Advanced High Strength Steels for Automotive Appplications

1. Introduction:
In 2013, more than 87 million vehicles were produced annually worldwide. Steel used per
vehicle is 900kg on average, totaling approximately 80 million tonnes of steel used for the
automotive sector. Vehicle designers must balance the objectives of better fuel economy, crash
safety standards imposed by the government and stringent consumer demands. Reducing the
weight of a vehicle is a straight forward strategy to improve fuel economy, but it can potentially
create safety problems. As a matter of fact, although a weight reduction of ~10 % on the total
vehicle weight was estimated to result in 5.5 % improvements in fuel economy, the average
weight of the passenger car is continuously increasing as a consequence of the introduction of
new security systems, such as air bags and anti-block systems. The body-in-white (BIW)
structural parts and panels, and in particular the materials used in its construction, offer the
greatest possibilities in terms of weight reduction. Advanced High Strength Steels (AHSS) are
now used for nearly every new vehicle design. Steel makes up more than 50% of todays
vehicles and using AHSS makes possible lighter, optimized vehicle designs that enhance safety
and improve fuel economy.
New grades of Advanced High-Strength Steels (AHSS) enable carmakers to reduce vehicle weight
by 25-39% compared to conventional steel. When applied to a typical five-passenger family car,
the overall weight of the vehicle is reduced by 170 to 270 kg, which corresponds to a lifetime
saving of 3 to 4.5 tonnes of greenhouse gases over the vehicles total life cycle. This saving in
emissions represents more than the total amount of CO2 emitted during the production of all the
steel in the vehicle [1].
Advanced High-Strength Steels (AHSS) are complex, sophisticated materials, with carefully
selected chemical compositions and multiphase microstructures resulting from precisely
controlled heating and cooling processes. Various strengthening mechanisms are employed to
achieve a range of strength, ductility, toughness, and fatigue properties. These steels arent the
mild steels of yesterday; rather they are uniquely light weight and engineered to meet the
challenges of todays vehicles for stringent safety regulations, emissions reduction, solid
performance, at affordable costs.
Steels with yield strength levels in excess of 550 MPa are generally referred to as AHSS. These
steels are also sometimes called ultrahigh-strength steels for tensile strengths exceeding 780
MPa. AHSS with tensile strength of at least 1000 MPa are often called Giga Pascal steel (1000
MPa = 1GPa). Austenitic Stainless Steel have excellent strength combined with excellent
ductility, and thus meet many vehicle functional requirements. Due to alloying content, however,
they are expensive choices for many components, and joining can be a challenge. Third
Generation AHSS seeks to offer comparable or improved capabilities at significantly lower cost.

2. Necessary Features of Automobile steels:

Collisions and protecting the automobile passengers, high strength steel sheets of TS590 MPa
grade and higher are now mainly used in automotive body structural parts. The properties which
are considered necessary in these steel sheets for automotive body structural parts are (1)
formability, (2) spot-weldability, (3) corrosion resistance after painting, (4) resistance to hydrogen
embrittlement fracture, etc.
Where formability is concerned, the necessary steel sheet properties depend on the forming
method and the shape of the part in which the sheet is applied. For example, sheets with high
elongation are suitable for press-formed parts in which stretch-forming is the main deformation
mode, as represented by the center pillar, while sheets with both elongation and stretchflangeability are suitable for parts which are manufactured by combined forming, i.e., a
combination of stretch-forming and stretch-flange forming, such as front side members. Stretchflangeability is generally evaluated by the hole expanding ratio ( value) in the hole expanding
test. Since crush forming, which mainly involves bending, is frequently applied to ultra-high
strength steel sheets of 980 MPa grade and higher, appropriate bendability is necessary in order to
prevent surface cracking of the steel sheets under severe bending forming. Bendability is evaluated
by the ratio of the limiting bending radius, R, which is defined as the minimum bending radius
without occurrence of cracks, and the sheet thickness, t (R/t) [10].
Together with suppressing cracks and fracture, another critical issue in forming is the shape
accuracy of parts. Spring back occurs when high strength steel sheets are press-formed, and the
poor shape accuracy of parts resulting from this phenomenon has a negative impact on the
following assembly and welding processes. As a countermeasure for spring back, auto makers
design dies so as to compensate for spring back in advance in the forming process. However, if
there are large scattering of material strength values, deviations will occur in formed-part shape,
and it will not be possible to solve the problem of shape accuracy. Accordingly, in order to
improve the shape accuracy of parts, it is necessary to supply high strength steel sheets with
minimal scattering of strength values. In order to obtain a good combination between total
elongation and hole expansibility, it is important to reduce the difference in hardness between the
soft phase and the hard phase while ensuring the required total elongation by employing a steel
sheet of composite structure [10].
Because many auto body parts are assembled by spot-welding, appropriate spot-weldability is
required in high strength steel sheets. As a problem in the spot-weldability of high strength steel
sheets, if the amount of added alloying elements in the steel is increased to secure high strength,
hardness of spot-welds will be excessive and ductility will be lost. In this case, weld strength
against stress in the peeling mode, for example in the cross tension strength (CTS) test, will be
reduced by fracture at the nugget13). Thus, an alloy design with a low carbon equivalent is
necessary in order to secure adequate weld strength. On the other hand, to secure ultra-high
strength and high elongation characteristics, use of a high C steel is effective. When high C steel
with a C content exceeding 0.15% is used, reduced weld strength is a concern in ordinary spotwelding, as mentioned above.
To meet ever-increasing requirements for corrosion resistance in the automobile body, anticorrosion steel sheets applying GA, etc. can be used in the underbody. Although cold-rolled steel

sheets are normally used in the upper body, appropriate paintability and corrosion resistance after
painting are required in the respective parts.

In high-strength steels based on IF steel, it is necessary to consider measures to prevent reduced

resistance to secondary embrittlement caused by the strength difference between the grains and
grain boundaries. The grain and addition of B result in excellent resistance to secondary-work
embrittlement in steels [12].
One concern when using ultra-high strength steel sheets of TS1180 MPa and higher is hydrogen
embrittlement. This is a phenomenon in which hydrogen enters the steel in steel sheet production
and automobile body manufacturing stages or during use due to corrosion, and diffused hydrogen
in the steel causes delayed fracture, namely hydrogen embrittlement. In order to avoid hydrogen
embrittlement, optimization of the material, and at the same time, use technologies that secure
proper levels of strain by forming and residual stress, are considered necessary.
2.1. Improvement of Elongation (Work-Hardenability)
Total elongation, which is evaluated by the tensile test, can be divided into uniform elongation
before occurrence of necking and local elongation after necking. Of these, because press-forming
is generally performed within the range of uniform elongation, improvement of uniform
elongation, i.e., work-hardenability is necessary. Based on the total balance of strength, formability, weldability, and other properties, the main stream in high strength steel sheets for forming
applications is dual phase steels consisting of ferrite and martensite phases (hereinafter, DP steel).
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The main factors of microstructure which influence work-hardenability in DP steel are the
strength and volume fraction of the respective phases.
2.2. Improvement of Stretch-Flangeability
One fracture mode which becomes a problem in press-forming of high strength steel sheets is
stretch flange fracture. Since the main controlling factor in stretch flange fracture is the ease of
crack propagation by the coalescence of microvoids generated at phase boundary, stretchflangeability can be improved by increasing the uniformity of the microstructure. In the low
steel a process was observed in which voids formed, mainly at the boundary between ferrite and
martensite, and these ultimately coalesced to form a crack even under low strain. On the other
hand, in the high steel, it was considered that formation of voids was suppressed due to the
easily deformed martensite.
2.3. Improvement of Bendability
The process which results in fracture in bending comprises the uniform elongation limit
(necking limit), and the limit for development of fracture from this necking (fracture limit). The
former is controlled by uniform elongation, and the latter, by the local elongation20). Accordingly,
improvement of the balance of these two properties is considered necessary in order to improve
bendability.
On the other hand, deformation is localized in bending forming in comparison with tension and
stretch-flange forming. Thus, as a distinctive feature, bending is easily influenced by local
inhomogeneity in material properties. The conceivable inhomogeneous material properties
indicated here are distribution of a fibrous structure, nonmetallic inclusions, etc. elongated in the
rolling direction. These inhomogeneous material properties, if present in a steel sheet, promote
cracking in the direction parallel to the rolling direction.

3. Modern Car Body Engineering

A number of principal decisions have to be made at the very beginning of the engineering cycle
of a new body-in-white. This concerns the concept of the body, the manufacturing technologies
to be employed as well as the materials to be used. Since these principal elements are strongly
interrelated, deviations or major changes in a later phase of the engineering cycle will usually
implicate huge cost penalties (Figure). Central in the engineering cycle is the strict control of
feasibility and cost.
Material Technology
Concept

4. Material concepts for future car bodies:

When Audi introduced its first A8 model, based on aluminum space frame technology, to the
market in 1994, the dominant position of steel as material for vehicle body construction was put
into question. The weight of its all-aluminum body-in-white was considerably lower as that of
competing cars made from steel. However, the steel grades used at that time were mostly mild
steels and the required stability and safety standards were achieved by using increased sheet gage
and additional reinforcement parts driving up the total body weight. The world steel industry
reacted to the aluminum challenge by launching the Ultra-Light Steel Auto Body (ULSAB)
project in 1995, which had the aim of creating an optimized body concept to significantly reduce
the weight of the body-in-white without sacrificing on driving and crash performance. This was
possible by using high strength steel on a large scale and also applying novel manufacturing
technologies like tailor welded blanks and hydro forming. The range of high strength steels that
were commercially available in the development phase of the ULSAB project was more or less
limited to microalloyed HSLA, rephosphorized and bake hardening steels. Only selected steel
mills were able to supply ultra high strength steels at that time. This situation has definitely
changed as by now nearly all major automotive steel suppliers developed a full range of socalled advanced high strength steels (Figure).Typically these are coated multiphase steels having
more than 350 MPa yield strength. The availability of these steel grades is reflected in the
ULSAB-AVC project exposing a dominant share of advanced high strength steel and virtually
containing virtually no mild steel anymore [9].

5. CLASSIFICATION OF AUTOMOTIVE STEELS:

Automotive steels can be classified in several different ways. One is a metallurgical designation
providing some process information. Common designations include low-strength steels
(interstitial-free and mild steels); conventional HSS (carbon-manganese, bake hardenable and
high-strength, low-alloy steels); and the new AHSS (dual phase, transformation-induced plasticity,
twinning-induced plasticity, ferritic-bainitic, complex phase and martensitic steels). Additional
higher strength steels for the automotive market include hot-formed, post-forming heat-treated
steels, and steels designed for unique applications that include improved edge stretch and stretch
bending.
A second classification method important to part designers is strength of the steel. Therefore, this
document will use the general terms HSS and AHSS to designate all higher strength steels. This
classification system has a problem with the on-going development of the many new grades for
each type of steel. Therefore, a DP or TRIP steel can have strength grades that encompass two or
more strength ranges.
A third classification method presents various mechanical properties or forming parameters of
different steels, such as total elongation, work hardening exponent (n-value), or hole expansion
ratio ().
The principal difference between conventional HSS and AHSS is their microstructure.
Conventional HSS are single-phase ferritic steels with a potential for some pearlite in C-Mn steels.
AHSS are primarily steels with a microstructure containing a phase other than ferrite, pearlite, or
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cementite for example martensite, bainite, austenite, and/or retained austenite in quantities
sufficient to produce unique mechanical properties. Some types of AHSS have a higher strain
hardening capacity resulting in a strength-ductility balance superior to conventional steels. Other
types have ultra-high yield and tensile strengths and show a bake hardening behavior. All AHSS
are produced by controlling the chemistry and cooling rate from the austenite or austenite plus
ferrite phase, either on the runout table of the hot mill (for hot-rolled products) or in the cooling
section of the continuous annealing furnace (continuously annealed or hot-dip coated products).
Research has provided chemical and processing combinations that have created many additional
grades and improved properties within each type of AHSS.

5.1. Conventional Low- and High-Strength Automotive Sheet Steels

5.1.1. Mild steels:
Mild steels have an essentially ferritic microstructure. Drawing Quality (DQ) and Aluminium
Killed (AKDQ) steels are examples and often serve as a reference base because of their
widespread application and production volume.

5.1.2. Interstitial-free (IF) steels (Low strength and high strength):

IF steels have ultra-low carbon levels designed for low yield strengths and high work hardening
exponents. These steels are designed to have more stretchability than Mild steels. Some grades of
IF steels are strengthened by a combination of elements for solid solution, precipitation of carbides
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and/or nitrides, and grain refinement. Another common element added to increase strength is
phosphorous (a solid solution strengthener). The higher strength grades of IF steel type are widely
used for both structural and closure applications [3].

5.1.3. Bake hardenable (BH) steels:

Bake Hardenable steels have a basic ferritic microstructure and are strengthened primarily by solid
solution strengthening. A unique feature of these steels is the chemistry and processing designed
to keep carbon in solution during steelmaking and then allowing this carbon to come out of solution
during paint baking. This increases the yield strength of the formed part after baking [3].

5.1.4. Isotropic (IS) steels:

IS steels have a basic ferritic type of microstructure. The key aspect of these steels is the delta r
value equal to zero, resulting in minimized earing tendencies.

5.1.5. Carbon-manganese (CM) steels:

Higher strength CM steels are primarily strengthened by solid solution strengthening.

5.2. High-strength low-alloy (HSLA) steels:

This group of steels are strengthened primarily by micro-alloying elements contributing to fine
carbide precipitation and grain-size refinement.

5.2.1 Dual Phase (DP) Steels

DP steels consist of a ferritic matrix containing a hard martensitic second phase in the form of
islands.
Increasing the volume fraction of hard second phases generally increases the strength. DP (ferrite
plus martensite) steels are produced by controlled cooling from the austenite phase (in hot-rolled
products) or from the two-phase ferrite plus austenite phase (for continuously annealed cold-rolled
and hot-dip coated products) to transform some austenite to ferrite before a rapid cooling
transforms the remaining austenite to martensite. Due to the production process, small amount of
other phases (Bainite and Retained Austenite) may be present.
Depending on the composition and process route, steels requiring enhanced capability to resist
cracking on a stretched edge (as typically measured by hole expansion capacity) can have a
microstructure containing significant quantities of bainite.

Figure shows a schematic microstructure of DP steel

The soft ferrite phase is generally continuous, giving these steels excellent ductility. When these
steels deform, strain is concentrated in the lower-strength ferrite phase surrounding the islands of
martensite, creating the unique high initial work-hardening rate (n-value) exhibited by these steels.

Figure is an actual photomicrograph showing the ferrite and martensite constituents.

The work hardening rate plus excellent elongation creates DP steels with much higher ultimate
tensile strengths than conventional steels of similar yield strength.

Figure compares the engineering stress-strain curve for HSLA steel to a DP steel.
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The DP steel exhibits higher initial work hardening rate, higher ultimate tensile strength, and
higher TS/YS ratio than a similar yield strength HSLA. DP and other AHSS also have a bake
hardening effect that is an important benefit compared to conventional higher strength steels. The
bake hardening effect is the increase in yield strength resulting from elevated temperature aging
(created by the curing temperature of paint bake ovens) after prestraining (generated by the work
hardening due to deformation during stamping or other manufacturing process) [2].
In DP steels, carbon enables the formation of martensite at practical cooling rates by increasing
the hardenability of the steel. Manganese, chromium, molybdenum, vanadium, and nickel, added
individually or in combination, also help increase hardenability. Carbon also strengthens the
martensite as a ferrite solute strengthener, as do silicon and phosphorus. These additions are
carefully balanced, not only to produce unique mechanical properties, but also to maintain the
generally good resistance spot welding capability. However, when welding the higher strength
grades (DP 700/1000 and above) to themselves, the spot weldability may require adjustments to
the welding practice.
5.2.1.2. Manufacturing of DP steels:
Modern AHSS are produced in complex processes involving thermo mechanical processing
followed controlled cooling. Alternatively continuous annealing following cold rolling is being
used. The cooling path in the rolling technology of DP steel strips is schematically shown in Figure.
The last deformation in the DP strip rolling is conducted at approximately Ar3 + 40 C.

The cooling process after rolling starts with slow cooling stage on the run out table after rolling in
which the desirable amount of ferrite is obtained as a result of the austenite transformation.
Alternatively, the hot band can be subject to accelerated cooling to the temperature of the lowest
austenite stability, followed by a slow cooling to allow the austenite decomposition into ferrite.
The ferrite transformation allows the carbon content enrichment in the remaining austenite, which
increases its hardenability and reduces Ms temperature. After that, the strip is accelerated cooled

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to the coiling temperature which must be below Ms. A critical cooling rate to obtain fully
martensitic structure of the second phase is given by the following Equation:

Dual phase microstructure can also be developed in a cold rolled sheet material by the application
of continuous annealing followed by hot dip galvanising. A schematic diagram of temperature
changes during the annealing process is given in Figure. During the annealing process, a sheet is
heated to a temperature slightly above Ac1. During this stage, around 15 % of microstructure
composed of ferrite and pearlite transforms to austenite. After this, the sheet is quenched causing
the austenite transformation to martensite. As a result, the final strips microstructure contains
predominantly ferrite and martensite in proper proportions [13].

Current production grades of DP steels and example automotive applications:

DP 300/500 Roof outer, door outer, body side outer, package tray, floor panel
DP 350/600 Floor panel, hood outer, body side outer, cowl, fender, floor
reinforcements
DP 500/800 Body side inner, quarter panel inner, rear rails, rear shock reinforcements
DP 600/980 Safety cage components (B-pillar, floor panel tunnel, engine cradle, front sub-frame
package tray, shotgun, seat),
DP 700/1000 Roof rails

5.2.2. Martensitic (MS) Steel

To create MS steels, the austenite that exists during hot-rolling or annealing is transformed almost
entirely to martensite during quenching on the run-out table or in the cooling section of the
continuous annealing line. The MS steels are characterized by a martensitic matrix containing
small amounts of ferrite and/or bainite. Within the group of multiphase steels, MS steels show the
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highest tensile strength level. This structure also can be developed with post-forming heat
treatment. MS steels provide the highest strengths, up to 1700 MPa ultimate tensile strength. MS
steels are often subjected to post-quench tempering to improve ductility, and can provide adequate
formability even at extremely high strengths.

Microstructure for MS 950/1200

Adding carbon to MS steels increases hardenability and strengthens the martensite. Manganese,
silicon, chromium, molybdenum, boron, vanadium, and nickel are also used in various
combinations to increase hardenability. MS steels are produced from the austenite phase by rapid
quenching to transform most of the austenite to martensite.
Current production grades of MS steels and example automotive applications:
MS 950/1200

Cross-members, side intrusion beams, bumper beams, bumper reinforcements

MS1150/1400

Rocker outer, side intrusion beams, bumper beams, bumper reinforcements

MS1250/1500

Side intrusion beams, bumper beams, bumper reinforcements

5.2.3. Hot-Formed (HF) Steel

The implementation of press-hardening applications and the utilization of hardenable steels are
promising alternatives for optimized part geometries with complex shapes and no spring back
issues. Boron-based hot-forming steels (between 0.001% and 0.005% boron) have been in use
since the 1990s for body-in-white construction. A typical minimum temperature of 850 C must
be maintained during the forming process (austenitization) followed by a cooling rate greater than
50 C/s to ensure that the desired mechanical properties are achieved.
Two types of press-hardening or hot forming applications are currently available:

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5.2.3.1. Direct Hot-Forming and Indirect Hot-Forming

During Direct Hot-Forming, all deformation of the blank is done in the high temperature austenitic
range followed by quenching. Indirect Hot-Forming preforms the blank at room temperature to a
high percentage of the final part shape followed by additional high temperature forming and
quenching. The final microstructure and Stress-strain curves after quenching are similar to
martensitic steels.

Five process stages with different mechanical properties are important for Direct Hot-Forming:
Stage 1 (ellipse 1): Room temperature blanking: Yield strengths at 340 - 480 MPa, tensile
strengths up to 600 MPa, and elongations greater than 18 % must be considered for the
design of blanking dies.
Stage 2 (ellipse 1): Blank heating: The blank is heated to about 850 - 900 C.
Stage 3 (ellipse 2): High temperature forming in the die: High elongations (more than
50%) and low strengths (almost a constant 40-90 MPa true stress) at deformation
temperatures allow extensive forming at low strengths.
Stage 4 (ellipse 2): Quenching in the die: Following forming, tensile strengths above 1500
MPa and total elongations of 4 - 8% (martensitic microstructure) develop during part
quenching in the die.
Stage 5 (ellipse 3): Post-forming operations: Because of the very high strength, special
processes are necessary when finishing the product (special cutting and trimming devices,
etc.).
In contrast, most of the forming during Indirect Hot-Forming is accomplished at room temperature.
Stage 1 (ellipse 1): Room temperature blanking,
Stage 2 (ellipse 1): Preforming most of the final part shape at room temperature with a
traditional press and die. As with all room temperature forming, as-received sheet metal
properties (yield strengths of 340 - 480 MPa, tensile strengths up to 600 MPa, and
elongations greater than 18 %) may constrain maximum formability.
Stage 3 (ellipse 1): Part heating: The part is heated to about 850 - 900 C.
Stage 4 (ellipse 2): Final high temperature part forming at low strength and high
elongations.
Stage 5 (ellipse 3): Quenching in the die: Complex parts with tensile strengths above 1500
MPa, total elongations of 6 - 8% (martensitic microstructure) and zero springback develop
during quenching in the die.

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Current production grades of HF steels and automotive applications:

HF 340/480

As-received room temperature

HF 1050/1500

Heat treated after forming A-pillar, B-pillar, cross beam

HF 1200/1900

Heat treated after forming

5.2.4. Ferritic-Bainitic (FB) Steel

FB steels sometimes are utilized to meet specific customer application requirements that require
Stretch Flangeable (SF) or High Hole Expansion (HHE) capabilities for improved edge stretch
capability.
FB steels have a microstructure of fine ferrite and bainite. Strengthening is obtained by both grain
refinement and second phase hardening with bainite.

Photomicrograph of FB 450/600

The primary advantage of FB steels over HSLA and DP steels is the improved stretchability of
sheared edges as measured by the hole expansion test (). Compared to HSLA steels with the same
level of strength, FB steels also have a higher strain hardening exponent (n-value) and increased
total elongation. Because of their good weldability, FB steels are considered for tailored blank
applications. These steels also are characterized by both good crash performances and good fatigue
properties.
Current production grades of FB steels and example automotive applications:
FB 330/450

Rim, brake pedal arm, seat cross member, suspension arm

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FB 450/600

Lower control arm, rim, bumper beam, chassis parts, rear twist beam

5.2.5. Transformation-Induced Plasticity (TRIP) Steel

The mechanical properties of TRIP steels are derived from their dispersed multi-phase
microstructure which is composed of ferrite (0.500.55), bainite (0.300.35), retained austenite
R (0.070.15), and possibly martensite (0.010.05). Retained austenite is the most important
phase constituent of TRIP steels. The microstructure of TRIP steels is retained austenite embedded
in a primary matrix of ferrite. In addition to a minimum of five volume percent of retained
austenite, hard phases such as martensite and bainite are present in varying amounts. TRIP steels
typically require the use of an isothermal hold at an intermediate temperature, which produces
some bainite. The higher silicon and carbon content of TRIP steels also result in significant volume
fractions of retained austenite in the final microstructure.

Bainite and retained austenite are additional phases in TRIP steels

Micrograph of TRIP 690 steel

During deformation, the dispersion of hard second phases in soft ferrite creates a high work
hardening rate, as observed in the DP steels. However, in TRIP steels the retained austenite also
progressively transforms to martensite with increasing strain, thereby increasing the work
hardening rate at higher strain levels. The TRIP steel has a lower initial work hardening rate than
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the DP steel, but the hardening rate persists at higher strains where work hardening of the DP
begins to diminish.

TRIP 350/600 with a greater total elongation than DP 350/600 and HSLA 350/450

The work hardening rates of TRIP steels are substantially higher than for conventional HSS,
providing significant stretch forming. This is particularly useful when designers take advantage of
the high work hardening rate (and increased bake hardening effect) to design a part utilizing the
as-formed mechanical properties. The high work hardening rate persists to higher strains in TRIP
steels, providing a slight advantage over DP in the most severe stretch forming applications.
TRIP steels use higher quantities of carbon than DP steels to obtain sufficient carbon content for
stabilizing the retained austenite phase to below ambient temperature. Higher contents of silicon
and/or aluminium accelerate the ferrite/bainite formation. These elements assist in maintaining the
necessary carbon content within the retained austenite. Suppressing the carbide precipitation
during bainitic transformation appears to be crucial for TRIP steels. Silicon and aluminium are
used to avoid carbide precipitation in the bainite region.
The TRIP steels are characterised by a relatively low content of alloying elements. For example,
in current 800 MPa TRIP steels, the total content of alloying elements is about 3.5 wt.%.
Conventional TRIP steel compositions concept proposed by Matsumura, is based upon the
following C, Mn and Si content :
C: 0.12 0.55 wt.%; Mn: 0.20 2.5 wt.%; Si: 0.40 1.8 wt%.
The carbon content plays a fundamental role in TRIP steel composition design, the material
properties. Manganese is an austenite stabilizer and it lowers the cementite start temperature. It
also lowers the carbon activity in austenite and ferrite and increases the carbon solubility in ferrite.
Manganese is also soluble in cementite. On the contrary, silicon significantly increases the carbon
activity in both ferrite and austenite and decreases its solubility in ferrite. As a result, Si inhibits
the formation of cementite during the austempering stage. It has extremely low solubility in
cementite, an thus, it affects the nucleation of this carbide. It is believed that the accumulation of
Si around a cementite nucleus could considerably increase the C activity which prevents its
diffusion to nucleus. The minimum level of Si needed to effective suppress the cementite formation
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is believed to be around 0.8 wt.%. However, it is important that note that Si slows down the kinetics
of bainitic transformation. As a result, cold rolled TRIP steels should be further annealed on a long
line with long over-ageing section allowing the long austempering stage to be conducted. The
exploitation of Si to prevent against the carbides formation is currently being limited due to the
requirement for continuous galvanizing of AHSS sheet steel. The high silicon content in TRIP
steels results in film-forming surface oxides which prevent the formation of the inhibition layer
during the hot dip galvanizing which prevents the wetting of the sheet surface by the liquid Zn.
The reasonable solution to handle the model production lines requirement is to limit the silicon
content and use increased aluminium content in TRIP steels, preferably, apply the partial
replacement of 1 wt.% of Si by 1 wt.% of Al. The CMnAl TRIP steels have received much
attention over the last years, because, the high Al content in these steels results in a high C content
in retained austenite. Quite similar to silicon, aluminium is insoluble in cementite and, generally,
retards its formation, but more importantly, it accelerates the bainite transformation kinetics. This
effect of aluminium is very important for the TRIP steel industrialization since it allows the
adoption of currently available continuous lines dedicated to IF steels, that does not have long
overageing sections. The disadvantages of using of Al are that this element lowers solid solution
hardening effect as compared to silicon, and increases the Ms temperature [2].
The recent developments in the TRIP steel production concept includes only partial replacement
of Si by a limited amount of Al and use P in the amount of 0.050.10 wt.%. Lower Si content
makes the steel galvanizable. The use of P is intended to limit the Al content, since P also
suppresses the cementite formation and is a very effective solid solution hardening element. It was
shown for TRIP steels low in Si that P increases the amount of retained austenite. P also
significantly increases the C activity in ferrite.
The strain level at which retained austenite begins to transform to martensite is controlled by
adjusting the carbon content. At lower carbon levels, the retained austenite begins to transform
almost immediately upon deformation, increasing the work hardening rate and formability during
the stamping process. At higher carbon contents, the retained austenite is more stable and begins
to transform only at strain levels beyond those produced during forming. At these carbon levels,
the retained austenite persists into the final part. It transforms to martensite during subsequent
deformation, such as a crash event.
TRIP steels therefore can be engineered or tailored to provide excellent formability for
manufacturing complex AHSS parts or exhibit high work hardening during crash deformation for
excellent crash energy absorption. The additional alloying requirements of TRIP steels degrade
their resistance spot-welding behavior. This can be addressed somewhat by modification of the
welding cycles used (for example, pulsating welding or dilution welding) [2].
5.2.5.1. Manufacturing of TRIP steels:
The optimal combination of strength and ductility of TRIP steels is achieved by decreasing the
mean free path in ferrite and by grain refinement and obtaining an uniform distribution of fine
second phase particles. The cooling stage in the strip rolling process of TRIP steels, shown in
Figure, is more complicated than that for DP strips. First, slow cooling is applied in the ferrite
transformation temperature range. The transformation causes carbon content to increase in
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austenite to around 0.4%. After producing 5060% of ferrite in the microstructure, accelerated
cooling with cooling rate greater than 20 C/s to the coiling temperature which lies in the bainitic
transformation temperature range, is realised. During coil cooling, bainitic transformation
proceeds, further increasing of carbon content in remaining austenite to around 1.2%. Part of this
austenite, in the amount of 1015%, remains untransformed accounting for the TRIP effect.

TRIP strips can also be cold rolled and annealed. In such a case, a two-stage heat treatment with
intercritical annealing in the temperature range 780880 C followed by cooling and isothermal
annealing in the range 350450 C and cooling to ambient temperature is applied (Figure).

During the intercritical annealing, the microstructure composed of almost equal portions of ferrite
and austenite is formed. However, as opposed to the case of hot rolled strips, during this process,
a significant amount of ferrite exists in the initial microstructure prior to annealing. The holding
time during the bainitic transformation equals to several minutes. After bainitic transformation,
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the microstructure contains around 5060% of ferrite, 2540% of bainite and 515% of retained
austenite [13].
Current production grades of TRIP steels and example automotive applications:
TRIP 350/600

Frame rails, rail reinforcements

TRIP 400/700

Side rail, crash box

TRIP 450/800

Dash panel, roof rails

TRIP 600/980

B-pillar upper, roof rail, engine cradle, front and rear rails, seat frame

5.2.6. Twinning-Induced Plasticity (TWIP) Steel

TWIP steels have a high manganese content (17-24%) that causes the steel to be fully austenitic at
room temperatures. A large amount of deformation is driven by the formation of deformation
twins. This deformation mode leads to the naming of this steel class. The twinning causes a high
value of the instantaneous hardening rate (n-value) as the microstructure becomes finer and finer.
The resultant twin boundaries act like grain boundaries and strengthen the steel.

Photomicrograph of TWIP steel as annealed

TWIP steels combine extremely high strength with extremely high stretchability. The n-value
increases to a value of 0.4 at an approximate engineering strain of 30% and then remains constant
until both uniform and total elongation reach 50%. The tensile strength is higher than 1000 MPa.
Current production grades of TWIP steels and example automotive applications:
TWIP 500/900

A-Pillar, wheelhouse, front side member

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TWIP 500/980

Wheel, lower control arm, front and rear bumper beams, B-pillar, wheel rim

TWIP 600/900

Floor cross-member, wheelhouse

TWIP 750/1000

Door impact beam

TWIP 950/1200

Door impact beam

5.2.7. Complex Phase (CP) Steels

CP steels typify the transition to steel with very high ultimate tensile strengths. The microstructure
of CP steels contains small amounts of martensite, retained austenite and pearlite within the
ferrite/bainite matrix. An extreme grain refinement is created by retarded recrystallization or
precipitation of microalloying elements like Ti or Nb. Complex phase (CP) steels belong to a group
of steels with very high ultimate tensile strength of 800 MPa or even greater. The chemical
composition of CP steels, and also their microstructure, is very similar to that of TRIP steels, but,
additionally it contains some quantities of Nb, Ti and or V to cause the precipitation strengthening
effect. Typically, CP steels have no retained austenite in the microstructure, but contain more hard
phases like martensite and bainite. The microstructure of CP steels is composed of a very fine
ferrite with the high volume fraction of hard phase, For cold shaped structures, a triple phase steel
containing ferrite, bainite and martensite can be designed which are obviously more difficult to
produce. Their mechanical properties are characterised by continuous yielding and high uniform
elongation. CP steels with the bainitic matrix have superior formability because the difference
between the hardness of bainite and martensite is relatively small. In bainitic CP steels polygonal
ferrite is replaced by bainitic ferrite. The bainitic ferrite is strengthened by a high density of
dislocations, i.e., > 1012/cm2, and by a fine dispersion of MA second phase and carbonitrides or
carbides.

Figure shows the grain structure for hot rolled CP 800/1000.

In comparison to DP steels, CP steels show significantly higher yield strengths at equal tensile
strengths of 800 MPa and greater. CP steels are characterized by high energy absorption, high
residual deformation capacity and good hole expansion.

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Current production grades of CP steels and example automotive applications:

CP 680/780

Frame rails, chassis components, transverse beams

CP 750/900

B-pillar reinforcements, tunnel stiffener

CP 800/1000

Rear suspension brackets, fender beam

CP1000/1200

Rear frame rail reinforcements, rocker outer

CP1050/1470

Rocker panels, bumper beams

5.2.8. Post-Forming Heat-Treatable (PFHT) Steel

Post-forming heat treatment is a general method to develop an alternative higher strength steel.
The major issue holding back widespread implementation of HSS typically has been maintaining
part geometry during and after the heat treatment process. Fixturing the part and then heating
(furnace or induction) and immediate quenching appear to be a solution with production
applications. In addition, the stamping is formed at a lower strength and then raised to a much
higher strength by heat treatment.
Another process is air-hardening of alloyed tempering steels that feature very good forming
properties in the soft-state (deep-drawing properties) and high strength after heat treatment (airhardening). Apart from direct application as sheet material, air-hardening steels are suitable for
tube welding. These tubes are excellent for hydroforming applications.
A third option is in-die quenching. A version of Indirect Hot-Forming completes all forming of
the part at room temperature, heats the part to about 850-900 C, and then uses a water cooled die
to quench the part to martensite. This process is called Form Hardening.
Current production grades of PFHT steel and example automotive applications:
PFHT 340/480

As-received room temperature

PFHT 1050/1500

Heat treated after forming

PFHT 1200/1900

Heat treated after forming

5.2.9. HotFormed HFHPF Steels

Press hardening is a recently developed application of extra high strength steels to produce very
complex parts. In automobile they can be positioned at the high-strength end. Boron-alloyed
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Manganese hot forming steels (22MnB5) are the most prominent representative of these steels.
This is the results of a complex material and technological development often termed as press
hardening. It has considerable amount only from manganese (Mn = 1.2-1.4 %), some microalloying elements (e.g. Al, Ti) and usually very low amount of boron (B = 0.002-0.005 %). In
delivery state, this steel has low yield strength (Rp0.2 = 300-350 MPa) and good formability (A80
= 20 %). The usual forming procedure is hot forming at T = 900-950oC followed by cooling with
vh > 50 oC/s cooling rate together with the tool. The result of this hot forming and subsequent
relatively fast cooling is a high strength (Rm > 1500 MPa) stable martensitic microstructure.

5.3. Evolving AHSS Types

In response to automotive demands for additional AHSS capabilities, research laboratories in the
steel industry and academic institutions continue to search for new types of steel or modification
of existing types. The goal of the primary research (Enhanced Multiphase Products) is improving
formability for a given strength range while reducing the cost and welding problems associated
with steels having a high percent of austenite. Other examples of these developing steels are
ultrafine grain, low density, and high Youngs modulus steels.

5.3.1. Three-Phase Steel with Nano-Precipitation

A new family of high-performance cold forming steels consists of a ferritic matrix containing
bainite, residual austenite and nano-precipitations. During the forming, retained austenite is
converted to a great extent to martensite. This work-induced transformation has a positive effect
on the hardening behavior of the material to create a good combination of high formability and
high strength. Due to their high resistance to local thinning, these grades allow component
geometries that are very difficult to achieve with other high-strength steels of the same strength
class. The following nano-precipitation grades are produced for automotive applications.
680/780: HR660Y760T-TP
reinforcement

B-pillar, Crossmember, longitudinal members, side panel

750/900: HR730Y880T-TP
panel reinforcement

B-pillar, Crossmember, longitudinal members, bumper, side

5.3.2. Q&P Quenching and Partitioning

Q&P steels are a series of C-Si-Mn, C-Si-Mn-Al or other likely compositions subjected to the
quenching and partitioning (Q&P) heat treatment process. With a final microstructure of ferrite (in
the case of partial austenitization), martensite and retained austenite, Q&P steels exhibit an
excellent combination of strength and ductility, which permitted their use in a new generation of
advanced high strength steels (AHSS) for automobiles. Q&P steels are suitable for cold stamping
for those structure and safety parts of automotive with relatively complicated shape to improve
fuel economy while promoting passenger safety.

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6. Forming of High Strength Steels

Stamping engineers are used to specify the material to be applied by technological values such as
yield and tensile strength, elongation as well as n- and r-value. Stamping simulation is typically
performed using a tensile flow curve of the material as an input. Experience however has shown
that this approach can result in inaccuracies or unexpected behavior especially when working with
multiphase steel as discussed by Ford and General Motors. Furthermore, the specific
microstructural features of DP and TRIP steels steel can lead to failures during forming that are
not predictable by numerical simulation.
Automotive forming methods usually consist of a sequence of individual forming operations.
Figure defines the basic forming operations such as deep drawing, stretching, stretch flanging, and
bending. With regard to these specific forming modes the mere contemplation of the strength
elongation diagram is not sufficient to select the optimum material. Each forming mode has
additional demands with regard to specific mechanical parameters like the Lankford parameter (rvalue), work hardening coefficient (n-value) and hole expansion ratio (-value). These parameters
are strongly related to microstructural features of the material and, hence, they can be influenced
by niobium microalloying in combination with a suitable processing strategy. In order to obtain a
good combination between total elongation and hole expansibility, it is important to reduce the
difference in hardness between the soft phase and the hard phase while ensuring the required total
elongation by employing a steel sheet of composite structure.

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7. REFERENCE:
1. Fact sheet, Advanced steel applications, World steel Association, October 2014.
2. Production Processes and Systems, vol. 6. (2013) No. 1, pp. 79-88.
3. Advanced High Strength Steels Application Guidelines Version 5.0
4. Advanced High Strength Steels Application Guidelines Version 4.1
5. Production Processes and Systems, Volume 5. No. 1. (2012) pp. 79-90.
6. KAWASAKI STEEL TECHNICAL REPORT No. 48 March 2003.
7. Nippon Steel Technical Report No. 64, January 1995.
8. Nippon Steel Technical Report No. 57, January 1993.
9. Revista de Metallurgia, 48(2) 2012, pp. 118-131.
10. Nippon Steel Technical Report No. 103, May 2013.
11. JFE Technical Report No. 18, March 2013.
12. JFE Technical Report No. 10, December 2007.
13. R. KUZIAK, et al. Advanced high strength steels for automotive industry, 2008.

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