avenue
Chicago, IL 60105
(312-555-2733)
SRamirez@rasmussen.com
Ms. Ramirez supervised my co-op
experience at the Rasmussen Corporation.

General Cover Letter Tips

Your cover letters are as significant as your resume is. While the resume is, in a sense, a fact
sheet, the cover letter is your sales pitches to a specific company. In fact, your cover letters
enable you to adapt your background to prospective employers' needs since you'll be writing an
individual cover letter for each job application you send out.
In general, your cover letters allow you to expand upon and emphasize particular aspects of your
resume -- based upon the requirements of the particular position you're seeking. Therefore,
consider what the specific organization needs and address your letter to those needs. Many
recruiters can spot form letters and don't take them as seriously as letters adapted to their specific
company, so write a carefully adapted letter rather than a generic one that you send to every
company to get your foot in the door for an interview.

Researching Companies and Yourself

Finding Out What You Want
Finding Out What Companies Want
Writing Cover Letters
Cover Letters: Purposes and Information
Cover Letters: Presenting Yourself Persuasively
Cover Letter Style
Cover Letter Format

Cover Letter Samples

A Sample of a Cover Letter for Teaching
A Sample of a Cover Letter for a Part-time Job
A Sample of a Cover Letter for a Summer Job
A Sample of a Cover Letter from an MBA

More general information -- General ResumeTips -- offers an overview of resume writing,

includingexplanations of the major areas on a resume, writing tips, and sampleresumes.

Purposes and Information

In general, the purpose of cover letters is to interest prospective employers enough so they call to
schedule an interview. To fulfill this purpose, you'll need to target each cover letter to a specific
company and position, showing how your background and abilities fulfill particular company
needs.
Generic letters written to prospective employers are not enough. Those hiring will see such
general letters for what they are: they'll realize that you haven't invested much time or effort in
researching their company and writing an individual letter. And they probably won't invest their
time by interviewing you.
You'll find that time spent to research the company, to determine how you're going to pique your
readers' interest, and to write a letter convincing a prospective employer that your background
matches company needs is well worth the effort.

Particular Purposes and Information

Cover letters are sales letter. Essentially, you're targeting your credentials to a particular market -one company -- and persuading that company to make the buy. To fulfill this overall purpose,
you'll need to achieve several goals in your letter:
1. Your letter should provide readers with some insight into you as an individual. Draft your
letter in a way that shows how you as an individual will fit into the organization.
2. Use key terms from the ad or job description that are clearly relevant to your background.
3. Structure your letter so that each part achieves these particular goals:
In the opening paragraph of your letter, clarify your purpose in writing and build
reader interest.
The body of your letter will need to persuade the reader that you have skills and
abilities useful for the company.
The closing of your letter should request an interview as well as a strong reminder
of the benefit to the prospective employer of scheduling an interview.

General Cover Letter Tips are also available.

More general information -- General ResumeTips -- offers an overview of resume writing,
includingexplanations of the major areas on a resume, writing tips, and sampleresumes.

Presenting Yourself Persuasively

General Purposes of Cover Letters
In general, the purpose of cover letters is to interest prospective employers enough so they call to
schedule an interview. To fulfill this purpose, you'll need to target each cover letter to a specific
company and position, showing how your background and abilities fulfill particular company
needs.
Generic letters written to prospective employers are not enough. Those hiring will see such
general letters for what they are: they'll realize that you haven't invested much time or effort in
researching their company and writing an individual letter. And they probably won't invest their
time by interviewing you.
You'll find that time spent to research the company, to determine how you're going to peak your
readers' interest, and to write a letter convincing a prospective employer that your background
matches company needs is well worth the effort.

Particular Purposes and Information

Cover letters are sales letter. Essentially, you're targeting your credentials to a particular market -one company -- and persuading that company to make the buy. To fulfill this overall purpose,
you'll need to achieve several goals in your letter:
1. Your letter should provide readers with some insight into you as an individual. Draft your
letter in a way that shows how you as an individual will fit into the organization.
2. Use key terms from the ad or job description that are clearly relevant to your background.
3. Structure your letter so that each part achieves these particular goals:
In the opening paragraph of your letter, clarify your purpose in writing and build
reader interest.
The body of your letter will need to persuade the reader that you have skills and
abilities useful for the company.
The closing of your letter should request an interview as well as a strong reminder
of the benefit to the prospective employer of scheduling an interview.
Three sample cover letters are available:

A Sample of a Cover Letter for Teaching

A Sample of a Cover Letter for a Part-Time Job

A Sample of a Cover Letter from an MBA

General cover letter tips are also available.

More general resume information -- General Resume Tips -- offers an overview of resume
writing, including explanations of the major areas on a resume, writing tips, and sample
resumes.

A Sample of a Cover Letter for Teaching

Babs Malone
1335 University Ave., Apt. 445
Rockville, MD 20847
6 July 1998
Ms. Joan Wannabe
Human Resources
District #743
Mosquito, MN 56310
Dear Ms. Wannabe:
I am writing to apply for a job teaching language arts at the secondary level in your excellent
school district. I am particularly interested in a position that allows me to use my work on the
student newspaper here at Rockville State University and on student newsletters for various
organizations. I am also qualified to advise student organizations and extracurricular activities
such as Knowledge Bowl, Honor Society, yearbook, creative publications, and student
government. Even though I am getting my degree in Maryland, in fact I was born in Minnesota
and desire to go back there to live.
As my resume shows, I have been very active on university publications. As Opinions editor at
the University newspaper, the Chronicle, I used QuarkXpress to design layout of two pages of
every edition, formulated editorial policy, wrote weekly editorials and essays, hired and
supervised columnists and cartoonists, and scheduled and led weekly editorial board meetings.
My resume also shows my work on literary magazines and in journalism contests as well as
desktop publishing seminars for other students.
Other campus activities have been important to my life here, and I would like to support their
importance in the school where I teach. In particular, the Knowledge Bowl has been important to
me, both as a coach and judge. Other of my campus activities might be important to you as well:

Voice of Teacher Education Students (VOTES), the University Honors Program (President, 19961997; Recruitment Secretary, 1997-1998), and Girls Into Women, a mentoring program for at-risk
high-school girls.
I will have my Maryland certification in English, journalism, and speech by the end of summer
school. I have written the State of Minnesota to determine the steps I must take to be certified in
Minnesota as well. I am particularly proud of my G.P.A. at Rockville State: 3.78 on a four-point
scale.
I will be returning to my parents' house in Rochester, Minnesota, as soon as school is out (August
19). You may reach me at my school address, listed above and on my resume, or in Rochester, at
Babs Malone
3552 Jefferson Court
Rochester, MN 55901
The telephone number here in Rockville is (240) 555-1234. In Rochester, my phone number will
be (507) 555-2345. I look forward to hearing from you.
Sincerely,
Babs Malone
Babs Malone

Cover Letter Style

The presentation of your cover letter is as important as the information. Because readers hope to
get a sense of you as an individual, you should work to make your letter sound professional,
confident, and concerned with the prospective employer's needs.

Writing like a professional assumes that your letter contains no grammatical, spelling, or
typographical errors. Job applicants are frequently "deselected" because of such mistakes:
prospective employers want employees who write well; they also assume that if you make
careless errors when applying for jobs, you'll make them on the job.
Adapt a formal tone to promote yourself as a professional.
Use technical terminology appropriate for the position you seek. Frequently, you can use
the job listing or advertisement to determine the terminology that is appropriate.
Try to downplay "I" and "me" and emphasize "you" instead. When possible, bury "I's,"
"me's," and "my's"in the center of your sentences. Make your accomplishments, skills,
and background the subjects of your sentences, and emphasize what these can contribute
to your reader's organization, as the following paragraph shows:

Another experience which could be readily adapted to the Resource

Center is my work as counselor during the past two summers for
boys and girls ages 11 to 14 at a United Methodist junior high camp.
This rewarding experience involved skills such as creativity,
leadership, listening, and one-to-one and group communication.
Although children in this age level are quite different from those in
the nursery school group, I found once again that treating the
campers with respect and care fostered cooperation and growth.

This strategy is challenging -- particularly if you're trying to vary your sentence structure
so it's not repetitive. But letters in which most sentences start with "I" or "My" sound very
self-centered, not exactly the image of self most job applicants want to portray.

Use concrete, specific language so that readers get a good sense of what you've done and
who you are. This means using strong, active verbs to describe what you've accomplished.
Some active verbs commonly used in resumes and cover letters appear in this list:
adapted
administered
advertised
advised
aided
analyzed
answered
applied
arranged
assessed
assigned
audited
collaborated
completed
communicated
compiled
conducted
coordinated
corrected
counseled
created
delegated
designed

determined
developed
directed
edited
employed
established
evaluated
expanded
guided
headed
hired
identified
implemented
improved
increased
initiated
introduced
led
managed
negotiated
operated
ordered
organized

originated
oversaw
planned
prepared
produced
programmed
raised
rated
recruited
regulated
researched
revised
scheduled
served
settled
sold
solved
started
supervised
systematized
taught
trained
wrote

When you have finished writing, reread your letter to check for tone. Make sure that you
sound confident rather than cocky or unsure of yourself. Also, as you read, try to imagine
what sort of personality readers will see in your letter, and revise until your language
matches the image you want to project.

General Cover Letter Tips are also available.

A Sample of a Cover Letter for a Summer Job

223 Windsor Drive
Iowa City, IA 52240
March 14, 1999
Dear Ms. Hoyer:
Louis Pasteur was quoted as saying, "When I approach a child, he inspires in me two sentiments:
tenderness for what he is and respect for what he may become." I, too, believe that tenderness and
respect are essential to a child's total development. Through working with children and teenagers
and through child development and psychology studies at Northwestern State College, I have
developed skills to apply these two essentials. Please consider me for your summer child care
worker opening at the Community and Family Resource Center.
Currently I am working on a rotation schedule of observation and participation two hours weekly
at the Nimitz Drive Nursery School at Northwestern State as part of a course, Development and
Growth of Young Children. In observation, I watch the children at play and activities, making
notes of their behaviors, drawing inferences, and applying theories, principles, and views of
development to those behaviors. During participation segments, I converse with children ages
three to five on a one-to-one or small group level, listen to them, and participate in play and
activities. I have found this nursery school atmosphere especially appropriate for cultivating
tenderness and respect in these children.
Another experience which could be readily adapted to the Resource Center is my work as a
counselor during the past two summers for boys and girls ages 11 to 14 at a junior high camp.
This rewarding experience involved skills, such as creativity, leadership, listening, and one-toone and small group communication. Although children in this age level are quite different from
those in the nursery school group, I found once again that treating the campers with respect and
care fostered cooperation and growth.
I am currently in my sixth semester at Northwestern State College with a major in Child
Development and Family Studies. The enclosed resume outlines my strong educational
background. I would like to use what I have learned through my work and educational
experiences to help you at your Resource Center. Please write or phone me at 555-3012 so we
may discuss the ways in which my qualifications can best serve the Center's segment of Iowa
City youth.
Sincerely,
Duane Horstman

Duane Horstman
Enclosure: Resume

A more general overview of cover letter tips is available.

More general resume information -- General ResumeTips -- offers an overview of resume
writing, including explanations of the major areas on a resume, writing tips, and sample resumes.

Double Negatives
A double negative is the nonstandard usage of two negatives used in the same sentence so that
they cancel each other and create a positive. In Shakespeare's day, double negatives were
considered emphatic, but today, they are considered grammar mistakes.
Remembering that two negatives form a positive will help you to avoid the "double negative"
grammar problem:
Negative + Negative = Positive
Negative + Positive = Negative
Negative Words
The following list contains words that are regarded as negative. If you use them in your sentences
once, your statements will be negative.
no
not
none
nothing
nowhere
neither

nobody
no one
hardly
scarcely
barely

Using the rule explained above in the box and the list of negative words given, study the
following examples:

Sentence

Meaning

Positive Construction
negative + negative

I hardly have none.

I have some.

I don't want nothing.

I want something.

Negative Construction
negative + positive

I hardly have any.

I have few.

I don't want anything.

I want nothing.

Note: the usage of double negatives is not considered proper or standard in English. On some
occasions, mostly when speaking, the use of double negatives is accepted; however, you must
remember that the meaning of these expressions will always be positive.

Exercise
On a sheet of paper, rewrite these sentences so that none of them contains double negatives.
1. I think the new financial initiative will not last barely a month.
2. The researcher decided not to run the test again because the results from previous tests
were hardly reliable.
3. Since his last speech gained little acceptance, the writer has not had no request to visit the
forum again.
4. The explorers finally discovered that the place where they landed did not have none of the
minerals they wanted.
5. The pilot could not find nowhere to land.
6. After being replaced, the pipes did not run no water as expected.
7. Arizona had scarcely no rain last summer.
8. The storm rose so quickly that the road crews could not do nothing about clearing the
highways.
9. There is hardly no worse challenge than the one concerning national defense.

General Strategies for Editing and Proofreading

When you look over your papers to make sure that you've presented your ideas in ways that are
clear to your readers, you send a message that you think your ideas are good enough to deserve a
careful presentation.
Writers make changes to their papers at different levels. Knowing about these levels can help you
divide up the job of getting a paper ready to hand in.

Read your paper aloud, or have someone read it aloud to you. We often "hear" more of
our errors than we see.
Leave as much time as you can between finishing writing a paper and editing and
proofreading it. This lets you "re-see" the paper with rested eyes and a more distanced
perspective.
Read the paper backward -- from the end to the beginning -- one sentence (for editing) or
one word (for proofreading) at a time. This helps you concentrate on sentences and words
rather than on the paper's meaning as a whole.
Use two pieces of blank white paper to cover all but one sentence at a time. This helps
reduce visual noise and keeps you from being distracted by other sentences.
Deliberately set aside time for proofreading, just as you set aside time for research and
writing.
Build editing and proofreading into your writing process at the best place for you. Many
writers like to leave it for last so that they can concentrate on their ideas first.
Good writers don't necessarily know all the grammar and punctuation "rules," but they do
know where to look them up. Find and use resources.
o dictionaries
o thesauruses
o software writing programs
o handbooks
o handouts from your teacher or the Write Place
o other writers
Keep resources handy when you write so that you aren't tempted to guess about how to
correct your errors.
Ask other writers to listen to you read your paper, to read your paper as you listen, and to
help you figure out and apply grammar rules. Good writers don't go it alone.
Know and keep a list of errors you make often so that you know what to look for in your
papers.
Read your paper a few times for one of those errors at a time rather than reading your
paper once only and trying to catch all of your errors in one pass.

Editing & Proofreading Strategies for Specific Sentence-Level

Errors
Writers who are effective editors and proofreaders use specific strategies for searching for
particular types of errors. With this in mind, the most important thing to remember is that you
can't check for everything in one reading. Make a list of errors typical of your writing -- starting
with most serious or most frequent and moving to the less serious or less frequent. Then make
several passes through your paper, looking for one type of error during each pass.
This handout reviews errors writers frequently make and provides "tricks of the trade" for
catching each type of error. Note: Each error below is followed by the editor's mark teachers
frequently use when pointing out the error.

COMMA ERRORS
o omitted commas after introductory phrases or clauses
o omitted commas in compound sentences
o comma splices
SENTENCE STRUCTURE
o sentence fragments
o problems with parallel structure
SPELLING & TYPOS
o spelling errors
o confusion between sound-alike words
o typographical errors
o omitted words
GRAMMAR
o problems with subject/verb agreement
o problems with pronoun agreement or reference

COMMA ERRORS
To search for omitted commas after introductory words, phrases, or clauses
Commas should appear after emphatic opening words and introductory phrases and clauses
which come before the main sentence. To catch errors omitted after introductions, try these
strategies:

Check the first two words of each sentence to figure out if the sentence has an
introductory element.
o Note: Introductory elements (whether words, phrases, or clauses) always establish
one of two things: they establish time or condition.

As a result, the first words of a sentence will provide you with a tip about whether
or not you'll need an introductory comma.
If the first words indicate that you're being teased and the primary information is being
withheld until time and/or condition is established, a "break point" will occur where you
should insert a comma to let readers know that the main sentence is coming up. The
comma should appear at this break point.
Until you get a feel for the types of words that establish time or condition, refer to the
following list of words which commonly begin introductory phrases or clauses.
o

To search for omitted commas in compound sentences

If you have two complete sentences (or independent clauses), they must be connected with both a
comma and a connecting word (or coordinating conjunction). If the comma is missing, the error
is called a run-on. To check for run-on sentences, use the following two-step process:

Skim the paper, looking only for the seven coordinating conjunctions: and, but, or, for,
nor, so, yet.
When you find one of the seven coordinating conjunctions, cover it with your finger or a
piece of paper; determine if the word groups on either side can stand alone. If there are
complete sentences on each side of the coordinating conjunction, then you should show
the coordination or balance by placing a comma in front of the conjunction.

To search for comma splices

If you have two complete sentences, and they are connected by only a comma, the error is called
a comma splice. To find comma splices, follow these steps:

Skim the paper, stopping at every comma to check and see if there is a complete sentence
on each side of it.
o If there is, you'll need to decide
if you'd like to separate the ideas more and give each of them more
emphasis or
if you'd like them to remain in the same sentence because you want to
stress their relationship.
o If you'd like to separate and emphasize the ideas more, use a more emphatic
punctuation mark -- the period -- which will signal to your reader that you are
moving from one completed thought to another.
o If you'd like the ideas to remain in the same sentence because their relationship is
important, fix the comma splice by linking the sentences with a comma and a
coordinating conjunction or with a semicolon.

Information on strategies for fixing run-ons and comma splices is available.

To search for sentence fragments

A sentence fragment is a group of words that's punctuated as if it's a sentence; however, it's
missing a subject or a verb -- or has a subject and verb but includes a word that makes it
dependent on another sentence. To find sentence fragments in your writing, try the following
strategies:

Check every sentence to ensure that it has a main subject and verb.
Pay special attention to any sentence beginning with a word that signals clarification.
o Since most fragments are actually pieces of sentences, pay special attention to
sentences which begin with "and," "because," "such as," "for example," "for
instance" -- or any other word or group of words indicating that it's going to
explain something. You should check the group of words carefully to make sure
that it has a main subject and verb following such introductory elements.
o Also check for groups of words beginning with words showing dependence (i.e.
after, although, because, before).
Even though these words may be followed by a subject and verb, this
group of words can't stand alone unless another subject and verb follow.
For example, "Because I followed the presidential debates carefully" is a
fragment; although it has a subject and verb ("I followed"), the word
"Because" makes the whole group of words dependent -- probably on the
sentence before or the one after.
NOTE: You can save yourself a lot of time in looking for fragments if you figure out the
type or types of fragments you usually make. For help in isolating fragment patterns
typical of your writing, see Common Causes of Fragments.

To search for problems with parallel structure

Items in lists must appear in the same grammatical form; that is, if one word has an -ing ending,
all must.
Sentence that aren't parallel will feel awkward, won't flow. To check for problems with
parallelism:

Read your paper, pausing for sentences that trip you up, that feel awkward. Check them
for parallelism.
Look in particular for words or word groups in a series, and check words or word groups
joined by "and" and "or."
Make sure that these items match in grammatical form, that is, in word forms (parts of
speech and order).
If those elements don't match in form, you must either make them match or restructure
your idea to avoid the need for parallelism.

More information on parallelism is available.

SPELLING & TYPOGRAPHICAL ERRORS

To search for spelling and typographical errors
Most strategies for catching spelling and typographical errors involve either increasing your
awareness of the types of errors you tend to make or slowing down so that you see what's actually
on the page. As you read the following suggestions, consider which would be most useful for
you. One or more of these strategies are usually appropriate.

Although spelling problems often seem insurmountable, most writers find one or more
patterns are typical of their spelling errors; therefore, the first step to proofreading for
spelling is to keep a chart of the words you often misspell. This list can provide a
reference sheet that you can keep next to you as you write. It can also serve as a
diagnostic sheet you or a tutor can use to identify error patterns that you can search for in
your papers. An example of such a chart, Personal Spelling List, is available.
Slow yourself down and read for spelling and typos rather than for content.
o Isolate each line with a straightedge -- a piece of blank paper, a notecard, the edge
of a book -- and point to each word with a pencil or pen.
o Read from the end rather than the beginning of a line so that you can't get caught
up in what you're saying.
Using this strategy, you'll be able to separate the individual words from the
meaning; you'll be able to proof quickly but systematically; and, of course,
you'll be much more likely to catch extra letters, omitted letters, transposed
letters, and so on.
Caution: reading backwards won't allow you to identify errors with soundalike words (such as "to"/"too"/"two," "there"/"their," or "its"/"it's");
therefore, you should skim your paper, looking specifically for them.
Find a good spell checker, and learn how to use it. Caution: this method does not
catch sound-alike words either, so skimming should supplement the spell checker.

To search for omitted words

Searching for omitted words is a bit different than searching for spelling or typographical errors,
but some of the same strategies are useful:

Read your paper backwards: that is, read the last sentence; then go to the second to the
last, etc.

If you prefer to read straight through your text, you should use some strategy to slow
yourself down. Reading aloud often helps. In fact, any strategy that will cause you to be a
careful reader rather than a speed reader will be useful.
Place your pencil or pen on each word as you read it.
Isolate each line with a straightedge; even a piece of paper will work.

GRAMMAR
To search for problems with subject/verb agreement
Subject/verb agreement errors frequently happen when a phrase intervenes between the subject
and verb, as in the following examples.
If you looked specifically for the subject and verb, the error would probably be obvious and the
correction easy.
So, to find and fix subject/verb agreement errors, you need to systematically look for subjects and
verbs:

Isolate the main verb in each sentence.

Then match that verb to its subject and make sure that they agree in number.
Verbs are words that show action or state of being; however, it's sometimes easier if you
think of them as words that can be used to change time.
The trick is to make the numbers agree, and the simplest way to do that is to count it out
(i.e., one thing is/two things are).

More information on subject/verb agreement is available.

To search for problems with pronoun agreement or reference

Searching for errors in pronoun reference or agreement requires that you look for pronouns and
the nouns they point to:

Skim the paper and find each pronoun.

Once you find the pronoun, skim backwards until you find the noun it's replacing.
Make sure that each pronoun agrees in number with its corresponding noun. Once again,
the simplest way to check agreement is to count.
If you can't find the noun to which the pronoun refers, you should either insert a noun to
serve as a referent or change the pronoun to a noun. Caution: Be careful when there is an

article ("a," "an," "the" ) in front of a noun. The article makes the noun singular. ("Parents
have a tough job. A parent should recognize how tough his or her job is." )
Be particularly careful in checking for agreement with the singular pronouns "each,"
"everybody," and "everyone."
o Although people frequently say "Everyone . . . their" to avoid gender bias, writing
requires that such singular pronouns be matched with singular pronouns:
"everyone . . . his/her," "each . . . he or she."
o If you feel uncomfortable using either of these constructions, either make all
pronouns plural (All doctors have their reports.) or omit the second pronoun
altogether (Each doctor has a report.). Information on solving the pronoun puzzle
and avoiding gender bias is available.

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