- relative frequency of an allele is the number of times that allele occurs in a gene
pool compared with the number of times other alleles occur
- 1. Mutations
- are any change in a sequence of DNA
- can occur because of mistakes in the replication of DNA, or as a result of radiation or
chemicals in the environment
- can be limited to one of a few bases of DNA, or they can affect lengthy segments of
chromosomes
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- 2. Gene Shuffling
- occurs during production of gametes
- crossing over can also occur during meiosis - further increases number of genotypes
that can occur in offspring
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2. Stabilizing Selection
- is when individuals
near the center of the
curve have higher
fitness than ones at
either end of the
curve. Causes curves
ends to come more
towards middle increase in number of
organisms in middle
section.
- ex. the weight of infants when born - ones that are larger/smaller than usual are less
likely to live
3.Disruptive Selection
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Genetic Drift
- in small populations, individuals that carry a particular allele may leave more
descendants than other individuals, just by chance.
- Over time, a series of chance occurrences of this type can cause an allele to become
common in a population.
Genetic Equilibrium
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B.Geographic Isolation
C. Temporal Isolation
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E. Gametic Isolation
F.Ecological Isolation
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- occurs when a zygote may form with the union of egg and sperm, but embryo
dies after a few cell divisions.
Genetic information from male
and female parents is insufficient
enough to carry organism through
morphogenesis
B. Hybrid Sterility
Evidence of Evolution
6 DIFFERENT TYPES OF EVIDENCES OF EVOLUTION
I.
Fossil Record
II. Biogeography
III. Comparative Embryology
IV. Homologous Structures
V. Analogous Structures
VI. Genetics
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I.
Fossil Record
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VI. Genetics
- Transient polymorphism is when one allele slowly replaced by another allele, and
becomes much more frequent. An example of transient polymorphism is the
peppered moth prior to industrialization, the light peppered moth phenotype was
much more frequent than the dark phenotype due to the fact that they have an easier
time blending in with the environment to avoid predators. Once pollution occurred,
and the dark phenotype moth began to have ease blending in with the environment,
the dark phenotype progressively replaced the light phenotype.
- Balanced polymorphism is when alleles are in equilibrium with eachother, and the
two alleles together give you an advantage. An example of balanced
polymorphism is sickle cell anemia. When a human possesses both alleles (one allele
makes you prone to malaria but also gives you normal blood function, and the other
allele makes you prone to sickle-cell anemia but immune to malaria, but sickle-cell
allele is recessive,) they are put at an advantage compared to those who possess
homozygous alleles.
- Sympatric speciation is when the formation of a new species occurs due to a nongeographic barrier. An example of this is a temporal barrier. A temporal barrier exists
between two species when they have different mating/breeding seasons during the
year. An example of a temporal barrier existing between organisms is when one type
of frog has a mating season from January to March, and then a similar type of frog
has a mating season from March to May. Since these populations do not interbreed, it
will likely lead to speciation.
3. Describe the two paces of evolution (Punctuated Equilibrium and Gradualism)
- Cladograms are the representation of evolution over time in a diagram that shows
what organisms are more closely related than others
what adaptation/change occurred that brought about evolution
the presence of a common ancestor
distinctive features that separate one organism/group of organisms from other
organisms
Animal Phyla
There are 6 different animal phyla we must know for our test.
A. Porifera
- only sponges
- no body tissue, no symmetry,
no coelm, no segmentation, no
entrance
- ex. Sponge
B.Cnidaria
C. Platyhelminthes
- ex. earthworm
E.Mollusca
-ex. snails
F. Arthoropoda
Plantae Phyla
A. Bryophytes
- Leaves, Roots & Stems: have leaves, roots and non-woody stems
- Reproductive Features: spores in sporangia on underside of leaf
- Other Features: have large leaves that are divided into leaflets (tiny leaves)
- ex. ferns
C. Angiosperm
- Leaves, Roots & Stems: have leaves, roots and stems (woody and non-woody
vary)
- Leaves, Roots & Stems: have leaves, roots and woody stems
- Reproductive Features: seeds found within cones produced
- Other Features: leaves are usually narrow with a thick, waxy cuticle
- ex. cones and pines
Many sibling species have been found. These are species that cannot
interbreed, but show no significant differences in appearance. They are
separate species, but are very difficult for ecologists to identify. (ex: the Pipistrelle
Bat in Britain was recently shown to be two sibling species)
- Some pairs of species that are clearly different in their characteristics will
interbreed. Many plant species hybridize and some animals also. (ex: ruddy ducks
and white-headed ducks).
- Oxygen: required for cellular (aerobic) respiration which is necessary for life
- Nitrogen: vital component of amino acids and nucleic acids, the building blocks
for proteins and DNA
- Sulfur: a part of some amino acids, involved in protein synthesis of amino acids
- Phosphorus: a phosphate base is a component of DNA, also part of ATP (energy)
- Iron: found in blood, which is used to circulate oxygen throughout the body
- Calcium: Regulates production of cell wall in plants, strengthens bones, muscle
contraction
ORGANIC MOLECULES: Molecules made up of carbon & hydrogen only.
NON-ORGANIC MOLECULES: Anything that does not fall under organic
Unit 6: Biochemistry
Molecule
Monomer
Polymer
Function
Carbohydrate
Monosaccharide,
glucose, simple
sugar
Polysaccharide,
starch, glycogen
Energy source,
raw materials for
molecules
Protein
Amino acids
Polypeptides,
protein
Determined by
structure, catalyst
Lipid
Fatty acids,
glycerol
Phospholipid,
triglyceride
Nutrition, storage,
insulation
Nucleic Acid
Nucleotide
DNA, RNA,
Nucleic Acid
Storage of genetic
information
Image
Carbohydrates
STRUCTURES OF CARBOHYDRATES TO KNOW
1.Monosaccharide (consist of a single monomer)
2. Disaccharide (consist of 2
monomers)
- pairs of monosaccharides
linked together by
dehydration synthesis
3.Polysaccharide (multiple
monomers to form a polymer)
- A function of glucose in animals is that its used as an energy source for the body.
- A function of glycogen in animals is that its a source of long-term energy storage,
and is stored primarily in muscles and in the liver.
- A function of lactose in animals is that its the sugar found in milk that is given to
newborns.
V. State functions of sucrose, fructose and cellulose in plants.
- A function of sucrose in plants is that its used as an energy source for the plant.
- A function of fructose in plants is that its found in fruit, and gives sweetness to
attract animals.
Proteins
- polar amino acids are hydrophilic (does not repel water) and tend to be placed
on the outside of the protein
- non-polar amino acids are hydrophobic (repels water) and tend to be placed on
the inside of the protein
Proteins: Structures
I.
Primary Structure
- this structure determines the folding of the polypeptide to give a functional protein
II. Secondary Structure
- folding of polypeptide into domains whose chemical properties are determined by the amino
acids in chain
- some proteins are made of several polypeptide subunits these subunits fit together to form
a functional protein
Proteins: Functions
There are many different functions that proteins
possess. Ones I need to know are
Lipids
- lipids are hydrophobic (water fearing.) They will not mix with water and will repel it.
- includes fats, waxes, steroids and oils
- the cell membrane is composed of lipids called phospholipids, have a head that is
hydrophilic, and two tails that are hydrophobic
Lipids: Types
1. Triglycerides
- only have two fatty acids linked to glycerol, and a phosphate group
- only partly hydrophobic, form the basis of membranes
3. Steroids
Lipids: Function
- Serve as energy storage. Fats provide much more energy than carbohydrates do,
but take more energy to access (they are stored away.)
- Provide thermal insulation. Fats help keep the body warm and reduce heat loss.
- Makes up the double-layer of all membranes. Phospholipids are used to make up
the cell membrane.
- Buoyancy. Since lipids are less dense than water, it allows buoyancy and animals
can float in the water.
Nucleic Acids
- two types of strands that can form from nucleotides- Deoxyribonucleic Acid (DNA)
or Ribonucleic Acid (RNA)
Describe the structure of DNA, including the antiparallel strands and hydrogen
bonding between pyrimidines and purines.
Endosymbiotic Theory
Endosymbiotic theory is the theory that chloroplasts and mitochondria formed by a prokaryote
being ingested by another cell.
Endosymbiotic theory also states that eukaryotic cells are believed to have evolved from aerobic
prokaryotes.
Evidence for this theory:
Mitochondria and chloroplasts both have double-membranes (not a normal trait of
organelles)
Mitochondria and chloroplasts both have ribosomes within themsimilar to prokaryotes
Mitochondria and chloroplasts are both roughly the same size as bacteria
Mitochondria and chloroplasts both have their own DNA coding.
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Stem Cell Uses
There is many ways that stem cells can be used to treat disease. However, there are certain
ethical issues surrounding the use of stem cells due to our duty to respect the value of
human life, although we also have a duty to prevent or alleviate suffering.
Need to know two different ways you can use stem cells:
Using stem cells to treat Stargardsts Disease (disease that affects vision) 1. Stem cell researcher has an embryonic stem cell
2. Researcher differentiates that embryonic stem cell into a retinal cell
3. New retinal cell is injected into retina and enters the body
4. Retinal cell attaches to patients existing retinal cells, which do not function properly
5. Once stem cell attaches to retinal cells, they will all slowly improve functional properties
6. Result: Vision will begin to improve greatly.
Using stem cells to treat Leukemia1. Stem cell researcher has an embryonic stem cell
2. Researcher differentiates that embryonic stem cell into a bone marrow cell (gives rise to red
blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets in the body)
3. Chemotherapy has the ability to kill normal cells in bone marrowleads to patient not being
able to produce blood cells.
4. Doctor will inject healthy bone marrow cells into patient
5. Injected cells will find way to bone marrow and begin to produce healthy cells
6. Result: Allows patient to be able to produce healthy blood cells
Eukaryotes
nucelus
yes
membrane-bound organelles
no
yes (many)
size
1-10 micrometers
10-50 micrometers
cytoplasm
yes
yes
cell membrane
yes
yes
cell wall
some do
plants
ribosomes
yes
yes
DNA
chromosomes in nucleus
examples
bacteria
Eukaryotic cells and prokaryotic cells are very differing eukaryotic cells are cells that are
multicellular, and prokaryotic cells are unicellular.
plant cell
animal cell
function
nucleus (and
nucleolus)
present
present
storage of genetic
information, manages
cell functions
mitochondria
not present
present
performs cellular
respiration, converts
energy stored in food
into energy
lysosome
not present
present
ribosome
present
present
performs protein
synthesis
centriole
not present
present
cell wall
present
not present
plant cell
animal cell
function
vacuole
rough endoplasmic
reticulum
present
present
smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
present
present
involved in synthesis of
lipids, and breakdown of
toxic substances
cytoplasm
present
present
gelatin-like fluid,
contains salts, minerals
and organic moleculessurrounds organelles
golgi apparatus
present
present
not present
present
cell mobility
cell membrane
present
present
semi-permeable
phospholipid bilayer,
controls what enters &
exits cell
plastids
present
not present
3 types: chloroplasts,
chromoplasts
(synthesize & store
pigments,) and
leucoplasts (store food
such as starches,
proteins & lipids
chloroplast
present
not present
photosynthesis
- Prokaryotes divide by a process called binary fission. Its an asexual reproduction method,
involving the splitting of the parent organism into separate organisms
(A few) Differences between P & A Cells
Animal cells only have a cell membrane
Plant cells possess a cell membrane and cell wall
Animal cells dont have chloroplasts
Plant cells dont have mitochondria or centrioles