KERTAS PENERANGAN
PROGRAM / PROGRAM
TAHAP / LEVEL
L3
KEBOLEHAN / ABILITIES
OBJEKTIF MODUL /
MODULE OBJECTIVE
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TUJUAN / OBJECTIVE(S):
The objective of this topic is to:1.
2.
3.
4.
Develop and maintain networks give full understanding regarding problem solving
strategies that can be apply in organization or in personal life.
1.
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INTRODUCTION
A team (A unit of two or more people who interact and coordinate their work to
accomplish a specific goal.) is a unit of 2 or more people who interact and coordinate
their work to accomplish a specific goal. This definition has three components. First,
2 or more people are required. Teams can be quite large, running to as many as 75
people, although most have fewer than 15 people. Second, people in a team have
regular interaction. People who do not interact, such as when standing in line at a
lunch counter, or riding in an elevator, does not compose a team. Third, people in a
team share a performance goal, whether it is to design a new type of hand calculator
or write a textbook. Students often are assigned to teams to do class work
assignments, in which case the purpose is to perform the assignment and receive an
acceptable grade.
Although a team is a group of people, the two terms are not interchangeable. An
employer, a teacher, or a coach can put together a group of people and never build a
team. The team concept implies a sense of shared mission and collective
responsibility.
Work team effectiveness is based on two outcomes productive output and personal
satisfaction. Satisfaction pertains to the teams ability to meet the personal needs of
its members and hence maintain their membership and commitment. Productive
output pertains to the quality and quantity of task outputs as defined by team goals.
The factors that influence team effectiveness begin with the organizational context.
Important team characteristics are the type of team, the team structure, and team
composition. Managers must decide when to create permanent teams within the
formal structure and when to use a temporary task team. Team size and roles also
are important. Managers must also consider whether a team is the best way to do a
task. If costs outweigh benefits, managers may wish to assign an individual
employee to the task.
These team characteristics influence processes internal to the team, which in turn
affect output and satisfaction. Leaders must understand and manage stages of
development, cohesiveness, norms, and conflict in order to establish an effective
team. These processes are influenced by team and organizational characteristics
and the ability of members and leaders to direct these processes in a positive
manner.
In the following sections, we will examine types of organizational teams, team
structure, internal processes, and team benefits and costs.
2.
TYPES OF TEAMS
Many types of teams can exist within organizations. The easiest way to classified
teams is in terms of those created as part of the organizations formal structure and
those created to increase employee participation.
2.1.
Formal Teams
Formal teams (A team created by the organization as part of the formal organization
structure) are created by the organization as part of the formal organization structure.
Two common types of formal teams are vertical and horizontal, which typically
represent vertical and horizontal structural relationships. These two types of teams
are illustrated in Exhibit 1. A third type of formal team is the special-purpose team.
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Figure 1
2.2.
Vertical Team
A vertical team is composed of a manager and his or her subordinates in the formal
chain of command. Sometimes called a Functional team or a command team, the
vertical team may in some cases include three or four levels of hierarchy within a
functional department. Typically, the vertical ream includes a single department in an
organization. A financial analysis department, a quality control department, an
accounting department, and a human resource department are all command teams.
Each is created the organization to attain specific goals through members joint
activities and interactions.
2.3.
Horizontal Team
A horizontal team is composed of employees from about the same hierarchical level
but from different areas of expertise. A horizontal team is drawn from several
departments, is given a specific task, and may be disbanded after the task is
completed. The two most common types of horizontal teams are task forces and
committees.
A task force is a group of employees from different departments formed to deal with a
specific activity and existing only until the task is completed. Sometimes called a
cross-functional team, the task force might be used to create a new product in a
manufacturing organization or a new history curriculum in a university. Several
departments are involved, and many views have to be considered, so these tasks are
best served with a horizontal team. Contact among team members was intense, and
principal players met every day.
A committee is generally long-lived and may be a permanent part of the
organizations structure. Membership on a committee is usually decided by a
persons title or position rather than by personal expertise. A committee often needs
official representation, compared with selection for a task force, which is based on
personal qualifications for solving a problem. Committees typically are formed to deal
with tasks that recur regularly.
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As part of the horizontal structure of the organization, task forces and committees
offer several advantages:1.
2.
they generate suggestions for coordinating the organizational units that are
represented;
3.
they develop new ideas and solutions for existing organizational problems;
and;
4.
2.4.
Self-Directed Team
3.2.
3.3.
Critical Path
Ensuring that more support given if individual does not meet full
requirements.
Individual Traits
Type
Personally Characteristics
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Suitable Occupations
Realistic:
Investigative:
Social:
Conventional:
Enterprising:
Self-confident, ambitious,
energetic, domineering
Artistic:
3.4.
4.
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Group Cohesiveness
LEADERSHIP
Six traits that differentiates leaders from non-leaders:
i)
Drive.
Leaders exhibit a high effort level. They have a relatively high desire for
achievement, theyre ambitious, they have a lot of energy, theyre tirelessly
persistent in their activities, and they show initiative.
ii)
Desire to lead
Leaders have a strong desire to influence and lead others. They demonstrate
willingness to take responsibility.
iii)
iv)
Self-confidence
Followers look to leaders for an absence of self-doubt. Leaders, therefore,
need to show self-confidence in order to convince followers of the rightness of
goals and decisions.
v)
Intelligence
Leaders need to be intelligent enough to gather, synthesize, and interpret
large amounts of information and to be able to create visions, solve problems,
and make correct decisions.
vi)
Job-relevant knowledge
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APPRECIATION OF ACHIEVEMENT
Reinforcement, and punishment, the core tools of operant conditioning, are either
positive (delivered following a response), or negative (withdrawn following a
response). This creates a total of four basic consequences, with the addition of a fifth
procedure known as extinction (i.e. no change in consequences following a
response).
It's important to note that organisms are not spoken of as being reinforced, punished,
or extinguished; it is the response that is reinforced, punished, or extinguished.
Additionally, reinforcement, punishment, and extinction are not terms whose use are
restricted to the laboratory. Naturally occurring consequences can also be said to
reinforce, punish, or extinguish behavior and are not always delivered by people.
Positive reinforcement
Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by a favorable stimulus
(commonly seen as pleasant) that increases the frequency of that behavior. In
the Skinner box experiment, a stimulus such as food or sugar solution can be
delivered when the rat engages in a target behavior, such as pressing a lever.
ii)
Negative reinforcement
Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of an aversive
stimulus (commonly seen as unpleasant) thereby increasing that behavior's
frequency. In the Skinner box experiment, negative reinforcement can be a
loud noise continuously sounding inside the rat's cage until it engages in the
target behavior, such as pressing a lever, upon which the loud noise is
removed.
iii)
Positive punishment
Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by an aversive stimulus, such
as introducing a shock or loud noise, resulting in a decrease in that behavior.
iv)
Negative punishment
Occurs when a behavior (response) is followed by the removal of a favorable
stimulus, such as taking away a child's toy following an undesired behavior,
resulting in a decrease in that behavior.
6.
TEAM CONFLICT
The final characteristic of team process is conflict. Of all the skills required for
effective team management, none is more important than handling the conflicts that
inevitably arise among members. Whenever People work together in teams, some
conflict is inevitable. Conflict can arise among members within a team or between
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one team and another. Conflict refers to antagonistic interaction in which one party
attempts to block the intentions or goals of another. Competition, which is rivalry
among individuals or teams, can have a healthy impact because it energizes people
toward higher performance. However, too much conflict can be destructive, tear
relationships apart, and interfere with the healthy exchange of ideas and information.
7.
BRAINSTORMING
Brainstorming uses a face-to-face, interactive group to spontaneously suggest
ideas for problem solution. Brainstorming is perhaps the best- known decision aid;
its primary role is to supply additional creative solutions. Kodak encourages
continuous brainstorming and has created a humor room where workers can relax
and have creative brainstorming sessions. The room is filled with videotapes of
comedians, joke books, stress-reducing toys, and software for creative decision
making. The brainstorming technique encourages group members to suggest
alternatives regardless of their likelihood of being implemented. No critical comments
of any kind are allowed until all suggestions have been listed. Members are
encouraged to brainstorm possible solutions out loud, and freewheeling is welcomed.
The more novel and unusual the idea, the better. The object of brainstorming is to
promote freer, more flexible thinking and to enable group members to build on one
anothers creativity. The typical session begins with a warm-up wherein definitional
issues are settled, proceeds through the freewheeling idea-generation stage, and
concludes with an evaluation of feasible ideas. Brainstorming is an unrestrained
flow of ideas in a group with all critical judgments suspended. The group leader must
decide which of the seventy-five questions are most appropriate to the issue or
problem being addressed. Moreover, the group leader isnt expected to use all of the
questions in a single session.
7.1.
Procedures of Brainstorming
i)
ii)
Present guidelines
Free Wheel (Let yourself go) The wilder the idea, the better: taming down
an idea is easier than thinking up new ones,
iii)
iv)
Appoint a Recorder.
v)
vi)
Select a Restatement.
vii)
Record contributions.
viii)
ix)
Impossible.
x)
8.
Unlikely.
Possible.
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NETWORKING
The Grapevine Communication
We have studied in the previous level about formal types of communications such as
upward, downward and lateral communication. In this level we cannot leave our
discussion of communication networks without discussing the grapevine the
informal organizational communication network. The grapevine is active in almost
every organization. Is it an important source of information? One survey reported that
75 per cent of employees hear about matters first through rumors on the grapevine.
Certainly the grapevine is an important part of any group or organization
communication network and well worth understanding. It identifies for managers
those relevant issues that employees consider important and anxiety producing. It
acts as both a filter and a feedback mechanism, picking up on the issues employees
consider relevant. More importantly, from a managerial point of view, it is possible to
analyze what is happening on the grapevine what information is being passed,
how information seems to flow along the grapevine and which individuals seem to he
key conduits of information on the grapevine. By being aware of the grapevines flow
and patterns, managers can stay on top of issues that concern employees and, in
turn, can use the grapevine to disseminate important information. Since the
grapevine cannot be eliminated, managers should manage it as an important
information network.
Rumors that flow along the grapevine also can never be eliminated entirely. What
managers can do, however, is minimize the negative consequences of rumors by
limiting their range and impact. How? By communicating openly, fully and honestly
with employees, particularly in situations in which employees may not like proposed
or actual managerial decisions or actions. Open and honest communication with
employees can affect the organization in various ways.
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SOALAN / QUESTIONS:
1.
What is team?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2.
3.
4.
RUJUKAN / REFERENCE(S):
1. Stephen P Robbins & David A Decenzo; 3rd. Edition (2001), Fundamentals of
Managements: Essential Concepts and Applications, Prentice-Hall. ISBN 0- 13-065133-8
2. J. David Hunger & Thomas L. Wheelen; 3rd Edition (2003), Essentials of Strategic
Managements; Prentice Hall.
3. Lecture Notes BB2120 Organisational Behaviour
4. Don Hellriegel, Susan E. Jackson, John W Slocum, Jr. 8th Edition, (1999), Management,
South-Western College Publishing, ISBN 0-538-87672-7
5. Richard L Daft,
017989-0