TRAFFIC SIGNALS

GOURAB SAHA
Asst. Professor
School of Civil Engineering
Lovely Professional University

Introduction
Traffic signals are used for controlling
streams of vehicular & pedestrian traffic
in a systematic way.
Traffic lights, also known as traffic
signals are signaling devices positioned
at road intersections, pedestrian
crossings and other locations to control
competing flows of traffic. Traffic lights
were
first
installed
in
1868
in London and are now used all over the
world.

Why Traffic Signals?

Conflicting traffic movements, make roadway
intersections unsafe for vehicles and pedestrians.

Intersections are a major source of crashes and vehicle

delay (as vehicles yield to avoid conflicts with other
vehicles).

Signalised Intersection

ADVANTAGES OF TRAFFIC
SIGNALS
They can provide for an orderly movement
of traffic.
Increase the traffic handling capacity of
the intersection.
They can reduce the frequency of certain
types of accidents.
They can be coordinated to provide for
continuous movement of traffic at a definite
speed along a given route.
They can be used to interrupt heavy traffic
at intervals to permit other traffic-vehicular
or pedestrian-to cross.
Traffic signals dispense with police control
& thus can be economical.

DISADVANTAGES
Excessive delay to vehicles may be caused.
Unwarranted signal installation tend to encourage the
disobedience of the signal indications
Drivers may use less adequate & less safe routes to avoid
delays at signals.
Accident frequency may increase
When installations break down, total confusion and difficulties
arise.

SIGNAL INDICATIONS
The types, meaning and sequence of signal
indications vary in different countries.
1. BRITISH PRACTICE:2. AMERICAN PRACTICE
3. INDIAN PRACTICE

SIGNAL FACE

The minimum number of lenses in signal

face is three- red, amber and green, and
the maximum number in American practice is
five.

DEFINITIONS AND NOTATIONS

Cycle:
A signal cycle is one complete rotation through all of the indications
provided.

Cycle length:

Cycle length is the time in seconds that it takes a

signal to complete one full cycle of indications. It indicates the time
interval between the starting of of green for one approach till the next
time the green starts. It is denoted by C.
Cycle length (C ) = Green time + Amber time + Red time + Amber time

Phase:
Phase is defined as the sequence of conditions applied to one or more
streams of traffic which, during the cycle, receive simultaneous identical
signal indication. It allows a set of movements to flow and safely halt the
flow before the phase of another set of movements start.

Lost time:
It indicates the time during which the intersection is not effectively
utilized for any movement. For example, when the signal for an
approach turns from red to green, the driver of the vehicle which is in
the front of the queue, will take some time to perceive the signal
(usually called as reaction time) and some time will be lost here before
he moves.

The lost time L can be understood with

the following diagram

RATE OF DISCHARGE

STARTING DELAY

EFFECTIVE GREEN

AMBER PERIOD
The amber interval is a transition interval between termination of
related green movement & exhibition of a red indication (Clearance
amber) or b/w termination of a red indication & commencement of
related green movement (Initial Amber). As per IRC guidelines,
amber time is 2 sec

Amber:
There are two types of ambers
1) Initial interval ( R to G)
2) clearance interval ( G to R)
Clearance amber is also called the yellow time which
comes in between the green and red signal indications for a signal
phase.
Initial amber is called the yellow time which comes in
between the red and green signal indication for a signal phase.

Types of signal
Fixed time signals are those in which the cycle lengths are
predetermined and of fixed duration.
Vehicle actuated signals are those in which the green periods
vary and are related to the actual demands made by traffic.
Semi-vehicle actuated signals are those in which the right of
way rests with the main road & detectors are located only on
side roads.

Sr. TYPE
No

ADVANTAGES

DISADVANTAGES

Fixed time

Simple in construction
Relatively inexpensive
Most successfully used in
linked systems

Inflexible
Require careful
setting.

Vehicle
Actuated

Flexible & able to change

automatically
Delay is held to a min &
max capacity is achieved.

Expensive
Cannot provide
signal coordination

Semi-vehicle
Actuated

Useful for junction of a side Causes high accident

street having low traffic
rates at times of light
volume with a main street traffic.
having heavy flow.

DETERMINATION OF OPTIMUM
CYCLE LENGTH & SIGNAL SETTINGS
Determination of cycle time:
Main consideration in selecting the cycle time should be that
the least delay is caused to the traffic passing through the
intersection.
Proportion of time lost to the cycle time. i.e if the cycle time is
small, the proportion of the time lost to the cycle time will be
high, resulting in an inefficient signal operation and lengthy
delays.

 On the other hand if the cycle is large the proportion of time lost to
the cycle time will be small & the signal operation will be more
efficient.
At the same time if the cycle time is too large then there is a chance
that a good portion of the green time will be used by unsaturated
traffic flow, which again leads to inefficiency
For each traffic flow volume there is an optimum cycle time which
results in the min delay to the vehicles.
As per IRC guidelines, amber times can be assumed 2 sec for signal
design

Optimum cycle length

The following equation for the optimum cycle time
has been obtained:
C0 = 1.5 L + 5 seconds
1Y
Where,
C0 =optimum cycle time
L = Total lost time per cycle
Y = y1+y2+..+yn
y1,y2.are the max ratio of flow to
saturation flow for phases 1,2,..n

 The total lost time due to starting delays per cycle=nl, if there are n
phases in a cycle.
Again R the time during each cycle when all signals display red signal
also contributes to the total lost time.
Therefore total lost time
L = nl + R

Y value
The value of Y is the sum of y values for each phase. Each phase
will handle one or more intersection, each approach having its
own traffic flow and saturation flow. For that the y value for the
phases may be taken as the highest ratio of traffic flow to
saturation flow
g1,g2,...gn= Effective green times allotted to phases 1,2,.n
respectively
y1,y2,yn = Max of y values
= Flow/Saturation flow
= q/ s
(for phases 1,2,.n respectively)

Saturation Flow
The optimum cycle time obtained from the equation may be
very short under light traffic conditions
Saturation Flow- The method of measuring the saturation flow
is,
s = 525 w PCU/hour
s=saturation flow
w=width of approach road in meters

Signal design
Problem 1: A fixed time 2 phase signal is to be provided
at an intersection having a North-South and an East-West
road where only straight ahead traffic is permitted. The
design hour flows and the saturation flow from the
various arms areNorth South
East West
Design hour flow 800
400
750 600
Saturation flow 2400
2000
3000 3000
Calculate the optimum cycle time and green time for
minimum overall delay. Total lost time= 8 sec. Draw time
diagram.

WARRANTS FOR SIGNALS

Generally there is certain criteria for deciding for installation
of signals. Hence IRC has laid down the following warrants,
one or more of which must be met with before signals can be
installed:
Warrant 1:MINIMUM VEHICULAR VOLUMEThe traffic volume on the major street & the high volume minor
street for each of any 8 hours of an average day should be equal
to the values as indicated

MINIMUM VEHICULAR VOLUME

No. of lanes on each
approach
Major street

Minor street

1
2 or more
2 or more
1

1
1
2 or more
2 or more

Veh. Per
hour on
major street

Veh. Per
hour on
minor street

650
800
800
650

200
200
250
250

Warrant 2
Interruption of continuous traffic:
The traffic volume on the major street & the higher
volume minor street for each of any 8 hours of an average day
should be equal to the values as indicated

Interruption of continuous traffic

No. of lanes on each
approach
Major street

Minor street

1
2 or more
2 or more
1

1
1
2 or more
2 or more

Veh. Per
hour on
major street

Veh. Per
hour on
minor street

1000
1200
1200
1000

100
100
150
150

Warrant 3
Minimum pedestrian volume:
For each of any 8 hours of an average day the following traffic
volume must exist:
i.
On the major street, 600 or more vehicles per hour enter the
intersection(both approaches); or where there is a raised
median island 1.2m or more in width, 1000 or more vehicles
per hour(both direction) enter the intersection
ii.
During the same 8 hrs as above, there are 150 or more
pedestrian per hr on the highest vol cross-walk crossing the
major street

WARRANT 4
ACCIDENT EXPERIENCE:
The accident experience warrant is satisfied when:
i.
Adequate trail of less restrictive remedies with satisfactory
observance and enforcement have failed to reduce the
accident frequency.
ii.
5 or more accidents of types susceptible of corrections by
traffic signal control have occurred within a period of 12
months, each accident involving personal injury or property
damage to an apparent extent of Rs 2000 or more
iii. The signal installation will not seriously disrupt traffic flow.

CO-ORDINATED CONTROL OF SIGNALS

NEED FOR COORDINATED CONTROL:For signals that are closely spaced, it is necessary to coordinate
the green time so that vehicles may move efficiently through
the set of signals. In some cases, two signals are so closely
spaced that they should be considered to be one signal. In
other cases, the signals are so far apart that they may be
considered independently.

Objectives of signal co-ordination:

The coordination of signals is sought for with the following
objectives in view:
To pass the max amount of traffic without enforced
halts.
To have min overall delay to traffic streams, both in the
main & side roads
To prevent the queue of vehicle at one intersection
from extending and reaching the next intersection.

Inter Green time: The time interval between the initiation of green
time at different phase of an intersection.
Offset time: The time interval between the initiation of green time at
the successive intersections on same phase.

TYPES OF COORDINATED SIGNAL

SYSTEM
1.
2.
3.
4.

SIMULTANEOUS SYSTEM/ SYNCHRONISED SYSTEM

ALTERNATE SYSTEM/ LIMITED PROGRESSIVE SYSTEM
SIMPLE PROGRESSIVE SYSTEM
FLEXIBLE PROGRESSIVE SYSTEM