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Different types of offshore platforms

Drilling barges
These are large floating platforms, which must be towed by tugboat to the desire
location. They are suitable for still shallow waters such as lakes, swamps, rivers,
and canals. Also, they are used mostly for inland shallow water drilling.
However, they cannot withstand the water movement experienced in large open
water situations.
Jackup platforms/rigs
This type of platform allows the working platform to rest above the surface of the
water, as
opposed to a floating barge, by lowering its three or four 'legs' to the bottom of
the sea, after towing to the drilling site. They are suitable only for shallower
waters, for about 500 feet in depth of water, because it is impractical to extend
these legs down too deeply. Although there are limitation with the depth of
water, they are safer to operate than drilling barges, because their working
platform is elevated above the water level.
Submersible platforms
Submersible platforms consist of two hulls positioned on top of one another. In
the upper hull, the crew cabins and the actual drilling platform are located. The
lower hull is very similar to the outer hull in a submarine. It fills with air, when
the platform is required to move from one location to another, making the entire
rig buoyant. When the platform required to be positioned over the drill site, the
air is released from the lower hull, and the rig submerges to the sea or lake floor.
Although this type of rig is limited to shallow water areas they are very
advantageous when it comes to mobility in the water.
Semi-submersible platforms/rigs
This type of platform, the most common type of offshore drilling rigs, is more or
less similar to submersible platform, which has a floating drill unit with columns
and pontoons, works in a similar way through the 'inflating' and 'deflating' of its
lower hull. Massive anchors are used to hold the rig at the desired location.
Combination of the submerged lower hull and the anchors, provide sufficient
stability for the rig to be capable of drilling in deep water for drilling depths upto
6000 feet, safe and easy. Also they come with easy mobility in water.
Drillships
Drillship is a ship which specially designed for drilling operations at very deep
sea locations. They contain similar equipments as in a large ocean ship, a drilling
platform, derrick located on the middle and a hole called moonpool, located in
the base of the hull, platform or chamber, which allows for the drill string to
extend through the boat, down into the water. They use 'dynamic positioning'
system, which includes electric motors on the underside of the ships hull,
capable of propelling the ship in any direction. These motors are integrated into
the ships computer system, which uses
satellite positioning technology, in conjunction with sensors located on the
drilling
template, to ensure that the ship is directly above the drill site at all times.
Fixed platforms
In fixed platforms, the 'legs' are constructed of concrete or steel, extending from
the platform to the seafloor with piles. With some concrete structures, the self

weight of the legs acts as an anchoring device, which simply rests on the sea
bed. The main advantage of these types
of platforms is the stability against forces due to water and wind. However, these
platforms are very uneconomical to be used in extremely deep water.
Template (jacket) platforms
This type of fixed platform mainly consists of jacket, decks and piles. All of the
petroleum platforms installed in the Persian Gulf are of the Template (Jacket)
type, made of steel. At the present time about 145 template platforms belonging
to Iran and about 130 template platforms belonging to Arabian countries are
installed in the Persian Gulf.
Compliant Towers (Tower platforms)
Compliant towers consist of a narrow tower, attached to a foundation on the
seafloor and extending up to the platform, which makes the structure more
flexible than rigid legs of a fixed platform. This flexibility allows it to operate in
much deeper water, as it can 'absorb' much of the pressure exerted on it by the
wind and sea. Also they are advantageous in hurricane conditions.
Seastar platforms
This type of platforms include tension keg system employed in a semisubmersible rig. Seastar platforms are like miniature tension leg platforms.
Tension legs are long, hollow tendons that extend from the seafloor to the
floating platform. They are kept under constant tension, and
not allowing for any up or down movement of the platform. However, their
flexibility allows for side-to-side motion, which allows the platform to withstand
the drag force of the ocean and wind, without breaking the legs off. Seastar
platforms are used for smaller scale deep-water reservoirs, where it is not
economical to build a larger platform. They can operate in water depths of up to
3,500 feet.
Floating production systems
This system contains semi-submersible drilling rig, petroleum production
equipment, and drilling equipment. Ships can also be used as floating production
systems. The platforms can be positioned using massive anchors and dynamic
positioning system. In this system, the wellhead is actually attached to the
seafloor, instead of up on the platform. When the drilling has been completed,
the extracted petroleum is transported via risers from this wellhead to the
production facilities on the semi-submersible platform. These production systems
can operate in water depths of up to 6,000 feet.
Tension leg platforms
This type of platform is a larger version of the Seastar platform. The long, flexible
legs are attached to the seafloor, and run up to the platform itself. As with the
Seastar platform, these legs allow for significant side to side movement (up to 20
feet), with controlled small vertical movement. They can operate as deep as
7,000 feet.
Spar Platforms
This type of platform is the largest offshore platforms in use. They consist of a
large cylinder, which supports a typical fixed rig platform. The cylinder does not
extend all the way to the seafloor, but instead is tethered to the sea bed by a
series of cables and lines. It serves to stabilize the platform in the water, and to
withstand potential hurricanes. The first Spar platform in the Gulf of Mexico was

installed in September of 1996. It's cylinder measured 770 feet long, and was 70
feet in
diameter, and the platform operated in 1,930 feet of water depth.

Different Pipes/pipelines

Different methods of offshore pipeline installation

The pull/tow system

The pull/tow system or also known as shore pull method is generally used for a near-shore
pipe installation that is perpendicular or parallel to the shoreline, with pulling pipeline from
the shore. In parallel method, the full line can be built prior to tow out and installation. A pull
head is set at the end of the pipe to shore, which hooks cable from shore. This cable is
connected to a winch on a shore in such away that it allows the pipe to glide into the water from
its lay narge, through its route. Bouys are attached to each pipe segment, and they are removed
once the pipes are positioned at the desired location. The main advantage of the tow method is

that pre-testing and inspection can be done onshore before installing at the sea. Also it
allows to handle any size and complexity of the pipeline. The tow method can be further
categorized as surface tow, near-surface tow, mid-depth tow and off-bottom tow.
In Surface tow, the pipeline is towed at the surface of the water, and is then sunk into position at
lay site. The pipeline must be made buoyant using individual buoyancy units attached to it.
However, this method is not applicable for rough seas and is vulnerable to lateral currents.
In Near-surface tow, The pipeline is towed, keeping it below the water surface but close to it.
The spar bouys are used to maintain the desired level to be towed. The advantage of this
method is that it mitigates the wave action.
In Mid-depth tow, two towing vessels are equipped to suspend the pipeline, which is not buoyant.
This method is suitable for heavy pipelines or weighted down pipelines using hanging chains.
The shape of the suspended pipeline is kept as a catenary (the sag), due to the lines weight, the
tension applied to it by the vessels and hydrodynamic lift on the chains. The depth to the seabed
is a main concern in determining the amount of allowable sag.
The Off-bottom tow is similar to the mid-depth tow, but the pipeline is maintained within 1 to 2 m
(several feet) away from the seabed by using chains dragging on the seabed.
In Bottom tow, the pipeline is dragged onto the seabed in order to avoid waves and currents. The
advantage of this method is that, if the sea gets too rough for the tow vessel, the pipeline can
simply be abandoned and recovered later. This method is commonly used for river crossings and
crossings between shores. However, it has some limitations such as, requirement for an

abrasion-resistant coating, interaction with other submarine pipelines and potential obstructions
(reef, boulders, etc.).

The S-lay system[edit]

In the S-lay system, the pipeline assembly is done at the installation site, on board a vessel that
has all the equipment required for joining the pipe segments: pipe handling conveyors, welding
stations, X-ray equipment, joint-coating module, etc.[23] The S notation refers to the shape of the
pipeline as it is laid onto the seabed. The pipeline leaves the vessel at the stern or bow from a
supporting structure called a stinger that guides the pipes downward motion and controls the
convex-upward curve (the overbend). As it continues toward the seabed, the pipe has a convexdownward curve (the sagbend) before coming into contact with the seabed (touch down point).
The sagbend is controlled by a tension applied from the vessel (viatensioners) in response to the
pipelines submerged weight. The pipeline configuration is monitored so that it will not get
damaged by excessive bending.[23] This on-site pipeline assembly approach, referred to as laybarge construction, is known for its versatility and self-contained nature despite the high costs
associated with this vessels deployment, it is efficient and requires relatively little external
support.[24] But it may have to contend with severe sea states these adversely affect operations
such as pipe transfer from supply boats, anchor-handling and pipe welding. [23] Recent
developments in lay-barge design include dynamic positioning and the J-lay system.[23][25]

S-Lay Method
This method is quiet time-saving and can be done in vary depths. S-Lay refers to the
pipeline shape forming S during the installation. This method requires laybarge or other vessel designed to pipe-laying. Pipe is eased off the stern of the vessel
as the boat moves forward. The pipe curves downward from the stern through the
water until it reaches the seafloor. As more pipe is welded in the line and eased off
the boat, the pipe forms the shape of an S in the water. Stingers, measuring up to 91
meters long, extend from the stern to support the pipe as it is moved into the water,
as well as control the curvature of the installation. Some pipe-lay barges have
adjustable stingers, which can be shortened or lengthened according to the water
depth.

In S-Lay method, pipe receive more stress, especially at the bending (curve). This
may become a concern due to pipe-cracking.

The J-lay system[edit]

In areas where the water is very deep, the S-lay system may not be appropriate because the
pipeline leaves the stinger to go almost straight down. To avoid sharp bending at the end of it and
to mitigate excessive sag bending, the tension in the pipeline would have to be high. [26] Doing so
would interfere with the vessels positioning, and the tensioner could damage the pipeline. A
particularly long stinger could be used, but this is also objectionable since that structure would be
adversely affected by winds and currents.[26] The J-lay system, one of the latest generations of
lay-barge, is better suited for deep water environments. In this system, the pipeline leaves the
vessel on a nearly vertical ramp (or tower). There is no overbend only a sagbend
of catenary nature (hence the J notation), such that the tension can be reduced. The pipeline is
also less exposed to wave action as it enters the water.[27] However, unlike for the S-lay system,
where pipe welding can be done simultaneously at several locations along the vessel decks
length, the J-lay system can only accommodate one welding station. Advanced methods of
automatic welding are used to compensate for this drawback.[28]

J-Lay Method
J-Lay method put less stress on the pipe during installation, since there are only one
bend (curve) forming the shape of J. This method inserts the pipeline in an almost
vertical position. Pipe is lifted by a tall tower on the boat/barge, then inserted into
the sea. The pipe bends once, under the water, taking on the shape of J.

The Reel-lay system[edit]

In the reel-lay system, the pipeline is assembled onshore and is spooled onto a large drum
typically about 20 metres (66 ft) x 6 metres (20 ft) in size,[29] mounted on board a purpose-built
vessel. The vessel then goes out to location to lay the pipeline. Onshore facilities to assemble
the pipeline have inherent advantages: they are not affected by the weather or the sea state and
are less expensive than seaborne operations.[19] Pipeline supply can be coordinated: while one
line is being laid at sea, another one can be spooled onshore.[30] A single reel can have enough
capacity for a full length flow line.[30] The reel-lay system, however, can only handle lower
diameter pipelines up to about 400 mm (16 in).[31] Also, the kind of steel making up the pipes
must be able to undergo the required amount of plastic deformation as it is bent to proper

curvature (by a spiral J-tube) when reeled around the drum, and straightened back (by a
straightener) during the layout operations at the installation site. [3

Reel Lay Method

This method is firstly proposed to install pipeline with relatively small in diameter.
But it have been developed to install pipeline with 12 to 16 diameter in size. This
method used coiled pipe on a spool (reel) resulting in fast productivity due to the
ability to lay the pipe by unwinding it from the reel. The process costs due to the
reduced number of personnel required to lay the pipe, lowering the risk of accidents
at the same time, and providing efficiency in the availability of the pipe.
Each reel is designed to operate with a specific barge and can usually handle pipe
from 2 to 12. The total length capacity depends on the spool dimensions and the
diameter of the pipe.