AT THE
UNIVERSITY OF
TORONTO PRESS
OF THE
ARISTOTELIAN SOCIETY.
NEW
SERIES.
VOL.
XVII.
tfie
PUBLISHED BY
WILLIAMS
14,
HENRIETTA STREET,
AND
NORGATE,
W.C.
B
\\
CONTENTS.
PAGE
I.
II.
III.
IV.
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
SYMPOSIUM
...
ETHICAL
28
58
77
95
117
139
195
216
...
PRINCIPLES
OF
SOCIAL
RECON-
XI.
XII.
XIII.
XIV.
/ XV.
W. R. INGE
THE CONCEPTION OF A COSMOS.
256
300
BY
360
BY
J. S.
MACKENZIE
...
395
BY
L. S. STEBBING...
418
459
ABSTRACT OF MINUTES OF THE JOINT SESSION OF THE ARISTOTELIAN SOCIETY, THE CAMBRIDGE MORAL SCIENCE CLUB,
AND THE MIND ASSOCIATION
...
...
485
486
FINANCIAL STATEMENT...
488
...
489
RULES
LIST
OF
OFFICERS
AND
SESSION, 1917-1918
MEMBERS
FOR
THE
THIRTY-NINTH
492
I.
By H. WILDON
THE study
of the
problem
CARE.
of Eecognition
on
which
now
offer
on which
am
Implications
common
the rule.
That at
least
It
first
of a cognition
problem
of
which constitutes
recognition,
individual's experience.
so far
it
as
a recognition.
its source is
This
is
the
within the
wish to inquire
* " The
Implications of Recognition," a Symposium, by Miss Beatrice
Edgell, Mr. F. E. Bartlett, Mr. G. E. Moore and Mr. H. W. Carr (Proe.
Arist. Soc., 1915-16, p. 179).
H.
'2
WILDON CARR.
how
describe
may
intelligent recognition
and
my
and
is
beyond the
problem
More
of
and
of
of instinctive recognition
their relation.
As
is
me
to deal
"
had
before,"
seen
already."
of the experience,
an
It is the experience
Under the
first
question
how
by an animal
of
an instinctive
action.
description
can only
be
of
secondary
philosophical
importance.
analogy and
must
rest,
if
At
1.
What
is the
There
may
recognition.
be a limiting concept. In a developed consciousness such as our own, were there only cognition and no recogni-
cognition
may
and
on
and as an abstract
possibility it
cognition
is
presupposed
in
recognition.
Cognition
is
the
identical event
apprehension.
cases of
experience at
all,
there are
fact, for
repetition of
of recognition, if
not in
any
all,
this
be disputed
it
is
at least
certain that
there
may
A 2
be
WILDON CARR,
H.
recognition
where there
is
of that
object whatever.
The term
term cognition,
The nature
to us.
of this
own
"
"
means exhaustive,
is
list of
psychological writers, by no
added, each of
whom
to set myself
is
and
far
we can
makes
it
recognition.
I do not see
how
It will lead
me
to a metaphysical theory.
and therefore
it is
well to
give warning.
suppositions
adopts.
which
This was
psychology, like
made
every
clear, I think, if
special
science,
me
experience.
me
Let
and the
difficulty
is
richesse.
and
recognitions,
example what
is
cannot
my
therefore
establish
by a clear
what is only
only
when we analyse
we
It is
When we
it
The young
we
chick,
are
told
by Professor Lloyd
But
Morgan,
to
peck at
others,
such
as cinnabar
latter
we should
experience
distinction
from
experience
we should
the
earlier
call
call
recognition of
experience,
and
objects
this
in
earlier
experience.
(2) I arrive at a
first stroll
and
second
work
stroll
recognise
what
as distinguished
to find
am
I see.
Two
my way
familiar
The
about.
with
my
is
new
to
me
After a time or on a
surroundings, and I
its streets.
through
I set to
town
of as cognitions merely.
WILDON
H.
the
of
tion
CAKi;.
Each
exercise.
is experiencing
the same exhilarathe
sunshine
and the beauty of
air,
bright
One is an engineer, the other a naturalist.
the surroundings.
Their recognitions are entirely distinct.
gradients, strains, actual
possible
of
details
or
to
companion are
his
The other
engines,
character
of
of the
the
the
the
nature
vegetation,
recognises
soil and subsoil, the various species of animals, which to his
roads, banks, valleys,
merely
companion are
singing
etc.
hills,
birds, etc.
of each
far as
are, so
when
the sense
identical.
(4)
mine
favourite book of
the enjoyment
never
it
fails to
is
Fielding's
give
me
is
Tom
due
to
Jones, but
something
literary
not to
unfolded
itself.
me
"againness," leaves
how
me
poorer.
It illustrates, however,
and
this is
why
I cite
it,
recognition
With
let
me
try to define
it.
Recognition
is
we
what we have
learnt
know
is this,
mark
againness."
we
of
its
very
first
we
is
We
whose
knowledge cannot
have
been
acquired by
Undoubtedly the use of the term
recognition in cases of pure instinct is derived from its use in
cases of rational knowledge, and many no doubt will deny that
individual experience at
possibly
all.
there
its
who has
The
is
learnt
difference
that the
is
recognition
mark
of the
past
in
instinctive ex-
implies
that
A more
stand.
to understand
Even
if
it
by experience
by something more
is
raised.
to explain
difficult to
To
what
under-
8
I
WILDON CAKR.
II.
admit
study
this difficulty
is to
make
by experience and
of the
it explicit.
learning
by experience
present
learn
we
implies
mental
we know,
reality
for
if
able.
Many
implication ab
implies
know,
my
reject
order of
initio.
Learning by
and wholly depends upon
recognition,
it,
whereas
it
is
minds whose knowledge is purely conIndeed, such must necessarily be the order of
implication for those who hold that knowledge is essentially
contemplation.
Eecognition will be for them a perception or a
theoretically possible in
templative.
judgment
of a relation
Take, for
"
to be
'
before
'"
in
our
Symposium
recognition," he says,
"
last
session.
"
This kind
true,
both that
'
of
was sensed by
me
before,
and that
it
likeit
is
had the
consider
this
implication which would follow from it, quite wrong, and I will
Let me first, however, freely admit that
try to show why.
Dr. Moore
ence.
Soc.,
1915-16, p. 213.
effort to
it
process
is
in
deliberation
my
is
What
process of recognising.
deny
that
is
recognition
is
The process
Recognition is immediate experience.
which has made it recognition is already past, and not to come.
this.
The sense-datum,
if
we
it
become, what as
may
it is not, recognition.
Take, then, any one of my four cases
and attempt to reduce it to the perception or judgment of likeness between a present sense-datum and remembered sense-
yet
data,
and you
only
is
is
us at
all,
is
absolute.
we might,
obvious
if
Not
perhaps,
is
not even similarity. Take the chick which first pecks the
cinnabar caterpillar, then afterwards rejects it, while it con-
tinues to
caterpillar.
entirely different the second time, for the chick has learnt to
i.e.,
resemblance
rejects
it, is
is
objective, has
something
it
not
first time.
If it has
it
an instance
simplicity, as
No
instinctive, recognition.
it
Now, we may
of
intelligent, not
of
It
is
10
H.
WILDON CAKK.
suppose that there is a mental process, involving a memoryimage, an act of comparison, and a judgment or perception
It
a relation, as well as the present perceptual matter.
seems to me highly improbable but even if I suppose there is,
of
necessary consequence.
am
illustrations.
Unless
strange
my
second stroll will be equally strange, there will be no
The sense-data will yield nothing on which a
recognition.
learning by
town,
experience in
first
stroll
in the
my
judgment
of identity
nor similar.
recognition
is
between sense-data.
likeness.
Recognition
is
and in vain
for
of the
any
mind
exercised at and from the beginning of experience, and conIt is not an external act of
tinually throughout experience.
of the
mind
to retain
and
I recognise in
revive a memory-image of the earlier moment.
the later moment only what I have learnt in the first moment,
experience.
Learning by experience
tion
we
my
first
call recognition.
illustration
is
moth
"
caterpillars
11
"
an instance of
learning by experience."
profit-
I fail to
repetition.
mind and
there
is
its objects.
The expression
itself
implies that
something
Every
excludes
positively
instance
fresh
previous experience.
The problem as
nition.
is
What
the past
"
result
seem
to
me
to be these
And what
mind and
(1) Eetention.
do they
reality
The
(2) Revival.
Memory
or Recollection.
what
mean by each
successive.
Moment
of
Experience."
The
retention
implied
in
that
12
H.
WILDON CARK.
Without
exist,
it
experience
is
Were
inconceivable.
there no reten-
primary meaning,
impressions, did they
would be fleeting and perishing as the stimuli which
in
tion
sense
this
occasion
them.
its essential
character.
out of consciousness
from what
comes
have
is still
retained.
It is different,
however,
to consciousness
and with the ghostly character of a memoryIt is revival which makes the past appear to us
image.
as a continuous objective reality, on to any part of which
present to sense
we can
way
in
which we turn
we
call
spatial.
(3)
By
discrimination I
sociated or disintegrated on
dissociated can be associated
mean
on any principle. I include under discrimination both disintegration and redintegration, for they seem to me to form
This and the following seem to me the
most active factors in the process of learning by experience
on which recognition depends.
Each of our individual
its
objective
its
experience.
(4)
By
selection
mean
l.'t
The
of selection.
first
selection
is
is
mechanisms
itself.
(5)
Habit-memory
habits.
It
is
to
These seem
to
me
They
me
the facts
call
mental
facts,
and
of the
modes
of its activity.
me
to
form concepts
of
distinguished
as
to
mind
have
to
do
separate
activities
separate
present
in,
activities.
I think they
life.
it exists.
Kecollection
is
inconceivable as a
the past.
of
of
actual recollection.
The ground
mainly based on
would modify experience, or of some data which, if attended to and
for this is
14
H.
WILDOX CARR.
is
register
register or record
is
want
the
is
growing
record
brain.
to distinguish
Memory
or the
much abused
mind
the
but mind
external
of
do not
is
In
my
view this
may
be allowed
if
I use the
term.
between mental
stuff,
stuff
term because
and mental
life.
material.
process.
The
ence.
the
life of
The mind
mind
is
is
passing judgment on
it
The mind
world we meet
coming
It
it.
Nothing
is less like
the
mind
than the old-time image of the wax tablet on which the objects of
the external world make imprints. The mind, as I conceive it,
is
an active power
of
A good
it
organises.
illustration of this
work
of the
The
mind
is
afforded us
physiology,
for
apparatus for letting the nutriment pass into the blood stream.
And all these contrivances had nothing else to do but passively
wait for supplies which, when they came, were mechanically
and automatically reduced and utilised. Modern physiology
gives us an entirely different notion of the vital activities at
work
its distinct
receive
function,
is
The supply
food.
15
ready prepared to
is not
of the food
But, though
of the process is
is regulated and
the
of
the
pre-adaptation
delicately adjusted by
digestive pro-
cesses themselves,
The
body in a state of
and
as
one
The mind
equilibrium
efficiency
organic unity.
appears to me to be a spiritual organism, which maintains itself
in the
same way.
mind
is
not
Experience
passive
is,
as
receptor.
it.
were, fed to
it
does
It
it,
but the
not contemplate
It incorporates
it.
It
meets
memory,
selection,
and
maintenance of an individual
the
rest.
soul, the
The
result
is
the
unity of a personal
character.
Let
me now
The problem
is
account for the feeling of " seen before," " this again,"
had already," directly attached to the object of cognition.
This feeling requires explaining, because, in fact, there is
to
"
no
repetition,
and can be no
continuous change.
What
gives
me
cognition
How
the explanation.
gives
to
new
Eecognition
experience.
is
The mind
receives the
new
with which the mind grasps the novel, the unknown, the
unforeseen.
By this I mean not only that recognition has
16
WILDON CARR.
H.
prospective
value
looking and
all
than
The
this.
the whole
life
is
forward-
mean more
becomes past,
and is carried
it
it.
present activity,
of
of
past, as
along in
attitude
and not
repetition,
and
in
And
recognition.
cognition
the
is
this
explains
why and
The
of necessity recognition.
mental
process,
consists
in,
and
is
what way
in
life
of the
sustained
all
mind,
by,
the
continual
reception of
We
of
mind stamps
reality
in
the
very act
of
Kant supposed,
new
invention.
This, then, in
all
my view
is
the modification of
cognition recognition.
distinct,
with, or provoking a
2.
Can
Cognition
17
Memory of Prior
Nothing
is
an
in the
We
the relation of
of
of
phenomena
effect of
is
facts.
is
and we seem
we
conceive to
instinctive behaviour,
however we account
for
it,
presents the
acting.
instinctive
This
is
true,
even of the
first
it
performance of an
action,
is
is
is
no repetition.
In instinctive
so far as mentality
by experience.
is
If,
concerned.
then,
one
or,
Yet
peculiar
mark
of instinctive
18
WILDOX
H.
behaviour
CARll.
is
an explanation of instinctive knowledge to the bodily organisation rather than to the mental organisation.
Instinct suggests
something structural in the nervous system. Now clearly, as
it seems to me, if we can explain instinctive
knowledge as a
phenomenon of physiological process without mind, we raise a
that intelligent knowledge
strong presumption
in the same way.
I think
without
knowledge
mind independently
explicable
we cannot
supposing
of
is
the
physiological
explain instinctive
continuous activity of
I will try to
process.
An
example
the purpose of
definite case.
my
classical
Morgan's
The advantage
failures of the
absolutely novel in
its
puppy.
recognition.
feeling at
home
recognition in
but so in
my
my own
view
is
experience.
It
is
what
I call
immediate knowledge,
intelligent recognition.
If
then there be
inapplicable
creature's
We
recognition
19
know
that the
in this characteristic
way
we suppose
unless
previous performances
of its
congenital
images of them.
that
we may
that its
memory
of its ancestors
and that
it
has, as part
disposition,
memory-
as well reject
it
outright.
if
remember,
its
action
it
remembered what
for there is
it
no continuity
impossible that
is
it
can
between
of consciousness
it
experience.
to us is the physio-
from the
fertilised
germ,
this gulf
its
its relation to
the creature's
body.
As
which
to
no
and
A certain unity
want to look
when we
and interactionists
complex
which constitute
There
is
is
meant
makes awareness
of every
kind part
B 2
20
is
H.
WILDON CAKR.
that
is to
we mean the
say,
The
processes.
This distinction of
same
as that of Descartes.
thinks, the
body
lives.
is independent of the
and
and
is
free in the sense that
controls,
guides
without and not within the series of mechanical actions
;
body which
it is
is
it
in
the
i.e.,
living
unity.
From
this point of
automaton
distinct
accord with
and
many
illustrate
Let me try
the mutual convergence and
what
may
call
The
of
food
first
;
it
part of
is
clear.
is
the mastication
by the many
The
divisions
21
and smell
and
all
accompanied by
it
no doubt
So
true.
far,
is
point of
ment
view
is
fragmentary
and
sporadic,
sentience
accompaniis not
itself
meaning
far as the
man's body
is
word
what he
to it;
we
mind
is
is
in-
in question, it
call personal
it is
con-
From
an
process,
and exercising no
efficiency;
22
WILDON CARR.
H.
curves.
This standpoint of
the relation
of
psychiatry.
is
and practice of
be due to some
as Descartes
We
undoubtedly important as
and
If
relate.
we
it
vital
is,
to determine
follow
its
higher
centres of the
intelligence,
we
reach at
final integration
cerebral
last,
and
in
effected in the
by
may
be in
its
2*3
we
generations of
body the
and that we
ancestors,
We
of
life
shall
also
countless
hand on
this
know, though
it
is
mind and
when we think
to
have evolved
seem single
pan
is
it
we
do, a thinking
of these
two systems
seems to us impossible to
What makes
twofold.
that
the
in
mental range
From
standpoint of evolution
we
the
source
may
is
always twofold
how
is this
of
an animal, whose
of .a man,
predominantly instinctive,
whose behaviour is predominantly intelligent, a quantitative
It seems
difference only, or is it a qualitative difference also ?
behaviour
is
24
WILDON CARR.
H.
mind
human mind,
There
differing only in its range.
reason
to
that
mind
the
moorhen's
every
suppose
from mine in the ratio that its brain differs in
seems to
differs
me
range of action, as
is,
to the continuity of
There
is
only a difference,
But
is
it
Can we not
associate with
mind
under
vital actions
We
and we
find it very difficult to suppose that there is anything even corresponding to these in the mind of the animal.
It seems to me that in instinctive action we can distinguish
elements which are certainly mental and not merely vital.
values,
These
are
indicating
sentient
(a)
conscious
familiarity, indicated
behaviour (this
is
or alertness, indicated
if
What
me
is
mental.
fact that
they
25
unity of an experience.
It is a two-fold continuity, then, which has to be carried
The
therefore,
life
which
life
common
seems to
is
me by
to processes
we
which
is
the
indicating that in
it,
in
my
solution
of
the
problem
of recognition.
Bergson
in Creative Evolution
which I have
tried elsewhere to
expound.
I will
and try
to
now draw
show the
have endeavoured to
my
argument,
establish.
Eecognition
is
knowing what
in
it.
not imply a mental process of comparison with a prior cognition or the perception or judgment of a relation of similarity.
by recognising
26
H.
4.
and
WILDON CAKR.
Learning by experience
in experience there
is,
is
in fact, no repetition.
Learning
is
5.
of the
process
Eecognition
may
same nature.
entirely novel
Each
sense-presentations
with
the
mark
of
prior
cognition.
6.
mind the
the
and
so, in
a manner and
is
The problem
of recognition is the
be
known
as
what
is
already
same
for intelligent
sense-presentation
8.
life
parison between the activity of each. They are distinct selfcentred organic continuities
sentient experience enters each
;
The
system, but the systems are tangential to one another.
mind is an organisation of experience.
All past experience
has not only contributed to it but is incorporated within it,
New sentient experigiving it character and individuality.
How
is
27
The
living
germ
has
neither
brain
nor soul,
but
is
the
28
II
WISH
state as I understand
the state in
its
to federations or
misconception
is
it,
a world-state.
It
seems to
me
which in
that
much
fact great
best of
my
There
is
no other way
of explaining
how a
free
29
man
authority.
makes no
it
World-state,
difference.
Behind
all force
there
state
This
is
absolutism.
Of course the
is
end of
life.
life.
community
will
life
possessed by its
members.
Now
is
as that
external world.
much
precision as
human
affairs
There
is,
as
we
no
shall see,
"
to above.
BERNARD BOSANQUET.
30
things on earth."*
all
his
And
is
no other material
of
which
his will
If
a different source.
This
is
the ground of
state represents
other community
is
problem.
what seems
It is further
to
it
is
whole end of
life,f
nor that
It means, as I understand
arrangement
particular
in
the
it is
it,
community whose
will is our
own
will
when most
ground
world of action
to
it
absolute,
It lies in the
and the
tendency of the
He
regards
it
as having in
it
some of the end of life, viz., the embodiment of liberty of course, not
the whole end. It is for him the basis of the further, more specialised,
achievements (art, philosophy, and the like). Rechtsphilosophie, Sect. 258.
J See below, pp. 40 and 41.
Philosophy of the State, Ch. VIII, 3, and Introduction to 2nd edition..
;
31
they claim the same funds or the same building they must
come before a power which can adjust the difference without
if
And
if
obviously there
like that
critics
power
One
of external action,
The other
because
it
world
is
as
community
the
is
is
at present exemplified
by
his nation-state,
special
own
state to maintain.
It
is
it,
two grounds
of these
of unity
between
its
territory,
and
will
it
thinks
any
require
service that
or associa-
It does, in
fit
of
all
what
of
even in times of
rights of conscience
that
its
primary end
is
stress, flows
and
it
will
reason of
its
What
it
permits,
p. 166.
it
permits by
BERNARD BOSANQUET.
32
as a
criticism is
originated
gone.
with Plato's
The
of objective achievement.
mind
state is a creation of
poem
or a
work
as
"The
by extrospection.
state," as I
members
is
is
a phrase
dealing with
the class-name.
If
a plural noun
is
used, there
can be no
of
them
"The
state," in a word,
is
?
It would be urged, perhaps, that a heart does not
other
hearts, but that a state does imply other states
imply
but if the thing implies other things its name implies the
engine
reference to them.
* Mr.
Cole, Proc. Arist. Soc., 1915, p. 311.
+ Hegel pointed out this ambiguity, Ph. des Rechts,
Sect. 258
"
A.
we may compare
ledge of men."
means the
latter
of
individual
cf.
also
philosophy
?'&.,
p. 311),
like
philosophy
peculiarities
and
the
defects,
3%
there
men
surface.
the
of
single
human
spirit
(Hegel),
whose
well
known
doctrine
which furnish
human
life.
for
perfectly each of
by
them
attains its
history, so
all
it is
for others to
This
is
the theory.
Now
with
"
my
it is
states
qua
states,"
account of states not upon what they are, so far as states, but
just upon what, qua states, they are not upon defects which
;
evils
government
is
attained.
Such
evils
are
war,
exploitation
within or without, class privilege, arbitrary authority, discontent directing ambitions to foreign conquest and to jealousy
* The term
nation-state.
BERNARD BOSANQUET.
34
another's
one
state's
gain
is
fudv
ipso
loss.
tinuous relations which extend beyond the frontiers of individual states, their importance compared with that of other
continuities which are co-extensive with the area of the states
and constituent
beyond
a regrettable way,
it.*
to
break down at
the continuities
lies,
the
which pass
I take
it,
in
the
marked
rival unity.
It follows
other's structure
and materials.
and culture
after all
of
same
civilisation.
It
is
History of Greece,
theorists,
i.s
far
some
any
is
imported from
other.*
Further,
follows that
it
right
states
by
discharge
of
their
internal
function
and
of the
state
and not
is to
complete
seem
appears to
to
me
its
own.
less.
the
main thing
it
has to
is
we want
fundamental principle
is
as
causes
critics
the
War,
its
expansion."
more
do
35
"
the state
"
Obviously, in as far as
it
succeeds, its
each other.
*
Compare the malevolent gossips in Middlemarch, who referred the
husband's book to the wife's special knowledge, and vice versd, so that
they did not need to give credit to either for the books they wrote.
+ I note one or two points with reference to Mr. Delisle Burns'
" attaches no
assertion, that the Republic
importance to foreign contacts."
full treatment is impossible here.
Plato's state is affected by commercial relations from the beginning, and manufactures for export
The genesis of war is in internal corruption of communi(Rep., 371 A).
ties, which produces a reciprocal policy of expansion (373 D).
healthy
state gives no excuse to its neighbour for war
limits of healthy expansion
Civilised laws of war, implying an ethical family of states and
(422).
persistent good will (469-70). Religious institutions to be prescribed by
an external authority that speaks to all mankind (427). The references
to
The root
ff.
venom
at its head, was pledged to see reformed ; and (0) the false political
economy of "your gain is
loss," which such an internal situation,
my
promotes.
BEKNARD BOSANQUET.
36
5.
Thus every
state as such
that
is,
"the state
guardian of
We
human mind.
And
shall
see
why
It is
human
and
life
to
of
is
moral
and humanity.
the world.
Thus you
life
it.
"the
it is
is
very important
world includes a whole distinctive attitude to
necessary.
"
it,
more
is
to a
or less,
brought
elicits
profound mistake, I
am
convinced, to direct
force.
It
is
has a conscience.
Yet
me
it
name
of state absolutism.
It
seems to
their root
moral
is,
is
organised,
soul, just
to guard. It
happens naturally
to
them
as to private
* Mr. Delisle Burns in quoting this phrase of mine omits the word
" moral."
37
persons that they throw their whole sense of right into what is
wrong. In order to produce a disastrous collision, we must bear in
It is like
two
trains
running
riot
side
be in conflict
by
side,
where
an encroachment
of
all,
aspirations
of
communities which possess reason and conscience. Keconciliation of them by harmonious adjustment, though impracticable
at certain
Now
moments,
never inconceivable.
is
is
is,
pronounce
false
as
life,
its
expression through
The unique
community
obligation of the
is to
BERNARD BOSANQUET.
38
In short, the
harmonising them must ultimately fall.
whole moral status and moral being of the community is to
be indefinitely but considerably lowered.
of
'
me
wrong way. We
more especially, that we pay for
weaken them
faith in
The
pletely.
for
remedy
organisation, but
of
conflict.
is
responsible,
where
for the
and
that
also
conscience
its
is
it
determinate, the
to the
be adjusted.
respect
him
for
if
we
Why
it.
face
is
morally
an actual
conflict
common
conscientious
must not
concerned.
moment cannot
flat
less
more.
a concurrent risk
not
is
disorganisation
objector
believe
him
should the
follow
will
to be sincere
his
we
community, an
nearest approach
to
The
clause
The point
to be
remembered
is
* Mr.
Cole,
p.
315
cf.
If
Eousseau,
C.S., I, vii.
and V.
No
is
when
would
some
between communities, a
But the way to right
being committed somewhere.
doubt,
wrong
It cannot be in virtue of
as a social duty.
it is still
39
there
is
strife
it is
think
that
Is
here.
conscience, or
is
They seem to me in
one can be true.
we
are accused
denying the
moral responsibility of the community which has the state
for its organ.
But it can hardly be doubted that we are also
It is clear, I think, that
of
any unique
relation,
such as we
assert,
in the community,
between the com-
Thus
munity's conscience and that of the private person.
the critics find themselves driven to treat the community
which
is
if
am
and
letter to Sir
1765.
40
HKltXARl) BOSANliUET.
breatlies
its
If
spirit.
you
the
call
state
an association,
still
more
so, if
association
The word
"
is
is,
and aggressive.
moral being and moral responsibility
of the state which we affirm, and which the main attack
It
is
desires
to
in setting
discharge of function and other more sporadic goods, not recognising the focus of all these demands in the social consciousness. In
this
way
grounds with
from the
fact that
we observe
community
not to be capable of being criticised by the method of comparison with that of an individual.
by and
is
maintaining in a certain
Its
territory the external conditions of good life as a whole.
is,
territorial
for the
special task of
experience which
is
to
that
most favourable
communal
unity of
to the maintenance of an
It is
an
function
is
at
home
or abroad.
The
I refuse
to say
state's peculiar
and
it
does not
meaning of an
But whatever
act.
through constitutional
methods
is
community which
to the
sense
is
it
further than to
in the
exist in the
may
loyalties
41
arises, of
which
it
acts, of
represents.
Absoluteness in this
we have
noted.*
But even
which appear
will,
we pay
for
loyalties
a severe penalty in a
felt
communal
contradiction which
It forms a continual
demand
is
for
reconciliation
and ampler
initiative
as a matter of course
6.
So
much
state.
Every
conflict
is
in the
and
main a caricature
as guardian of
am
of its position as
moral values.
which
is
from
felt
about
its
denial
tions
and
situations,
for
it
BEKNARD BOSANQUET.
42
I do not think
conditions.
it
could possibly be
felt
home
its
by any mind
a systematic
universal demand in a
is
When
moral criticism
of
We
our view
is
contribution to
body
make
The question
is
no other
whether com-
parison with the moral task of a private person can throw light
make
the
will,
matter
There
is
life.
conflict of duties,
course.
new
to
mould
it,
which
There
is
in
life,
is
not set
The room
for
immoral casuistry
and there
is
anew
is
from
social discipline
and applying
itself
ticular
life
and
43
still
will,
new
judgment
of others is scarcely
to
open
him
at
all.
Now
In
turn to the community organised as a state.
quiet times, and over a great part of its conduct, its course,
like that of the individual, may be considered as plainly
marked.*
crop
up,
But
at
involving,
Suppose the
British Empire confronted by an opponent or by an international Peace League or Tribunal with some proposed
prophecy
regulation which
it
(the
Empire) judged
Is
it
such conditions
is
Even assuming
tribunal
who
such a question
is
not justiciable.
justiciable questions
you are
As
more below.
* I
am
its
conscience
another.
J
We
The hypothesis
is
p. 376.
44
BERNARD HOSANQUET.
and
If
highest.
life
identified
itself,
must be
may
it
to
will possess
in
this
definite
it
it
be
In as far as
it
is
has so far
conviction
I
so.
it
the only
do not mean that
but
very well
the consideration of this
so,
it
itself.
is
it
is
it
itself
the guardian of a
act within a moral
is
no moral
tions
on
it is
imposing adapted and appropriate obligaunits, comparable with the social consciousness
tradition,
all
of the
normal
And we have
seen that
its
special
form of good
45
life,
is
for
spirit
After
these
explanations,
it
hope
may
be
hardly
a single
human
being can.
We
and
woman
fact,
To act
is
to
make
an act
was
men
It
is
An
act of attainder
murder by a
believe,
now
state,
is,
and such an
* See
pp. 47-48, below.
+ Mr. Delisle Burns, p. 293.
I Cf. the decision of the Athenian assembly
death, and its recall.
to
is,
Surely
'
BERNARD BOSANQUET.
46
it
better
is
distinctions
and
mental point
is
call things
by
to recognise obvious
The funda-
human
beings.
man
And in practice
fully responsible for what he does.
a great distinction, which nothing else can account for,
between the degrees of its responsibility for the sayings and
might
l)e
we make
man
or
woman's mind
is
to
fail.
"
Power
can be delegated, but not will." You may order special acts to
be done by another, but you cannot transfer to him the general
exercise of your will.
I
men may
had thought
come
And
agents
thought of
their
much
less
But
when the
possible.
stated
the
hypothetical
It has
p.
324.
47
I will pass
larger political
state.
It
organism
from the
natural to infer
is
of
humanity, and
organism to an
social
supreme authority
But here,
is
is
theory
heeded.
The
there
is
framed
to meet,
and which
first
its critics
is
no organism of humanity.
consciousness of coimection
is
question
of
to
have
necessary.
seem not
Mere
And
causal connec-
beings, will
anyone say
humanity possesses any connected communal consciousness whatever ? But if not, there is
at present
And
human
is
plain
that
neither
possessions
common
to
the
life,
mankind.
"
It
is
all
mankind that we go
At
for
exist to guard.
best
life
48
BERNAED BOSANQUET.
multitude of mankind.
Our primary
as one,
and
conflict.
at
to a quality,
is
loyalty
not to a crowd.
it is
by
faith only,
civilised state
there
moral choices.
It is not unnecessary to
that
we apprehend an ultimate
devotion
is
due,
visible
make
community
to
us fancy
which our
will in
common.
which
possibly
religion,
for
instance,
assumes
multitude of
it,
the
human
However
extent of
realised
this
may
be,
the effective
among mankind,
whatever
prove to be the
may
its
realisation,
if
is to
will,
and
for
that reason
tradition.
With
p. 13.
less
than this
authority must
supreme
communities which
it
meant
is
become an
49
administration of
This is why I view with apprehension the tendency to minimise the function of the state
which is current to-day, owing, as I believe, to a too special
The
explanation of causes which led to the present conflict.
And
is,
so, too,
and not
without.
is
realised,
also,
alliances,
united states,
spirit
of true
spoken
British
is
its
Empire
essence, as
stituent
members
development.
are to
For
it
con-
its
national
only by a reign of external law which leaves their
consciousnesses untouched and unreconciled.* I cannot believe
* Lord
The War and
Acton, Freedom and other Essays, p. 290 see
in
Commonwealth
term
the
use
not
does
Democracy, p. 370. Lord Acton
;
Mr.
by the
latter writer.
It is discussed, of course, in
Curtis' works.
50
BEKNARD BOSANQUET.
that this
If the
is satisfactory.
no general will.
If the point is that
to
be trained to freedom and equality, then it seems
they are
to me to matter little whether in the end
they go their own
in peace, or choose to
way
members, which
other
"
is
commonwealth
and
other,
"
as
form an
be
shall
described
is justified, I
is
with the
effective unity
true
But the
state.
its
possible
future.
Thus
9.
it
seems clear to
me
aspiration.
common
The commonwealth
fulfil
if
to be found except
of nations alluded to
come
only that,
they do,
comparable to that which we
;
now experience
a unity
in nationality
alone.
in
so far as
may
up
to
and
is
Yet
it.
that
experience, tradition,
in the nation-state.
the con-
satisfies
some
it
is
be attempted
and
liable to
disruption.
And
this contemplation of
remote
possibilities
is
may happen
making
What-
idea of
it
totality.
(I
have
why
51
to-day.
would involve,
it
occupies
assume, universal freedom of
different regions of
doubtful assumption
is
made when we
This
relations
tion
between
is
actually
efficient co-opera-
world-wide
It
is
arguable
that
And
it is
quite
say r
Eoman
Catholic Church
is
better protected
to-
with,
say,
an
international
system
of our
if
mind which
is
labour
movement
or
an
2:
BERNARD BOSANQUET.
"52
conscience.
If
not,
we
there
must be a constant
live in this
many
sore
such
in our
sores,
and
cease.
But there
is
no reason in principle
why
a system of states,
and do
how
nor
the state
unless
in friendship.
and with
force
is
than
dangerous,
am
assuming that
the experience and tradition of states remain as they are
it,
too
and
*
common
enterprises.
I cannot see the least relevance in the suggestion that our theory
requires relations which pass beyond the frontier to be suppressed.
(Lindsay, Theory of State, p. 101.) The group-mind, we saw, is a species
of world-mind, and has not the group for its sole object. All external
relations, therefore, are focussed in it along with the group-relations
proper, and constitute, of course, a demand for unification by a response.
room
seems to
me an advantage
53*
for the
communities to the
which
difficulty
arises, as
we
gifts of
localised minds,
It
it.
mystery, are
all
common
to have in
mankind
still
are ever
to be,, as
they
life-centres,,
basis of
example
love
of
local
of
peculiarities
local
local styles
and traditions
of beauty
dialects,
and how
for
far do-
appears as if anything,
ought to go which keeps people barbarous and makes mutual
Certainly
understanding impossible.
This analogy of language, I think,
desire, I suppose, to
it
is
helpful.*
We
should
it.
If
Cf. Philosophical
p. 330.
one the
54
BERNARD BOSANQUET.
and
Or
will
Many
if
which
mean
is
to
the popular
end in a con-
dition of the world that shall compensate for the wrongs and
sufferings of the past in a word, in the evanescence of evil.
;
We
have had
it
explicitly argued
by Herbert Spencer
and
there
is
The nature
optimism.
an offshoot of
is
this naive
on the whole
But it is clear,
to
make
add
of
improvement, does
form
it
to his
I think, that
demand
man must
for
tend
any progress
of future generations
of
in
itself
dictory.
therefore
likelihood
this
widely operating
the evanescence of evil seems altogether self-contraTherefore, while I believe in a nobler future, I do
not believe
in
any
simple
advance
tranquillity.
to
my mind
which
The idea
55
of a Millen-
man.
differing in
life,
number
of great systems,
very profoundly
mind, and institutions, existing side by side in
peace and co-operation, and each contributing to the world an
individual best, irreducible to terms of the others,
this might
munal
will.
And what
and
suffering
about war
It
certain, to
is
must be permanent
my
to
man
is
which he can
war as an exceptional
by a
Neither
comes
apart from the general problem of evil in the world. While man
has a conscience, and things he values above life, and yet his
conscience is liable to err, the root of war exists. Issues may
arise
in its place.
BEENARD BOSANQUET.
56
Within the
state
analogy
which
itself,
cited
is
a universal reign of
for
the convincing
as
law, both
war and
civil
and
as with
I
any other, to do
do not doubt that its
may
states,
this will
The analysis
will
organised
belongs
of
to
opposed to introspection.
demning.
Secondly
(p. 321).
It really is
by calling
an embodiment
of the
life,
has offered.
Thirdly To treat the individual, the state, and the world,
as concentric circles after Euler's method could only be the
:
device of an individualist.
qualitative
and in any
divest himself of
fact,
the former
Fourthly
and
so
by
relations
is
the
Both
of his
own.
In
fyva-et,,
their total
of
no more
poems
are historical.
They
start
from
facts,
but they
State absolutism
is a phrase coined
by the critics
nature
of
the
state
and
the
unique
community
to discredit the
it
57
represents.
The
power
They
rights.
Doubt whether an
make
it
necessarily implies,
Lastly
The
e.g.,
state is a partial
in
organisation
on the
its
operative agency.
The
critics'
them
They
Ultimately,
it
its
individual duty.
themselves
to
critics'
be
error
is
attacking.
just that
Having
58
III
By
THE
subject of this
A. N. WHITEHEAD.
paper
department
studies have been connected.
account of
am
But, I
anxious,
that
my own
if
I can
It is
an age
of organisation.
organised action.
elements so that their mutual relations
An
may
exhibit some
is to say, it is
predetermined quality.
tion,
that
multudinous sounds
memories
is
of words, associations
of diverse events
and
of words, pictorial
the
life, combined with a special narrative of great events
whole so disposed as to excite emotions which, as defined
:
poems
is
passionate.
The number
commensurate, or rather,
obvious
difficulty
of
is
the
inversely
task of
organisation.
Science
the epic
is
poem warns us
that science
is
of
59
is
For example,
theoretical
is
Now,
am
to
more
I cannot see
interesting.
understand than to
why
oneself
busy
it is
nobler to
ordering of one's actions. Both have their bad sides there are
evil ends directing actions, and there are ignoble curiosities of
;
the understanding.
If
commence
trade,
we wait
for the
necessities
of
we
and in war we
shall
have
action
shall
before
have
lost
we
our
Success in
man who
is
up
for
thought is
to which events occur.
Now, what
The
science ?
all
all
Of course,
men.
first
its
inductive character.
and
not at
this
is
English thinkers
is
The nature
Bacon, Herschel, J.
S. Mill,
60
A. N.
others.
am
WHITEHEAD.
process of induction.
product, and
it is
we understand
the product
we
When
it is necessary to emphasise.
a tendency, in analysing scientific processes, to assume
a given assemblage of concepts applying to nature, and to
There
is
imagine
that
selecting,
by means
discovery of laws of
the
nature consists in
of inductive logic,
of a definite
concept of fairly
for
example, the
and proceeded
to,
At
to be a process
concepts of
life,
as
thus conceived by
us.
of
is
continual comparison
criterion of success
is
is,
that
ideas
we should be
with
facts.
The
able to formulate
61
debate
till it
can determine
its
own
subject-matter
I suggest
science has a
that
task
is
experience of
life.
the sole
It is in this
field of activity.
is
the
that science
way
is its
disorderly character.
It
fundamental truth
the
is
first
starts.
step in wisdom,
To grasp
this
when
constructing
concealed by the influence
of language, moulded by science, which foists on us exact
concepts as though they represented the immediate deliverances
The result is that we imagine that we have
of experience.
This fact
a philosophy of science.
is
immediate experience
of a
without magnitude
by exact
points,
My
is
between
this
precise
connection
is
the
62
A. N.
WHITEHEAD.
am
But
contrary.
am
want
to
it
know how
it applies.
however
The
solution I
how
The
first
and
also
Their slow
the effect of
the
of definite
and
position,
which the
ideas, according to
of
analogous fundamental
The concept
chair.
the interrelated
of that chair is
experiences
who
who
sold
it,
who have
of the folk
seen
who made
it
or used
of the folk
it,
it,
of the
man
now
experiencing a comfortable sense of support, combined with our expectations of an analogous future, terminated
finally by a different set of experiences when the chair collapses
is
and becomes
that
it
believe
I
took
The formation of that type of conjob, and zoologists and geologists tell us
fire- wood.
many
tens of millions
can well
first place,
science is
of
years.
it.
rooted in
what
points.
In the
us, of
it
it
63
analogous experiences according to an entirely different conwho have directed their chief attention, namely,
ceptual code
to different relations
the task
main
outlines.
contradict
is
it
You may
in detail,
may
you
be revised in
gigantic, to
polish
up common
it.
surprise
But
sense,
its
you may
Yet ultimately
This
and
it.
do not see
is
a difficult question,
my way
insuperable difficulties
if
through
we
fundamental in our
yet fully determined.
made
in
part
lives.
It is a
definite
by
isolated
activities
of
of
is
only
thought.
Brazil.
It
may
is
the case.
The
One
of the points
which
am
64
A. N.
WHITEHEAD.
physics
them
ideal
which under assignable circumstances would be obtained, and this single concept of that set
that science
of perceptions is all
needs
some legend
of those great
My immediate
problem
Science
texture of science.
between
its
concepts
is
is
is
no king."
With
no
science."
The reason
logic,
most men
is,
The nexus
essentially logical.
we can
say,
greater confidence
its
"
King James
No
"
No
which
We may
and
temporally acted as an
emancipation. But the main fact, and we can find complaints*
of it at the very commencement of the modern movement, was
changed
its
authority,
this fact
the establishment of a reverential attitude towards any stateScholars became comment made by a classical author.
which hesitates
and
of
is
science
this hesitation
Another reason
mathematics
*
E.g., in 1551 by Italian schoolmen.
of Trent, under that date.
To
for distrust
Cf. Sarpi's
65
Your conclusions
In the
condemnation
known
of logic neglects
human knowledge.
all
it is
conclusions.
We
wrong.
much
But they
They are
We want
It
is
of traditional logic.
and
logic
to be both ambitiously
analogy which
is
I do
not
mean
first section,
certain
qualities
of
thought in
names
each
algebra in
are suggestive
section
which are
E
66
WHITEHEAD.
A. N.
reminiscent of analogous
mathematical analysis
The
first
and
in the
section
We
call it "p."
is
is
always
"
"
the direct contradictory to p
When we
call it
not-p."
We
"
is true,
may
living
"
namely,
philosophers has stated that this use of the word or
"
"p or q in the sense that either or both may be true makes
him
which
is
We
must brave
his wrath,
unintelligible to me.
We
"
not-q."
q,
uot-q,
There
and the
four disjunctive derivatives. Any pair of these eight propositions can be taken, and substituted for p and q in the foregoing
treatment.
obtained before.
propositions,
By
some
of
proceeding in this
set of propositions of
growing
q, r, s,
of these aggregates
alternative.
value
"
The
and
may
Whichever
it is,
Any
it
of the proposition.
first
is
what we know
when we know the
to settle
some
truth-values of
of them.
it, is
results
its
67
is
which
a detail
now
will not
consider.
Now, the
for
is that
they are
the
conditions
which
undetermined, unless, indeed,
algebraic
they satisfy implicitly determine them. Then they are some-
parameters.
An
blank form.
when
It
definite
numbers
of
is
tribute
importance
algebra
Consider now the following proposition
The
This
is
is
true.
specific heat of
is
the
name
of
The
This
is
study
of
form.
mercury
is
0'033.
specific heat of
;
It is
is
O033.
it
The
still
further,
specific
and say
heat of x
is y,
arguments x and
Now,
y,
and
is
so
on
for
There
any number
of
F(,
y), of
two
arguments.
consider /(#)
which f(x)
letter
not a proposition
expression.
We
The
letters.
us.
propositional function.
We
the
immediately concern
which
to
is
68
A.
WHITEHEAD.
N.
The
is
a proposition which
The
is,
heat of water
specific
is false
For example.
is
0'033
and
a proposition at
all
so
that
it
is
neither true nor false, though its component parts raise various
associations in our minds.
This range of values, for which /(#)
has sense,
called the
is
But there
true
type
of the
argument x.
x for which f(x)
is
This
proposition.
argument which
or, in
"
"
satisfy
is
the
f (x).
of those
class
This class
may
may
values of
is
the
have no members
arguments.
We thus conceive two general propositions respecting the
indefinite number of propositions which share in the same
logical form,
that
One
function.
is,
of these propositions
for
proper type
the other proposition
There
is
of the
same propositional
is
is,
is
true.
namely,
f(x) or
and
so
<f>
(x\f(x) or not-0
(x),
The theory
of the interconnection
prepositional functions
of
mathematical
69
logic.
by some
difficult,
if it
finally elucidated,
though Russell's
brilliant
The
even
safe hypothesis,
final
himself.
to Leibniz
and even to
are
De Morgan,
the
first
rank.
The
third logical
it
out for
Aristotle.
section
is
theory.
transition
theory of denotation.
There
is
the class, or
satisfy f(x).
members
satisfy another
is
indifferent
What
whose
It is
prepositional function <f>(%).
to indicate the class by a way
how
necessary to investigate
which
class
as
between the
satisfied
has to be done
various
by any member
is
of
propositional
it,
and of
it
namely, those propositions whose truthvalues depend on the class itself and not on the particular
tions about a class
class is indicated.
propositions
"
the present
King
of
exist,
and
70
"
A. N.
the present
Emperor
WHITEHEAD.
of Brazil,"
who
More
argument involve
classes.
Similarly
his
peculiarly
fundamental.
theory, because
logical
The fourth
The whole
of
is,
the properties
of
of classes
mathematics
is
of
special
and correlations of
included here.
logical
special sorts.
So the section
is
mathematics,
applied
quantity, time,
and
comprising
space,
is
the
theories
of
number,
elaborated.
even in brief outline, to explain how mathedeveloped from the concepts of class and correlation,
It is impossible,
matics
is
including many-cornered
in
the
third section.
correlations,
is fully
The
are of peculiar interest.
one-to-one
and
many-to-one,
first
correlations.
is,
The second
sort
members
of
member
The
is,
71
correlations
of
The
consideration.
fifth class
ratio relations,
tions,
A bare enumeration
is
of technical
it
may
names are
but used in
strictly defined
from
who
critics
consider
We
senses.
it
have suffered
much
our pro-
sufficient to criticise
is
all
that
is
wanted.
x
is
is
not a
member
of a,
x,
and
if
positional function,
of
and x
is
diverse from y,
72
WHITEHEAD.
A. N.
The
knows
The essence
of the
is
detailed
and
is
is, first,
that
in
is,
whole apparatus of
special a priori
and
depend on the
Propositions of certain
forms are
theoretical interest.
in fact exists.
include in
its
Here
am
it
must
forms of propositions.
develop that part
importance.
This hasty
of mathematics
summary
which in no sense
some
is
of
reflec-
for the
supposed
sterility of
logical science
can thus be
dis-
now named A,
E, 0.
So long as logicians
was
and
I,
73
its precise
two very
is
thought.
is
is
In
my
worm
inductive
function.
There
is
and
a tradition
of deduction.
it
sary for
We
This body
The
logic.
of induction
view,
to
between adherents
is
mercury, and
propositional function
Either x
is
is
to
prepositional
of observed fact,
heat
its specific
is
O033.
formed,
not mercury, or
cannot get at an
its specific
heat
is
0'033.
But
it is
is
its
consequences are
out of place.
when he
In the same
over it.
way, a British sailor knows
"What, then, is the use of an elaborate chemical analysis of seawater ? There is the general answer, that you cannot know too
the salt sea
much
of
special
sails
is
74
WHITEHEAD.
A. N.
One
method
is
not in the
the formation
Geometry,
main concepts
What
magnitude.
of
science.
Consider
Euclid
space
the
of
for example.
tells
see, or
may
Yet
unpleasantly
this is a rare
the conception of
something suggestive
is
It arises
bodies.
"
of a point.
of space properties
between points.
feel,
Certainly points
may
relation
be part of another.
"
relation
between bodies
We
is
are tempted to
We
"
accordingly ask whether any other definition of spatial
"
whole and part can be given. I think that it can be done in
We
argument.
if
I be mistaken, it is unessential to
my general
body
is
body are among the perceptions which compose the whole body.
Thus two bodies a and b are both classes of perceptions and b
;
is
part of
which
is
a when the
a.
It
class
which
is b is
Again,
it
itself.
This
With
is
is
mere question
of
75
Finally,
tions.
itself.
We
definition.
the
ideal
class of perceptions
classes
if
and
part of
These
is part of
the definition.
body
which
is
is
point
the class
contain
language,
of
that
The advantage
is
For
Geometry is the
mutual relations.
but
Another example of
essential.
have dissolved the
chemists
and
this
way physicists
simple idea of an extended body, say of a chair, which a child
understands, into a bewildering notion of a complex dance of
molecules and atoms and electrons and waves of light. They
simplicity of mutual relations
law
is
is
the
conceived
is
logical relations.
world of
properties of the apparent space of the common-sense
It is not necessarily the best mode of conceiving
experience.
and
its
reciprocal.
I will
now break
76
phenomena.
have
endeavoured to exhibit
it as the
organising principle, analysing
the derivation of the concepts from the immediate phenomena,
examining the structure of the general propositions which are
the assumed laws of nature, establishing their relations to each
other
in
respect
to
reciprocal
implications,
deducing
the
It gives
it
or what
assumes, or
how
own
assumptions,
which
sort of conclusions
and
tions,
laws.
sorts of
assump-
in
this
relevant logic
is,
applied mathematics.
creative impulse to
hands
of
youth
lias
77
IV.
MIRACLES.
By
D. BROAD.
1.
of his
its
C.
works
notoriety
is
what
it
and
read
to
it
who
are
not
making a
It has
philosophy.
work, and to
fall
and
is,
to the non-philosophic
fairly as possible
Hume's theory
as clearly
and truth
and
(c) to see
stories is closely
may
It
connected with his theory of causation.
"We believe a great many things on
be put as follows.
tell
we
We
We
to
the fact.
many
cases,
We
find
and
it is
it
fact
for
(X)
such conbecause
we
78
C.
have found
if
story
BROAD.
D.
this to be so that
we
make
Hume
of
is
testimony
causal laws.
wants us
same kind
exactly the
I believe that
mistakes.
as our
in
belief
by
B.
by
me.
to
We may
compare the
accepted with
3.
we
ought
amount
evidence for
of
portionally
in one case
expect
it
amount
the
to
and
always be followed by B.
and
of
to
decrease
evidence
against
If
it.
in
to be followed
by B in the next
But
case.
if
this
we ought
other.
In the
first place,
the witnesses
may
conflict
with each
much
it
to
cause
did.
because
we know
by the agreement
of the witnesses
in sayiug that
when honest
something has
79
If I know that
unlikely to have happened.
events of the kind which the witnesses report have often
itself likely or
quite contrary to
is
But,
what has
mind,
flicting states of
(a) I
know
that
at variance with
a tendency to
know
that what
is
reported by a
what they
Hence
report.
number
is
so far
(b) I
of honest witnesses is
have so
far a tendency to
These two tendencies, both founded
justifiable,
belief will
weaker than if I
be a compromise between the two.
attended solely to the agreement of the witnesses, and it will
It will be
be stronger than
which they
5.
is
if
report.
now suppose
Let us
to believe
Hume
gression of a
is
reported
What ought we
:
It is a trans-
E.g., it
Deity or by the interposition of some invisible agent.
would be extraordinary if we were to find a lion in the Great
Court at Trinity, or an intelligent and honest man in the Anti-
But such
German Union.
because
of
it
known laws
of nature.
events
if
member
of the
Ponsonby into a
pillar of salt
80
C.
never been
known
to
fail.
is
D.
BKOAD.
So
Hume
of a
says
Any
event that
is
it is
is
Now
what
is
incompatible
the ground of an absolutely uniform experience.
cannot say that
Let us consider the evidence for it.
with
viz.
it,
We
we have
And
this is not
as
this.
to
the
trustworthiness of
Hume
as strongly as he can,
that, however
good the
He now
testimony may
for
a
miracle
never
show
that
the
on
to
testimony
really
goes
is the best possible.
(1) The witnesses to any alleged miracle
have never been at once so well educated as to ensure that
be,
we ought not
to believe them.
81
make
as
to
the
common, and
it
And
own
a religious
the
for
all
alleged
any other
religion
myself
(I
New
(3) It is rather
single line.)
are almost
ominous
ostentatiously frequent
in
consists of a
(4) Lastly
Hume
Any two
religious miracles.
religious systems,
e.g.,
Christianity
other.
Any
and thus
Similarly any
evidence for a Christian miracle tends to discredit the evidence
for
Mahometan
miracles.
alleged to occur in a
number
Thus the
fact
82
D.
C.
BROAD.
religion.
"
is
R2
is false
and
R2
made
"
Then the
1}
assertion,
implies that KI
is
true
in
Similarly
the
do
assertion
The
combined proposition implies its own contradictory and therefore mvM be false, and therefore one of the separate assertions
must be false, and both may be. This argument, however, as we
have seen, needs the premise that miracles only occur in
connexion with true religion. Now this might very well be
and
false,
it
is
in
Thus
by people who
the
religious
early Christians
of
the
miracles
but
ascribed
them to
accepted
Pagan religions,
believe
miracles.
devils.
no human testimony,
make us believe a miracle, and that
the actual testimony that we are offered for alleged historical
miracles is not even the strongest kind of human testimony.
Two distinct
7. I pass to a consideration of these views.
Hume's
questions arise
conclusions?
particularly
(a)
to
Is
Hume
right
in
his
arguments and
views,
worthy seem
made
We
since
century.
But the
careful
investigations
of
what
83
mere conjuring tricks, saw, and what they thought they saw,
have shown that we must allow far more for honest selfdeception than could possibly have been imagined in Hume's
time.
And perhaps we may mention the celebrated story of
the
beginning
Kussians
80,000
of
the
war
in
which renders
witnesses, as a case
it
at
the
a cloud of
practically impossible
of direct
we
this
is
observed unless
The evidence
other illusory.
the
X, based on indirect
for
actually happened
best explanation of the fact that
latter
be
true.
commonplace
On
the
event, whilst
may
if
the
Y may be quite a
a very extraordinary one.
other hand,
is
wonderful,
religious
enthusiasm,
etc.,
for
which tend
X.
It
also
to
cast
seems to
through Y, as against
strengthen the indirect testimony for
the direct testimony for X, because the intrinsic probability
of
will be much greater than that of X.
But, in the
2.
84
C.
does not do
it
long run,
D.
BROAD.
The testimony
so.
to
only
in so far as the occurrence of
is the hypothesis
supports
that best explains the occurrence of Y.
But the credibility
of an hypothesis depends not merely on its ability to explain
admitted facts, but also on its intrinsic probability. Thus the
intrinsic
improbability of
establish
establish
it
relevant
as
is
to attempts
to
a miraculous event
of
story
be rendered
may
much more
appears to
me
to say that
The
to be very feeble.
we have
It
would be absurd,
surely,
80,000 Russians.
But the
indirect evidence
We
much
and
that,
after a certain
and they believed that they had evidence that their Master had
risen from the dead. Now none of these alleged facts is in the
odd or improbable, and we have therefore little ground
not accepting them on the testimony offered us. But having
least
for
we
done
this,
facts
What
their
feeling
of depression, that
and in
dead
And
is
spite of
from the
we may
is
me
is
far
Such strength as
* These
points are excellently brought out in Samuel Butler's Fair
Haven.
has springs
No
(a)
85
(b)
other explanation
the least probable that can be put forward and (b) that, in
the present case, the failure of alternative explanations does not
;
just
leaves
the
miraculous
it
explanation standing alone
with an indefinite number of other explanations which
leave
it
our lack of
all detailed
of the events
knowledge
immediately
We
with the
existence
of
fact that
explanation.*
With
these remarks
we may
leave
it
and
all
common
Resurrection the
equally simple explanation of the stories about the
true explanation may even have been hit upon by some sceptical biblical
and others as too absurdly
critic, and yet have been rejected by himself
;
facts.
86
C.
circumstance.
the
Witch
If
Samuel was
Endor, and
of
BROAD.
D.
if
from
raised
Lazarus was
the
raised
dead
by
from the
the
dead.
It
seems as
when once
Hume
if
man
would have
the
first
occasion,
because
it
dies
he
remains
to say that,
it
if
any-
was a miracle
contradicted all
previous
but that,
if it
miracle, because he
of
I suppose that
nature
is
nature at
(a) It
all.
as
is,
we
This
(b)
tradictions in
is
less
in
which
case
the
rest
of
Hume's
Hume's
(c) If
If
seriously
we
get
into
miracle.
87
of nature because of
then exceptions have been observed, and finally these propositions have ceased to be regarded as laws of nature.
But the
reported exception was, to anyone who had not himself
observed it, in precisely the same position as a story of a
first
miracle,
if
Hume
be right.
Those, then, to
have rejected
to
the
first
exception makes
whom
the
first
and gone on
it,
the report of
no difference to their belief in the
if
Yet,
same when a
not followed by
persons that they have observed
to have the least effect on my belief in the law.
It
might
ought
ought to believe
seems to think I ought to act I should have
for
no motive
My only motive for investigating
doing either.
if
I acted as
Hume
mony
is
no reason
for
me
them
of the law.
my
Yet,
belief in
explanation or investigation.
is
if
the testi-
If scientists
88
C.
Hume
were
the
right,
could
BROAD.
who could
people
who
I).
them
explain
that
see
and the
these
people
explain
exist.
Perhaps
It
it
will be
contended that
may
am
my
Hume
here.
belief in a law,
even
unfair to
is
some
extent.
quence
of
Hume's theory
me
of belief
to
reduce
it
If
from
belief to
But what
and probability.
doubt or disbelief
my
it
belief in
will
never
Hume's reply
is
that this
is
is
reported to me.
My own
human testimony
is
experience
my know-
my own
experience in favour of the law and my own experience of the general characteristics of human testimony be, as
Hume
Hume's theory
and more
rigid one.
If,
my
sure
how can
testimony
the word
I lay
amount
establish a miracle in
Hume's sense
of
of
Hume
10.
down
is sufficient to
89
many
is
mainly a matter
a dead
man
never
rises again.
of
men
There
view that
of the
The
is this.
is
an enormous amount
all
men
position, therefore,
testimony in favour
There is a
once dead remain dead.
of
men
Let us suppose,
We might
fact in two ways.
not an absolutely general law of nature that
Or we might say (b) It is a
once dead remain dead.
(a) It is
men
What
men
but, in a
few
cases, this
we examined
all
90
C.
D.
BROAD.
our general law and say All men, except those who have the
This law
quality q, remain dead when they are once dead.
would have no exceptions. And the resurrection of the persons
:
It
of this
kind
is
It
even
able),
is
if
always possible (and nearly always reasonthe alleged exceptional cases be admitted,
they have some common and peculiar characthough this may be too minute or obscure for us to
to hold that
teristic,
detect.
12.
The other
The amount
that
it
general.
If I
my
belief in
to
assume that
no laws
we should
still
call
it,
the law
is
true independently
it may be suspended
minds in the same
or
other
matter
by something acting upon
on
our bodies and on
act
minds
to
seem
direct way as our
themselves.
The notion
We
of a miracle belongs
it.
What seems
definition of
91
clear is:
(a)
an event
is
"
common and
(c)
peculiar
The epithet
"
mirac-
it
fairly say
but, at the
sufficient evidence
belief
Hume
and causation.
no logical
ground
for
has
told
He
induction.
us that he
cannot see
can find
why
it
actually do
how
it
Hume
make
this transition,
comes about.
Now,
and
to explain psychologically
how
about matters of
fact,
and
call
some
of
them
justifiable
and
others unjustifiable.
by B.
92
C.
D.
BROAD.
is
Hume's
disbelief is
due to
to believe
what
is
But
his religion.
Hume
and Hume's
in miracles
in
disbelief
belief in natural
stand on
miracles)
Hence the
enthusiast's belief
precisely
the same
logical
footing.
for
it.
We
we
is
The
first
the second
is
fact.
matter of
fact, there
is
some kind
of
of
nature, so
a law connecting
On
we cannot
Hume,
93
like
everyone
else,
knew
it.
that beliefs
to offer
belief that
any
your
cannot pretend
will
a wise
man
much
oftener
wrong than
will be followed
right.
by
So
with a
followed by
matters of
fact,
It is true that
for his
he cannot give
belief that
satis-
will always be
we cannot
see
why any
of
to
the
false
ones.
Indeed,
we can
belief,
that
all
ones.
Such a position
is,
belief in
We
it
may
be.
94
But we have no
man
to accept
95
V.
By
C. E.
M. JOAD.
I.
MONISM seems
Under the
influence of
"
New
Kealists," the
"
lost interest
lost interest," I
which the
am
referring
controversy then
its
forms.
of
The
lines
of attack
which occur
to one as
having most
and the
new
realists.
The character
of
the
96
former
to
my
is
it
When
course,
familiar,
mind more
attention
M. JOAD.
E.
C.
deserves.
I said that
mean
to
monism had
imply that
its
influence
is
It
On
not extensive.
may
still
be
Universities.
is
presented
has
flowed
into
far
as
and
as
Chelsea.
Thames
the
'
is
a warning
Carlyle introduced
it,
note
bringing
now are
reaches known
voices
silent,
guided
its
Such was the weight of authority William James set himThe monistic doctrine as he conceived it was
self to challenge.
grounded on a combination
call
of four
main presuppositions.
are cardinal
IN PHILOSOPHY.
97
the Absolute and the points of vantage from which its ascent
They are (1) That things cannot
appears least difficult.
:
interact
is
if
impossible
separate
;,
That knowledge
(2)
and that
an influence.
by
therefore,
and
act,
are
says Lotze,
two
is
objects, A's
interaction with
B.
If,
So that
if
and
change in
to begin with.
exercised by
supposition that
than
This fitness
C.
hits
is
interpreted as
C, involves the
to receive
some kind
them
of kinship
produce a change in B
implies a response on B's part which can be interpreted as
sensitiveness to the influences of A.
Instead, therefore, of B
with
isolated
and the
and
kinship to
different
and sensitiveness
exhibiting
to its influences in
advance,
Original connection
thus inferred.
knowledge
am
sentence,
"The
If the cat
and the
fish are
98
M. JOAD.
E.
C.
regress as
is
before.
the space of pure otherness between them and come at the fish.
If each being is isolated to begin with, each is shut up
entirely in its
own
isolation
and
unable to pass
is
beyond
it
fish,
and
this
is
intimacy
due
mind.
(3)
The view
that Truth
is
This involves a
coherent.
of truth is constituted
by
its
coherence
The
belief that
seems to
me
to rest
upon
that a thing
thought
This position
is
as to whether
eiSr)
be intelligible must
we speak
of the
eiBrj
of in
both terms)
(a) It is
be concrete.
as concrete or abstract
The
to
scientific
is
They
are mathematical
forth,
which are
felt to
be not
IN PHILOSOPHY.
(&)
To be
99
intelligible
it
blueness.
A
It
piece of music
is
is
concrete,
and
it is
a self-sufficient whole.
Yet even
it is
they have lost significance
completed whole
can
whether
thus
isolated
be
considered
doubtful, indeed,
they
in the
the
same notes at
all,
so
that
it
is
consciousness
is
self-sufficient
concrete
unity
admitting of diversity, and though apparently possessing parts
in the same irritating way as the piece of music, it must be
Similarly,
for
our
basis,
we soon
dispose
of
knowledge)
then to drag in an alien matter, but
it
cannot,
we
are told,
G 2
100
C.
M, .JOAIX
how mind
even be conceived
conkt come to
exist.
assumed
must be
to be,
even
intelligible,
if it
did
an assump-
tion
moment pretend
upon many
hope
to go further into
some
them
of
in a
moment, but
and
I think
that the above beliefs, the belief that there can be no interaction and no knowledge
theory of truth,
and the
among
the Eeal
belief that
is
mental,
may
structure
is
based.
branch.
lectualism as such.
rationalisation
he
is,
belief that
"a
says,
is
cannot
things
is
called on to
mend
it
in ours."*
to
the
are
as mutually exclusive
clinging
their associations
is
a criticism of intel-
loyal
and
sense- data
broken state
and
mctchina
is
root
There
experience.
Eationalist
and
He
position
first
its
Finally,
place.
intolerable,
since this
mend
it
in his
of
101
Its alleged
(^Monists first
break up experience by means of concepts, and then introduce
the Absolute, to put it together again.
For the superior
psychological
falsifying
analysis.
W. James
of our experience 3
tions of
He
temperamental.
and
its
fact,
arguments.*
much
It is plain that
likes its
severity on individuality,
of intellectualist logic
is,
in
so great that
with his
own
He
its
really gets
down
lie
when
"
in
he realises the importance
The result of
this controversy between monism and pluralism.
no
such
as relations
can
be
entities
there
that
supposing
of
the question of
relations
between things is, Mr. Eussell tells us,f " either that there can
only be one thing in the Universe, or, if there are many
things, that they cannot possibly interact in
would be a
interaction
Now
relation,
William James
and
anxious
is
them should be
The
established.
in Radical Empiricism
central
"
the
doctrine
of
relations
just as
more
his
Essays
much matters
so
nor
less
so
is
that,
than
the
things
themselves."}
Problems of Philosophy,
See also
p. 148.
The
102
C.
M. JOAD.
E.
"
in
possesses
own
its
that
is
a concatenated
right
or
continuous
structure."
This question I
now propose
to consider.
II.
is
it
Such a statement
of knowledge would become impossible.
would imply that we could perceive a thing entirely by itself,
that is without distinguishing it from its surroundings, for in so
doing we should be perceiving the relations which separate it
from them. But I cannot perceive the picture in my room,
which
I
it
is
is
If I perceive
different
is
of the picture.
perceived.
It is a fact, however,
IN PHILOSOPHY.
103
we can
it
is
thing's relations
Now
this is precisely
theory maintains.
Whole
or Absolute,
upon which
logic
If
we
it is
accept,
Judgment,
as
"
based.
for
instance,
all
is
such that
it
determines and
and
its parts,
component
considering them
purposes,
is
separately, as
we
from their
up into its
relations, and
We
process.
104
that
it
what
is
only
upon the
it is
M. JOAD.
E.
C.
Thus
same book as
it is
this
book
upon
its relations
however
time
every
slightly,
German
shot
is
the
in
trenches.
The main
reasoning
"
the phrase nature
"
says,
seems
criticism
his detection of
is
"
of."
"
(i.e.
about the
'
the nature
thing.'
"
to
of view turns," he
of the
mean
thing,'
'
is,
which
the truths
all
which
connects one thing with another could not subsist if the other
thing did not subsist. But a truth about a thing is not part of
the thing itself, although it must according to the above usage
'
'
me
to confuse
two
is
and because
of its
to
It may be agreed
has a place in the Universe,
relations to other things, but also because
what
that a thing
distinct propositions.
is,
because
it
To assert this latter statement involves a second and quite distinct proposition. Thus
the table is what it is because it has a place in Keality an
incorrect
way
is
not assumed,
and
its
it is
be what
may
The
given.
connections with
it
is.
But Reality
it,
is
what
Reality.
the
But when we
because of
its
connections
its
connections.
it is
it
is
is
Similarly
it
it is
will smell.
IN PHILOSOPHY.
105
because
the effect that the ultimate Real, being one and indivisible, all
analysis by means of which we arrive at a world composed of
things and relations
away from
leads us
embodies a
is
Admitting that
Mr. Russell insists that
although created by
this
Eeality.
real truth,
its parts, is
It
is
its
that a whole,
true
more than
argument
application
their arithmetical
a whole, as
By
meaning, value,
call it
what you
will, quite
independently of
it
is
composed.
and not a
falsified.
whole
If a
is
really
a whole
unit,
clearly has parts which it cannot be a
fiction to distinguish from one another.
The fact that analysis
of
it
a whole into
that
it
its
mean
also destroys the parts, or that the parts are not really
its parts,
or
that,
component
process.
Just as
in
the
former
instance,
is
what
it
in the
is,
having
because of its
application too
its
far,
its relations,
pushed
by going on to confuse the thing with
so in
106
C.
M. JOAD.
E.
There does, therefore, seem to be some case for the existence of objects independently of other objects, and of parts
independently of wholes.
supposes
the further
is
its influence,
much
in discovering
one term
our
of a
distinct
Hume
went
relation could be
perceptions
are
perceived by
distinct
itself.
existences,
any
"
All
among
destroy
relations
107
and
if it is maintained that a
perception of such relations is
not necessary to the perception of the thing, one of the reasons
it is
connections, which
we think
of as existing
the work of the mind, which arranges and groups them together
according to certain laws (those laws being, by the way,
unexplained, and a rather tough proposition for the English
empiricists
answer
to
The
form
realist
of a simple question.
why
of the relation
"
If
is
to the right
of,"
between them
This
is
to
the
modern
psychological,
His theory
comes
to
mind
us
in
the purposes of
life
or self-interest.
But
if
and relations
reality
is
for
really
108
E.
C.
why do we
objects
M. JOA1).
carve out of
it
I see a chair, it
must
and
its relations.
may
are given.
and
elaborates
defines, the
them
is
evolved,
it
we
drift
away from
who
nourish a fluttering
This
is
we think
is
the further
Reality.
it
if
a doctrine
misleading
who
so.
the cry,
"
is
it,"
109
is
monists, holding the views they do, can avoid the conclusion
that the more care and thought they bestow upon their
doctrine, the
more
becomes, as an account
Other systems indeed become false
too, but in proportion as the philosophy of the Absolute has
laid claim to more complex and profound thought than any
false it progressively
of
its
in
rivals,
advanced here be
just
that proportion,
justified, it
if
the considerations
of them.
are not independent of the terms they relate, but are modifica-
of
them.
participation
in the Absolute, in
And
(6)
that
relations
This
is
though independent of
relata
are
mental, either because they are divine ideas, put into our mind
by God, as Berkeley thought, or because they are created by our
own mind to bring into connection our atomistically distinct
sensations, as
Hume
If it be true
and the
knowing
mind, it seems to follow that they must have some kind of being
of their own, and forms a valid existence as part of Reality.
110
C.
E.
M. JO AD.
III.
among
has
The existence
philosophers.
of
external
The following
paused to consider its possible nature.
Mr. Eussell's theory, which is described as briefly as possible.
Mr. Russell
and concepts.
is
is
two
used in
immutable and
"
exist
"
Of
self -identical.
"
that in order to
significant,
the
make
term must
itself
be;
for
Mr. Waterlow
as
of
"
"
Edinburgh
the relation
our knowledge of
it.
'
is
exist.
to the north
to the north
it."
The
Something
of,'
fact
else is
Ill
IN PHILOSOPHY.
something additional.
relation
"
fresh
it
its
it
a doctrine which, as
is
the essential
monism.
The following
selves.
(1)
The
against
for
all
first
error.
mean, the
difficulty of accounting
mind can
is
objection
forms of realism
it.
its
function
If,
is
to
apprehend
facts
if the mind does not even put in connections disconnected sense data, for these connections are already given,
in Eeality,
mind
is
to
of
error
for
itself.
We may
evade this
difficulty
by
apprehension
became more
external relations
any
is
complete.
essentially
own
support.
theory
of
in its
But the
112
C.
The
(2)
infinite
E.
M. JOAD.
of
regress
every time two objects are brought into relation, and mentioned
above as one of Lotze's proofs of monism, must be admitted as
a necessary implication, some would say a defect, of the theory.
and B, this statement
If the relation E holds between
implies that
relation
C to R, and R a certain
C and D involve other relations,
Thus we populate the world with hosts
The
to B.
relations
and so on perpetually.
of existential
is
proposition
entities
made.
The
as
it
at first
may
existence of an infinite
sight seem,
is
really
minute the
first
The most
(3)
the nature
distinction
of the
being
of
relations.
To begin
by
with, the
some merely a
distinction
of words.
The
distinction
to
so
is
we
are really
asserting anything in
there
instance,
"
concept
being,
is
existence
"
has
being.
If
existence
really
has
relation.
is
is,
what
is
meant by
113
"
"
would
of
say
between them
relation
"
and indicate
being,
all,
in virtue of
common
the
which we
call
them
all
on."
Platonic
eZSo?
transcendent
it
rise
confront us.
to
If so,
any
/uyu/T/o-t?
Is
the
etSo? of
"
on
"
or of participation
"
on-ness
"
Is there
Professors
And so
elSos, such as that of goodness ?
other difficulties with which the writings of
Stewart and Jackson have made us familiar.
Mr. Eussell
of a
more orthodox
on to
all
the
is
view altogether.
Trans-
have landed
us.
"
"
the cat
is
on the
table,"
and
"
the cat
"
"
"
on
at the same time, so it is the same
drinking milk
which both relates the cat and the wall, and the egg and the
is
table.
This
is
not
sufficient,
however, to quiet
all
our perplexities
on
"
If
we
"
on
"
is
114
in
C.
M. JOAD.
E.
study
Thus
independent of them.
this sense, it is
relations,
quantitative
In
is
possible to
independently
quite
the
of
The proposition
Yet
it
"
"
011
is not affected by the terms it
although the meaning of
relates, it has no meaning whatsoever, except with reference
We
separate
calls a
is
only
"
study of them.
in Eeality,
terms
it
mean
for
"
It
it
is
"
is
already given
relates.
that
in fact, the
of the
of there
is,
presupposition
being such a relation.
But the
Here the problem must, at present, be left.
of
the
of
relations
unsatisfactoriness attending the nature
being
its reality.
rapidly than
is
spatial, and, as perception, at least,
spatial relations,
we tend
relata.
to fancy that
One
or
115
"
When we
answer
is in
the negative.
is
we must
think,
the cat
assent.
reject, as in
any
negative answer
and
This dissatisfaction
alternative.
William James
felt
with
is
many temperamental
He
it
of
"
the im-
speaks
strongly.
peccable and complacent perfection of the Absolute," and
"
"
complains of the stuffiness of the whole doctrine, whimsically
likened to the atmosphere of a seaside boarding house. To
something of the same feeling I must confess; yet I think
that what I
may
into
comment.
of
the Absolute
a purely
perfect, complete, and indeterminate being, such that determina-
or
tion
characterisation
perfection,
from
it
how
partial
we
of
How,
would
is
infringe
its
evolution or development
ledge.
kind
any
the possibility
can be conceived.
difference
of
if
is
It will
fallacious, that it is
be said
due
to
apprehension, and disappears with increasing knowGranting this, it may still be asked, how came it that
How
can perfect,
H 2
116
condition of
know
it
nature,
is
all
when
its
to the fore,
fulness or
it is
of things
is
We
"
"
ultimately
one.
But the
The distinction
word "ultimately" gives the game away.
"
"
"
"
and
one
is
are
not,
indeed, clear, but if
ultimately
"
"
means
it
word
the
ultimately
anything,
implies a contrast, to
between
which
seems to
me
to
To put
it
briefly,
assum-
The
not
ir
VI.
F. C. BARTLETT.
attributed
to
attempt
development
"
value
main
itself."
First, I
propose
and
to enquire
how
far, at
assumption of existence is
involved. In the second place, taking the three most commonly
recognised forms of the developed judgment of value, I shall
any
regarded
as
existing.
if
In
at
all,
the
third
instances
all
place,
is
itself to
I
of
shall
discuss
valuation,
is
be treated as an
existent.
I.
The form
of valuation
is
This, however,
has already attained considerable complexity. It has a long
history behind it, may arise under very varied conditions, and
be directed upon the most diverse objects. It defies immediate
simplification, and, so long as our attention is confined solely
to this
to
become involved
in a
maze
of value,
we
of delicate distinctions
between
presuppositions, assumptions,
many
or to involve.
118
F.
C.
BARTLETT.
able to trace the changes that the act undergoes in the course
advance to the familiar developed forms.
of its
is
same time
of cognising, is at the
all
seem,
as I think
of
impressions."*
is
"
it
must
an original
presented,
relatively
be,
we
situation
ready to receive,
arises,
it
is
which
it
may
he admitted,
an individual
When
or
If it
an object
the individual
is
is
Such readiness
feeling,
arises
which
an
attitude, of
contentment or
satisfaction.
In the
other
objects
and
situations
to
"
or
we may
select
is
valuation.
If
we
care,
paniment
it is this
of
Meinong,
between
pleasure
example, distinguishes very definitely
are
Lust
and
Unlust
never
to
pain and true worth-feeling.f
for
which
is
* Assimilation and
Apperception, Mind, N.S., vol. 2, pp. 347-62.
t See, e.g., Uber Urteilsgefiihle, was sie sind und was sie nicht sind,
Arch.f.
qes.
PsychoL, vol.
6,
pp. 22-58.
They
"
to that
who
indeed,
are,
"
which
is
regarded as giving
rise to
Thus Urban,
them.
"
towards an object
in
feeling,"
There
called
properly
feelings,"
nature, a
which
states
119
the
is
feeling towards
be a sheer
an object."
fiction.
identify feeling
merely
feeling,
Feeling
analysis.
of
its constituents.
or
"
may
perhaps be one of
attitude
"
may certainly
feeling,
if
the term
is
upon an
stituting
attitude
"
we
"
for
object.
feeling."
It
unless there
towards an object.
something psychical is meant.
By
"
direction
The term
is
"
of direction
clear that
it is
intended to
Meinong considers
to
Voraussetzuwj has no reference whatever to anything in the nature of the object, but only to the
process in experience by which the object is related to the
attribution of value.
individual.
or assumption
is
case.
its
When,
120
F.
we have
therefore,
C.
BARTLETT.
some sense
and
is
an attitude
is
of
such direction.
the ready
is
lias its
satisfaction arises.
G-oethe, for example, in the Farbenlehre,
comments on the
Here, he says,
is
"
is
this colour.
The fondness
remarked everywhere."
of
savage
men
for
it
and
it
rejoice in
has been
is
here
When
the orange
is
is
"
meant by " ready reception occurs, and the attitude of contentment may supervene. If that is so the bright orange may
receive entirely different treatment from, say, the dark blue.
The
case involves no
more assumption
judgment
of
in the one
or
judgment of existence,
the other involve an assumption or
non-existence.
as a fact, be
second.
"
:
If
we should be
"What
is it
that
is
first
able to
valued
"
?
"
is
not.
that
And
all
it is,
is
"
ready to respond
"
or
valuation grows.
it,
attitude of contentment
Great
none the
difficulties,
experience in
are, as a
is
matter of
fact,
mere presentation
less
"
feeling
"mere presentation
If
which what
"
]21
"
indicates an
good ground for holding that such a case ever occurs. But if
"
mere presentation " is to be used of an experience in which
the
distinction
itself, is
experience
the instance
not
occurs,
made by
then
the attitude
of
satisfaction
is
"
of
is
made
many
apprehended, and
the
which
in
There
in experience.
apprehension whatsoever
the
is
no
something
instances
which
in
apprehension
itself,
that
which
and the
is
feeling
of
fact,
call
may
be taken as a
mark
of the
value experience.
But, just because differences are in fact present from the
beginning, distinctions come to be made in the course of
"
agreeable," or,
I like this."
is
appre-
122
F.
BARTLETT.
C.
it
that
to say, it is both.
is
orange, and
"
it
"
something
neither
is
It
Keally
it
is
neither
is
clearly
marked
off
Of
some-
this
that
it is
"
There
assumed.
ever
different
It is agreeable."
At
"
The
preferential treatment."
able
is
why we
As
"
"
something
should
before there
which
is
is
agree-
in its apprehension,
and
class of experiences
last characteristic
it
is
it
that
The
the additional
out
These characteristics
readiness of apprehension, a
tendency to continue, if possible, a certain form of experience,
and constant recurrence are the chief marks of positive valualife.
found
fusion,
is
requires as a pre-condition
ever,
on the part
Neither,
any judgment
of the individual,
or existence of an object.
There
is
Edmund
Gosse
which
He
tells
12o
when my
its
not
changed
fail.'
fold
old as doth a
them
Here was a
at the
time no possibility
man
"
and
often remembered.
of
wax
But the
confused me."*
all
The
the
aesthetic emotion.
something"
to be real
We, no
assertion or
itself contains, at
this stage,
/
'
no
valued.f
But obviously the jjage contains within itself the possibility of further advance. The "something" which here begins
to be separated out
of
contentment
* Father and
Son, ch. iv.
t At the same time I would not for a moment agree with the state"
66) that
psychologically the it of the
Because we are unable to give
impersonal judgment
any definite specification to the "something" we have no good reason
to deny that it possesses for us any specification whatever.
ment
of
Urban
'
(op.
cit.,
is
'
p.
contentless."
124
BARTLETT.
C.
F.
itself
the thing seen, or the apprehension and the meaning apprehended. The individual has yet to learn how the sound, the
thing, the meaning,
t/wse
value
may
may
"It
agreeable," to
is
how
to
be definitely attributed.
make
"This
i&
an important psychological
is
We
first step.
learn to
make a
distinction
We
now
where
all
the
clearly differentiate
is
the relation.
held,
Isolating either the
object or the relation held, we definitely characterise this as
It is extremely interesting to
beautiful, useful, or good.
notice
of
that, together
value to an
tend to
object,
make
their appearance,
Of
now becomes
paniment
of
When we
act of valuing.
we make
much of
an experience
is
adequate
most
mere
feeling accom-
us
then, feeling
all
that
conditions.
is
is
no longer enough
to give
other necessary
at length clearly
a
be
to
hold
that
true
may
pre-condition of
some judgment, or assumption, with regard to the
discriminated,
valuing
accompaniment
reality or existence of
an
object.
That
is
to
determine.
125
The determination
value-judgment
and
of the ultimate
forms
the discussion
of
many
well be
developed
nature raise
it is
their
earliest to develop.
seem justified
of the
Certainly
we
an independent intellectual
aesthetic,
and
And
in
any case
its
asserted or
which
is
The
aesthetic, the
case,
economic,
whether anything
to the existence of
that
aesthetic
primitive
judgment
forms that
we speak
is
we have
so
far
considered.
Not
in-
frequently
emotion, rather than of aesthetic judgment. In the experience
of beauty we in no way dwell upon the opposition between that
126
0.
F.
BARTLETT.
is
we may have
"
Old as creation."
for a
many
a necessary presupposition
as
And
(esthetic value.
that
be
that
in particular
it
to
judged
emancipated from
To Schopenhauer
all
no
of beauty,
while
the
life of
it
characterises judgment.
It is given to us
by
An
How
intellectual charm."
should a
poem
be judged to exist
But
it
may
be
So
a cloud of smoke.
In no case
is it
exist,
yet
* Kritik der
Urtheilskraft, 2, 6.
t Die Welt als Wille und Vorstellung,
Bk.
is
tr.
beautiful.
iii.
Absolutely
ff.
vol. 1,
is
that
"
127
This
is
beautiful,"
The
difficulty, it
truth preserved,
universe
"
if
may
we
only that
this."
demanded
is
And
certain universe."
"
term
real
"
instead of
assumed
reality is
beautiful,
recognising this,
if,
"
reply
is aesthetically
we
no help.
exist," it is
to be possessed
we can but
that which
"
aesthetic reality."
valued
is aesthetically real,
Also
it
does not
requires
gloss.
unreal arises,
That which we
we
perceive
imaginary."
as
treat
in
real,
to
opposition
the
to be
"
merely
beautiful.
assumed
raised
"
"
by that something which is judged
not assumed in response to any question.
which we ascribe beauty is in no sense
to be possessed
to be beautiful, is
And
is
the thing to
unreal.
"
.
aesthetically real
and
"
"
"
being real,
This sense
real,"
reality
is
however,
is
concerned,
is
no
more
128
F.
which belongs
then
I find it
that
"
so
C.
BARTLETT.
to
and so
is real,"
condition, but,
"
say
is
This
if it is
is real
because
beautiful because
its
customary
It
beautiful
it is
"
as
it
to say
is
it is real."
"
"
This
because
"
significance.
really say is
"This
is
he says,
"
is
of this nature
ist deise
"
'
'
einfach
Gegenstandlichkeit
oder Objectivitat, das einfache und unbestrittene Gegebensein
fraglose
But even
if
existence
of
that
with which I
latter
it
were admitted
to
upon which
am
it
is
here concerned.
may
be beautiful.
Nor,
processes in any
made by
so far
way
it
as
is
realised, that
he judges to
f.
d. ges.
cannot occur,
PsychoL,
4, p.
489.
129
aesthetic
judgment
itself
asserts or assumes.
The
chief
term, of
"
reality
is,
in fact, not
"
reality,"
"
in the
significance
but
"
phrase
aesthetic
aesthetic."
No mere
The determinants
of
may
for
which
all
Upon
first
"
beauty
is
Perhaps, then,
a gift of the spirit
aesthetic to the
thoughts
may appear
And
so it
may
be objects that in
to
of being
easily
apprehended through
seem that when we
when we
is
attribute
were challenged,
be
to
considered as
existent.
is
* E. F.
Carritt, The Theory of Beauty,
p. 227.
130
to
F.
These
humour.
actualised in
BARTLETT.
C.
definite
have
all
certainly
some
be
to
expressed
or
what seems
another.
meet a
which
or
it
may
is
desire are
satisfy
not.
this
If
is
the
case then in
one way all attribution of economic value presupposes existence in a sense in which aesthetic valuation does not. But
it also
it
is
too
much
to assert that
itself
be assumed
to exist.
We
we have
objects
acts, the
On
the holding of
relations. The more clearly these two classes are discriminated
the more definitely we come to use different terms in the
valuing of any
arise
member
of either class.
we
in consequence of
we have
and we adopt
choose, as
beautiful or useful,
as aesthetic or economic.
Of
acts,
of relations
we
131
act as performed
phrase
what
"
more accurately
is
descriptive of
is
When we
is
of behaviour.
But
it is
not this
may
an
call
act.
Again, it is not the fact that there is an act that is valued, but
the actual performance itself.
Of course it happens often
enough that the act valued has not been performed, neverthein the valuation, it is contemplated as though it were
less,
performed.*
limitation
But
still of
admitted.
We may
of
is
No
"
is not by itself
an adequate
performed
It is at present
what can be morally valued.
that "All moral judgments are directed upon acts
characterisation of
sufficient to state
132
F.
C.
BARTLETT.
"
says,
still is
is ugly ?
Would it not
be well in any case to do what we could to produce it rather
than the other ? Certainly I cannot help thinking that it
would."*
it
mean
it is preferable
and when I say that it is
mean merely that it is more beautiful. Preferable
term that may be employed either in the moral or in the
that
preferable, I
is
To me,
aesthetic spheres.
act
of
in this instance,
;
or
if
it signifies
it
has an exclu-
anything
else, it
to the other is
preferable.
"
if
it
rational
to
apart
human
that
is
beings.
is
at
from
the
Existence."t
this that
Sidgwick
no one would
production of beauty in
external nature
aiming
aim
Human
it
a matter of actual
aimed
at,
is
it
Thus a consideration
shows that in
this respect, at
any
is
attributed
judgment
existence
to
133
the economic
and need
But
ditions,
the
reflective
"
value
valuation
assert simply
substan-
less
What do we
"
"
or,
This
is
characteristic to existence
"
more or
form again.
mean when we
itself exists,
for
If,
then
example,
should turn
it
value must,
all attribution of
all,
III.
It
is
different
by means
relations,
is
Sometimes value
is
to
some
of
to
other objects.
apprehend
an object to
Again,
moment
it
of
objectivity."
I shall consider first
by Professor
W. M. Urban.*
* " Value and
Existence," Journ. of
1916, pp. 449-465.
Aug. 17th,
134
F.
is
"
:
as
categories of
or relation
or quality,
object,
of intrinsic
which
matter of fact
judgment
(1) Value
BARTLETT.
C.
(2) the
to be, or
ought
ought to be so and so, on its own account, apprehends an
ultimate and irreducible aspect of objects (3) this value is itself
;
is
a form of objectivity in
The
positive arguments
which he adduces
in favour of his
what amounts
so
is
and
"
so,
that
on
same
to the
its
own
an
thing, is
worthy
to
be, or to be
account)."
to
be."
object ought
"
the sign of an objective."
its own account," the judgment gives us no knowledge of the
"
object A, for in many cases at least it is implied in the very
me
'
It gives
The value-judgment
which worthiness
is
attributed.
"
that the
is worthy."
This, itself an objective, presupposes no
"
that the object should exist in its
other objective, such as
own right." In proof of this it is pointed out that value may
object
"
not yet
not only be attributed to objects of which it is
known whether they will exist or not," but may be ascribed to
"
objects
not."
of
which
it
is
not
of a object to a subject,
that value
is
exist or
not a relation
of the object.
He
135
"
therefore, that
concludes,
objective."
it
is
am
"
value
a unique relation of
and
to
I
do not feel much the
to
non-being,"
something
being
a
more
elaborate way of saying
wiser.
Surely this is only
"
value is value."
If I
difficulty.
told that
is
main point of Urban's argument that the valuejudgment gives us no knowledge of that to which value is
ascribed.
For I can say "A ought to be" when A is not
It is a
known
"
all.
known whether
But
enough.
If I
it is
all
no knowledge that
The
that the
judgment gives me
possible or not."
that
it
means
is
exists, or is achieved.
What
I cannot
experience
it,
in question, I
some
If
sense.
And
in fact,
gives
me
me
it
am
everything about,
are.
seems to
but
is
precisely
is
not known,
perceive
it,
or
I must know it in
we knew nothing that we did not know
we should be even more ignorant than we
when I significantly assert " A has value," I
some sense I know A, and that the judgment
information concerning A.
assert that
no objective
and what
am
is
That, of course,
involved.
The form
is
not to
is
judgmental,
"
that
has value." But I
given to know is
can see no reason whatever for asserting this objective to be
identical with a supposed "value itself."
I
to me to be certainly
the thing that is valued, and not
an objective. When I judge " This is worthy," what I am really
valuing is not, as seems to have been suggested, the fact that
At
the
It
is
Bather
is it
136
F.
BARTLETT.
C.
itself,
of value to a thing.
this are "
it
than
that
so," or
"
The phrases
X ought
is
is
worthy
to be
on
its
In
to be."
is no real imperative signifido not go to something which already is, and say
We
cance.
to
simply and
It still
"
am
this."
directly valuing
this
and that I
"
"
Be
"
And
in fact
"
"
oughtness
is
worthiness."
Now
we
obscure manner,
identify worthiness
and being.
If the
sense at
say that
it is
assert that
other than
it is
specific quality
as
it
quality.
And
and
thing's worthiness
may
it
We
very well
that worthiness
unworthy
is
to
is to
others.
way proves
constitutes
being worthy.
All this in no
is
it is,
is.
among
also
all)
come
is
be,
may be
without
in fact a specific
we
upon a
goodness, or
Worthiness may,
Urban,
op.
cit.,
p. 459,
beauty or
value.
In another
Uber die so-genannten Werturteile, Logos, 1911, vol. i, p. 71.
article, Journ. of Phil., Psychol., etc., Dec. 7, 1916, Urban repeats the
argument practically word for word.
137
is
valueless,
remarks
"
:
Existence becomes a
which existence
non-existence
is
is
becomes a
it is
of value."
Leaving aside the sheer assumption that what value necessarily presupposes must be a value, and the difficulty of understanding how existence can be a criterion of reality, it seems
to me that the value that Urban has in mind here cannot be
called
economic.
ence
"
"
would be
better."
That, to me,
And
or unachieved."
is
its
means that
to say, are
"
"
non-exist-
certain acts,
better unperformed,
The value-judgment
that a thing
is
is
It is
"
reality, different
to
"
value
from any
is
in itself a characterisation of
of the values,
and yet
as specific as
can take.
Worthiness, or
*
"
138
this, or that, or
if
present
must be
no good ground
It
might also
one to another.
Moreover,
it
may
still
beauty, say, requires all this, yet the value may not be complete
unless the qualities and relations enter also into relations with
us
who
Thus
judge.
tendency, plays
justified in
1
may
its
it
part,
assuming that
be value in any of
its
is
that fulfilment
and
of interest,
or of
forms.
Whether
"
Finally
value
itself,"
or mere
but
beauty
may
may have
the
Anything
an individual.
properties,
the
we may judge
latter as con-
that
is
beautiful,
and yet
enter
into
properties
the
this whole complex
relations with
thing,
it is
meant by
And
relation,
its
and
all
we cannot judge
the necessary
to exist,
though
to be real.
is
anything of necessity, in
to existence.
139
VII.
By M. GINSBERG.
IN this paper I propose, firstly, to state the views held by
Malebranche regarding the nature of knowledge secondly, to
;
its
its
and
criticise
it is
based.
I.
Malebranche
matter in
all its
adopts
Descartes' conception
sharpness.
The essence
of
of
mind and
matter
is
in
is
exten-
thought.
it there
Will.
one
is
itself.
No
in protesting against
vain phantoms of
philosophers,
Schoolmen.
distinct
the
human
imagination, fictions of
the substantial forms of
on a par with
Indeed, the faculties of the
itself
of
the
the
* Ed.
II.
140
M. GINSBERG.
distinct
from
mind
as
we have
it is
essentially a substance
that affects
its
it,
essence, and,
of the body,
but that
something distinct
from the
soul.
is
is
aware
of all
is
of the
which thinks or
is
it
we should
is
it
not a
loves
reminds
thought Malebranche
this line of
Throughout
very much
one
faculties.
it is
we ought
is
is free.
will
or
the
capacity
is
of
capable of
inclinations.
receiving
receiving two
so,
too,
sorts of
the
mind
Malebranche
is
e.g.
pleasure,
sometimes anxious
when he
finds difficulty in
the problem of the freedom of the will, and then he urges that
matter is purely passive and has only the capacity of being
moved, whereas the will is at once active and passive. But,
despite this restriction,
it is
parallel
is
extension, so
tions.
He
is
all ideas
and
inclina-
141
to
know
is
what
standing
is
we know
ideas of perfection,
common
notions,
e.g.
extension and
its
properties.
know
Without entering
modes
as yet into
of
it is
mind
is
and makes
it
it
its
properties.
mind
is
Finally,
really left
its
percep-
it is
secondary in character,
we are unable to
of it is so obscure that
its
Infinite
own
it
mind
efficacy.
desire of
Being and to deprive both matter and finite minds of any genuine
whole
efficacy of their own, which underlies Malebranche's
before
metaphysic and above all his theory of knowledge. But,
142
M. GINSBERG.
it is
"
// est evident" he
accepted from the teaching of Descartes.
"
les
ne
sont
visibles
que
says,
corps
pas
par eux-memes, qu'ils
ne peuvent agir sur notre esprit ni se representer a lui. Cela
II,
become aware
he
"
says,
We
of objects through
themselves."
make
itself
known by
"
mind
the
its
On
object
how can
It is not probable
that
dans
The
"
1'esprit
ideas of
une existence
quand
which
il
am
tres re"elle."
There
e.g.,
The
that of a triangle.
still
remain.
I, 4.
Visibility
is
not a
mind
143
Ideas alone
to the
are, indeed,
ie.,
its
Such
idea.
own
the soul's
e.g.,
inclinations.
sensations, passions,
modes
soul, or rather
own
soul,
but as regards
it
it is
them and
other things
all
that there-
Two fundamental
mind.
assumed that
Firstly, it is
the soul is passive and that all knowledge must come to it from
without secondly, that whatever is known must act upon the
;
mind
or be immediately present to
it.
know
The
In this
existence of bodies, as we have seen, may be doubted.
connexion Malebranche, repeating what Descartes had already
urged, draws attention to the delusions of dreams, the deceptive
character of our senses, the possibility of there being false
principles
our
in
existence of
an
that
when we
that which
is
reasoning, the
evil spirit
own
who
deceives us.
existence, there
the immediate
is
which
is
apprehended,
which we think
of
it,
for
must
"
be,
le rien
144
M. GINSBERG.
must
be.
The immediate
You may
say that they are not substances, Malebranche urges, but still
they are spiritual things ("C'esttouj ours une chose spirituelle")
necessary
only
Since
to enter.
efficacy of their
occasional
causes,
it
is
it
not
is
neither finite
"
Into the
own, and
Malebranche
them.
Here
but
let
God.
Man
language
things in
Himself
of
and
has laid
Say,
move them-
Justice,
of
all
He
God.
down
in
we can
see in
Him
the ideas
of
of
all
the theory of a
"
vision in God,"
dependence of the
le that thing.
finite
know
viction that, to
It is obvious that,
universal being,
"
upon
of the
in
some sense
it,
was composed
all
of
since
clearly
they cannot
contain
the
essences
or
145
In
the
and
Bclaircisaements
other
later
writings,
problem
much
the
them-
in the
then,
validity
the
of
the
eternal
truths,
knower
individual
the ground
is
Augustine asked,
of
and
of
the universal
of
their
independence
In
latter is
him
independent
which
as that
is
is
aware.
The
to be perceived.
It
is
eternal, necessary,,
its
source
to the
man cannot
truth and
Himself.
Truth,
the intelligible
light,
is
truths in God, in
being and
God',
is
whom
light.
and through
We
whom
The
finite
things have
Following Plotinus and the Neo-Platonists, St. Augustineconceived of the eternal truths as thoughts of the Divine
Mind.
146
M. GINSBERG.
God
himself
that
is
True
regulated.
them
reality lies in
alone.
participates in or
it
mundus
to
We
admittedly eternal,
mind there
of truth in a closely
= 4,
one's
an imitation
all
That 2 + 2
all.
is
intelligibilis.
are accepted
immutable, necessary.
mine
yet
minds
is
somehow
which
will
am
have
truths
contradicting
be other
The
mine.
universality,
admitted by
"animal
all
rationis
whom
is
united
all
is
God
of all
is
not
only wise but wisdom itself, says Theodore/f not only does He
know but He is knowledge itself, not only is He illumined, but
the light itself which illumines both Himself and all intelligence.
It
is
in His
own
light that
and
eternal,
all see
are
common
to
all,
immutable,
1.
147
that theory as
and
it
it is
result of
combined
with
Neo-Platonic
Augustinian,
doctrine of a hypostatised truth which receives additional
religious colouring by being identified with the Word or
activity,
the
la
It
may
Metaphysique*
where he indicates
clearly
result of a combination
of St.
Augustine.
ideas as in the
mind
from
all eternity in
the
mind
the models
upon which
sustained-^
This
is
all
self-identical
and existing
that
is
created
is
formed and
* This
preface belongs to the edition of 1696, but
Simon's edition.
is
De
Deo, Caput
XXVIII.
148
M. GINSBERG.
he created
are
eternal
things
are
quoquomodo
The
est."f
Malebranche's thought
is
close
all
this
to
apparent.
differs in
Malebranche, however,
from
resemblance of
many important
respects
means
world
of the senses
is
not disputed.
and the
We
become aware
of it by
and accurate
called
is
merely opinion.
Malebranche's difference of opinion from St. Augustine with
regard to the sensible world is due to the distrust of the senses
With regard
branche argues.
Colours,
Male-
e.g.,
The
Ibid.,
t Ibid.,
XXIX.
XXX.
149
bodies
the
sensations
"
occasion of their presence serve as a " revelation
of great
for
the
of
but
are
false
life,
importance
preservation
they
we
which
we can know
the mind of God.
is
representative of
require an idea
their archetype in
of essences imperfectly
first
place
to
be
We
can form general ideas at all only ^because the idea of the
infinite which is inseparable from our minds can become
united with our particular ideas and thus enable us to give
In the second place, Malebranche
generality to them.
strenuously denies that either ideas or truths, which are
relations between ideas, are due to the arbitrary will of God.
In
this
respect
Malebranche
is
is
identified with
I,
LIX.
God
himself.
150
M. GINSBERG.
Malebranche argues,*
reason, which reason cannot
God
independent
in accordance with
any reason
which
Indeed, in a sense,
must be
it
is
infinite
with Him.
Since, however,
God cannot
consult
outside
Him
itself is
truth.
Were
Malebranche
is
strenuous in
intelligible
created
or
manner the
perfections that
is
through
He knows
is
it
He
has
He knows
of
it
existence.
their
Further, because our souls are intimately united with God, or,
as Malebranche sometimes puts it, because God is the place of
in
spirits just as space is the place of bodies, these perfections
immediate objects
The idea
presupposed in
it.
of
the
into being
things only
knowledge and
is
the general idea of the infinite, just as God does not derive His
being from creatures, the latter being nothing but imperfect
participations in the divine being.f
is
as
In fact
all
our knowledge
knowledge we have
of
God, just
or
* Ed. X.
t Rech. t Bk. Ill, Pt.
2.
God
bears
it is
true that 2 +
2=4
and
false that 2
+ =
2
5,
151
Truths
Thus,
there is
and
as
immutable
as
the
ideas
themselves,
it
which
is
law
equality
of
other
or
inequality in
perfection.
in
God
as those
of these
be asked
how
can be the
this
case, seeing
that all perfections are infinite in their nature, Malebranche
nobility.
replies
that
there
are
perfections as between
Hence
the
same
relations
finite things,
just as
we can
between
and that
all
infinite
infinities
Malebranche admits,*
difficult
to reconcile the
* Ed. X.
152
M. GINSBERG.
ideas of
God were
equal
He would
magnitude.
The conception
of
remains, however, so
far,
we must remember
that
sarily.
latter
is this
love, in fact,
less.
He
esteems and
God
is
just in essence,
He
contains in His
of
His
own
He
immutable order
is
If,
however, this be
so,
then the
'orce of a
us.
He
For
only in order that they should know and love Him, in order that
they should judge according to the immutable order, in order
that they should judge as He judges and love as He loves.
Finite minds are capable of willing or loving only because of
the irresistible movement towards the good which God impresses
upon them.
act
He
is
He
cannot
153
not tend.
fore
love
is
In this connexion
identical.
human
was the
of
virtue,
pendent
lex wterna,
of
universal,
and immutable
eternal
The
God
all
laws of
was, in
lex ceterna
inde-
validity,
and
will,
fact,
and in
truth.
divine
laws,
expressing the
basis in the
immutable
order of things.
With the conception of an immutable order, Malebranche
All beauty, at least
that beauty which is the object of the intellect (" esprit "),
plainly an imitation of the immutable order. He instances
is
In this whole
Malebranche
is
line
of
thought,
it
think,
clear
differs
is,
Ed.
Med., Ch. 4
154
M. GINSBERG.
qualities,
know
and consequently
in regard to the
in which
way
we
Augustine, the
latter are known directly by means of the senses, and, at the
same time, because the laws of truth are also the laws of
individual objects.
According to
St.
we
mind
the
it
"
meme
would appear
that, in
of
Toutes
les creatures
Dieu
les
involved,
God, and
disclose
The
communicated
is
to
it
us,
idea,
and, on
The former
to us
by
the other, a
is in
the
Him when He
mind
of
wills to
own
caused in
soul, also
us-
Throughout
of the idea of
important
role
no use
is
made
an
occur, as has
first of
later
extension.
replaced
them
all
by the
mind
idea
of
of
God, and
intelligible
this
any rate
is
fully developed in
made
the
manner
of
in inorganic things.
and as
we have seen
it is
to Malebranche's ideas.
Hence the
155
which corresponds
made, and
may
it
it
This idea
is
in so far as it
is
is
immutable,
God which
representative of bodies,
and
God
in so far as it is
of material objects.
extension, and
its
to bodies
modifications
relations of distance.
are modifications
of the
soul
soul.
which God
causes in
us in
common
ligible reality, as
we have
is
seen,
is
in God.
"
God
sees in
We
* Ed.
X; Expanse d Regis, Ch. 11
Reponse a Arnauld.
t Entr.
I.
to distinguish
Entretiens de la Metaphysique ;
M. GINSBERG.
156
the other.
considers
we arrive
at a
knowledge
of particular objects
by means
God
same time
figures
At
manner.
when viewed
sion
which
i.e.,
affects
us
as substances.
acts
or
upon our
ways.
effaced
from
it.
same
in
different
lies all
it
or lose
it
entirely
then
it
diversite
i.e.,
* Entr.
"
I.
157
make
all
plane.
When
when we
see
it,
it
it is
it
which enable us
to get a
extension modifies
my
soul
my pressure
only in the one case it is a pure idea and in the other it
touches or modifies the soul through some feeling, and then it
;
In other words, we
appears hard, coloured, perhaps painful.
are aware of a bodily object because, mistakenly, we attribute
to a piece of extension the feelings
which
it
causes in us at
In a somewhat similar
manner, Malebranche
In
explains the way in which we apprehend movements.
is of course no actual movement.
there
extension
intelligible
at the time.}
Indeed,
it is
immovable even
movement
of bodies in his
intelligibly.
own
substance or in
* Entr.
II.
I.
158
M. GINSBEKG.
But these
existence.
volitions
parts of intelligible
intelligible
same relation
his substance,
it,
Despite
however, Malebranche thinks he can explain in what
all this,
of
movement comes
about.
If
we
we
see
not movable,
yet any actual material body is, for the parts of a body need
in other
not always retain the same relations of distance
extension
is
renders
it
immobile
is itself
If
now an
is
it
yet
movement
intelligible figure,
taken successively
from
we
if
parts,
we
in other words,
it
will appear to us to be
we know
sensations which
God produces
in our souls,
and which
He
We
offer of
own, and of
G-od.
As regards
He
them
distinction
159
but whereas they thought that the soul was better known
than extension, Malebranche is of opinion that as regards the
nature of the soul we are utterly ignorant.
We know by a
sort of inner feeling that
To know a thing
are.
we
we do
but
are,
to
is
clearly
know what we
not
which
it is
it,
capable,
of
it
be round or square.
extensions eternally
of the soul.
but
new
truths
incessantly.
suffer,
and
does not
it
the nature of
my
me
thought,
my
will,
my
am
feelings,
or
what
my
is
pain,
nor what are the relations which subsist among these things."*
From the idea we have of extension, we can see that it can be
round, square, in motion, or at rest, but if we had never felt
pleasure and pain, e.g., we should never know whether the soul
we
capable of
memory
itself
or habit.
If
the
clear,
do so
if
it all
feel
they had a clear idea of the soul, and could deduce from
it
was capable
Though we
discover by
* Entr. Ill,
7.
160
M. GINSBERG.
argue directly from the idea of the soul, but have recourse to
the idea of extension, the modifications of which they know
clearly can consist in nothing but relations of space-extended-
so that
method
this circuitous
No
the soul.*
of elimination
if
the archetype and model of all created souls and minds, but
"
this idea or archetype God does not disclose to us, so that
nous
own
existence,
an inner
and trustworthi-
branche
is
all
we
other words
we
self is capable, in
"
I should not need a concert in order
objects external to us.
to know the sweetness of music, and though I had never tasted
it
* Ed.
feel,
excites in me."f
XL
t Entr. Ill,
7.
161
Firstly, it is argued,
if
we had
a clear idea
of
to
to
we knew
it,
we should be
be absorbed
should
We
own mental
in the brain
reasons,
of perception.
same time
it
At
the
theological
difficult
to
Further,
method
of
his
reference
to
the
Cartesians'
out, at
any rate as
far
ledge of our sensations if we take care to confine our judgments of them to that alone which is contained in our
It
is
we judge them
* Med. IX.
+ Cf. Entr. IV, 11.
J Cf Traite de V amour de Dieu.
.
Principles, Pt. I,
LXVI, LXVIII.
find
162
M. GINSBERG.
we
that
of
any conception
them, that
we
we conclude
extendedness,
The
clearness
to
is
pure extension.
soul,
i.e.,
argument in regard
we had a clear idea
The
it,
even
real
if
the
motive of
we had an idea of
mind of God, the
is
an
illusion,
finite
of
souls
and that
the Divine
or
Malebranche
this.*
know
is
clear that
God
for
us."
alone can
"
in themselves or directly,
Neither can we
Cf.
Med. IX.
we have
third method,
is
is
seen,
archetypes of all
viz.,
outside us.
that
we can know
minds similar
sometimes
to
my
occasioned
by
I guess or
own, because I
my
will
and
on
is,
God who
it is
is
carrying
this
me
in the
way
mien qui
tion
"
les
which leads
me
God
that
is
if
making
is
bodies
these
it is difficult
for relying
to
see
still
an
the possi-
occasion
or
mind.
If
my
to
believe
in the
we
it,
of
God,
it
In a sense
Met., p. 68.
is
difficult to get
all
our knowledge
is
164
M. GINSBERG.
a knowledge of God.
Indeed, it was largely the conviction
that God is or ought to be the end of all human love and
knowledge
is
is
it is
visible
it,
Malebrauche
reality
He
is,
by them.
In
in
Him, but no
beings, actual
or possible, can
in
insists
upon
is
that
God
is
of
an incomprehensible
He
is
in
reality,
representative of
is
God
Him.
165
or the
the infinite,
Him
is
of
Him
careful to
in Himself.
At
we
the
see
of Descartes.
later
on
all
is
of
particular things,
these ideas were absorbed in the idea of intelligible
extension, though
intelligible
it
it
God
is
still
moment
latter idea
and
to consider
how
intelligible
of things are
extension.
Leaving
at
all, it is
we have
contains within
We
become aware
of
certain
spatial
relations
when God
166
M. GINSBEKG.
of colour, etc.,
if all
meant by
is
this
potential
in the
mind
of God.
it,
so that
intelligibly,
if
movement cannot be
how figures can
to see
then,
He must
limit
intelligible
God
is
order to
intelligible extension, in
figure of
minds
If,
it is
difficult
to see a certain
extension, which
to
it
apply
our
itself
is-
must have an
and thus
it is
but
little.
The
branche,
figure
The
difficulties are
of particular
is
and
What happens
objects.
that
God
at the
applies to our
same time
of our
knowledge
Male-
here, according to
minds a certain
intelligible
complex
i.e.,
life
universal and
common
rep. 3.
concerned
being
167
how
it is
that
He knows them
because
all
But
it is
in
God, there
is
Malebranche
aware
is
but can
"
says,
offer
teaches
pain, and
me
my
me
men
as well as other
reason tells
me
that
is
"
of this difficulty
indeed compelled to
My
conscience," he
to suffer.
God
it,
There
is,
therefore, in
prima
How
facie they
ought to be
How
is
it
that certain
we have
What
seen,
then
168
M. GINSBERG.
determines
sensations and
calls
of
if
objects.
they are to
fashion, they
complexes
come
come
to us at
must be determined by
haphazard
and orderly
certain laws
due
to
the occasions,
certain objects
mind
must,
but our
i.e.,
God always
as well as in other
therefore,
be
must be
up certain sensations in
minds similar
objects
to
in
differing
my
own.
There
character
which
my
experience
a necessity which, as
is
He must know
The knowledge
of the particular is
or at any rate
is
God
is
concerned,
it
that
Malebranche
offers.
Arnauld's story of the sculptor applies
the sculptor was requested by a friend for a picture
or likeness of St. Augustine, he brought him a slab of marble
here.
and
When
told
St.
he wanted, forgetting
all
in order to dp this,
reference to the
it
individual knower.
How, he
asks, can
we
know how
and clothe
it
169
with
we
As
God
sensations, but
is
who
also
capable.
difficulty
or the Infinite
things, and
it
is
God
mind
and no
these ideas
Infinite
in regular
that which
is
effort
universal in character as
mind
or
we
they are
of
either the
a function which
gave
rise to
It
Platonic doctrine
of
a vision of
particular
is
is
all
so
often forced
far
things in
to reach a
God.
comprehensive theory
Our knowledge
of
the
* The
difficulty of accounting for our knowledge of the particular
was, to some extent, realised by Dom Lamy, quoted in Bouillier, p. 371.
170
M. GINSBERG.
exists at
God and
all.
ideas,
What
need,
therefore,
is
delusive character of
the
senses,
Malebranche
etc.
is
not,
my mind
without
against
my
my
contributing to their
will.
It must, therefore,
me any
corporeal
faculty
whereby
God
would be a deceiver
lead
me
for,
to the truth.
in
the
first
if
my
lies
power
in
God,
and,
in
the
for
second
the only
place,
the
reason have
But what
bodies really exist.
for saying positively that there exists outside
or intelligible
we
* Med. VI.
171
of us a material
we
true that
see
It
is
But do we not
us.
and nevertheless
we
see
all
is it
Our natural
inclination
is
not evidence.
Indeed, as
is
If bodies
is
therefore,
is
arbitrary,
that
There
God has
is
is
of
It would, I think, be a
apparently
is
Anne'ephil, 1893.
172
M. GINSBERG.
Malebranche's
own
Further, as
opinion,
saves
it
is
we
it
is,
in
Be
of Spinoza.
this as it
material world
the
may,
is
left
innumerable multitude of created beings which they acknowledge are not capable of producing any effect in nature and
be a very
We may
local or material
What
Immensity.
exceedingly
precisely
is
meant by
determine, but
difficult to
it is
"
that
places in
which
is
everywhere,
it
follows
all
the
body serve
us.
is
not in
the body nor the body in the soul, rather are they both alike
the divine substance.
They both derive their being by
The mind can think, the body is
participation in His being.
in
who
Principles, 58.
173
Him
in
Malebranche
is
incomprehensible,
upon this obscure
but
God
is
notion
is
to
the
divine
immensity as
time to eternity.
God is eternal, and, though times and
moments succeed one another in His eternity, He is all that
He
without
is
eternal,
future,
God
fills
all
sion.
is
is
local exten-
no past nor
much
not so
eternity
is
not so
much
is
in
divisions.
is.
Him,
He
is
just as
Malebranche
is
perilously
divine
seems
whom
reason and
When we
bodies
in
his
minds are
in the
of
the
immensity
of
God
in
its
as de
Mairan pointed
therefore a matter
offer
some
out, actually
of great
explanation
of
used by Spinoza.
importance for
the
way
in
It is
Malebranche to
which
the
divine
M. GINSBERG.
174
immensity
is
related,
on
the
calls
local, created,
or material extension.
Infinite intelligible extension is not to be identified with
the
divine
immensity.
The
latter
divine substance,
the
is
an
This
is
utterly
is
it
is
representative of bodies,
by them
extension
perfections
within
itself
indissoluble
unity
the attributes of
mind
unity which
contains
as well as of matter,
by a term
and
like
immensity.
Intelligible extension
in so far as
therefore,
it
is
is, as
we have
representative of bodies
God
of
which
it is
is
all
immensity
that in God,
of reality
and
created things
are
must
really contain
if
But,
participations.
God
then
so,
who
supports
The
intelligible extension
itself
finite soul,
is
divisible,
extension
may
thereby
extension exists in
in ideal fashion as it
have
it
that
it
Him
exists in
difficult to see
what
and indeed he
is
But
formally.
difference there
is
might
and he will not
it is
exceedingly
of God.
i.e.,
a modification
ideas which
of
God has
essence in so far as
it
is
it is
God
is
God
that
He is at
the
Arnauld
he
the
subject in
the
ninth
un
d'un philosophe
philosoplie chinois, and above all in the exceedingly interesting
Meditation,
the
Entretiens
clirdtien
avec
176
M. GINSBERG.
main
Spinoza's
he argues,
fault,
is
No
bodies.
extension,
doubt the
idea
from
far
that
No
its
extension,
is
intelligible
i.e.,
exists
it
of
is
by means
doubt, he urges,
true that
it is
what we can
assert of any-
thing whatever is involved in its idea since God can only have
created things in accordance with the ideas which He had of
them, and these ideas are, as we have seen, not different from
those which we possess.
But this principle applies only to the
properties
of things, not
to
their
existence.
Accordingly I
an
which
is
infinite spaces.
all
that
is
in
The
God
intelligible
my mind when
world
is
in
God and
is
I think of
is
God, for
It is not
that
He
He
wherever
absolutely.
We
is,
we
an identification of
is
is
is all
is
it
intelligible
God
intelligible extension
do not see the essence of God as
sion,
and although
really
not in
meant by modifications
or
modes
of
as
modes
but
it is
Modes
meaningless to speak,
of extension.
e.g.,
of extension are
of
of
it,
and,
when
is
legitimately say
within
is,
that there
it
is
it,
to see
is
real in
especially
it,
if
we remember
when we
whether
finite
distinguishes
participations
of
we cannot
infinite extension
is
made
is infinite
that what
we can
is
admittedly infinite,
down by
the Cartesians,
representative of
we cannot
it.
But
if
is
involved in
from an idea
M. GINSBERG.
178
it
tative of
it.
hard
how
to see
Malebranche
connexion
Spinoza
point
is
of
assumed
having
that
creation
but
it is
in
the
often accuses
is
impossible,
what he
calls
not uncreated.
since, if
it
satisfied,
Him
to
matter
is
in
and elsewhere.
If
Him
of matter within
Hence
Himself
it
if
He
He
could only
move
it
He Himself gave
upon Him or illumine
it
if
would be unknown
to
Him, and,
same kind.
Movement
* Ent.
IX,
3.
in truth
means
succes-
on the part
force.
moving
in the
him who
efficacy of
succes-
power, and
all activity,
We
efficacy of
matter
while
are
creation
of different powers,
effects
things,
God.
He would
for
no movement or change, or
it,
is
doctrine of creation
it
else
is
No
remains
to
him,
difficulty
in a pantheistic
arguments
have
the
that
matter
force
surely
position
only against
and at the same time something foreign
is uncreated,
or external to the Divine substance, in which case no doubt
God
could neither
is
render
it
possible for
God
As
in
the
end,
ignorance.
will of God,
The creation
all
take
to
compelled
and
know
either to
or to
move matter.
of this
refuge
world
difficulties are
is
in
an
asylum
is,
of
dismissed as illegitimate.
We
of extension within
corresponds
to
it.
cannot be explained.
Himself
How
We
He
180
M. GINSBERG.
God
other volitions of
immutable order
to
is
me
character
is
said
end compelled
in the
Divine
of
to be all the
are
to find
means
though theological in
will,
so,
ness of our
own
to prove
enough
existence.
that
awareness
is
exists
"
esprits,
C'est celui qui a fait les esprits qui les e'claire et qui
les agite.
les
Corps
mouvements.
nos volontes
Entin
c'est 1'auteur
seinel jussit,
semper paret."*
II,
en regie
Ch.
3.
Malebranche
NATUJRE OF
does, it is true,
make an attempt
which
but
will,
it is
to reconcile this
position
is
efficacy to the
is
God, of
whom
finite
patible with
The
ideas, according to
They are
of the
Divine Being.
spiritual things,
not substances.
the mind, and often they are conceived after the manner of
forces.
Thus, to take but a few examples, we are told in the
Recherche,
efficacious,
III, Pt.
since
un
II,
they
it
that "it
6,
act
happy
philosophe chinois,
is
upon the
it,
we
through the
Further, we have
it
is
the two orders of Truth and Justice, to which even the will of
existences
even products
of
the
divine thought, but upon which the divine mind and, within
certain limits, all finite minds are directed
with the unity
Malebranche
He
this
us that, since
God
divine reason,
and
tells
* Ed. X.
182
M. GINSBERG.
But
Being, but
theory
is
Malebranche's
system of Ideas.
thus,
difficulty of
truth a
in
is
have dealt with Malebranche's theory of knowledge mainly from the point of view of his own system, and
as it were, from the inside.
I wish now to examine its
So
far, I
was himself
so
vehement
in
who
his
is
bility of direct
perception, and in
of
insisting
a tertium quid, an
"
on that account
etre
representatif,"
mere chimeras
to be hypostatised abstractions
akin to the
though in
insists,
In bhe
i.e.,
it
involves an
second place
objectively,
But
itself
first place, it is
it is
act
or process of
the
relations do not
We
different existences.
idea in so far as
it
mind, and
known,
i.e.,
these two
object to the
in
in so far as
it
is
entitle us
to
speak of two
indicates
existence prior to all perception, and which must act upon the
mind in order to be perceived by it. In an act of knowledge
there
is
not a perception of
of something which
latter side of
tive presence
is
my mind
as
known.
Any
the relation involved in knowledge, the objecof an object to the mind, after the manner
or
of local presence
must be doomed
to failure.
my mind
sun,
e.g.,
is
is
to
be in
my mind
far as it is in
my
The idea
intelligibly.
it is
of
known by my mind,
it
is
the
in so
184
M. GINSBEKG.
But
i.e., as a content of an act of
knowledge.
absurd forthwith to interpret this notion of an intelligible
objectively,
it is
the
mere
first place, it is
In
is known by the
and since the soul is
to
it,
in
argument is
tions which are assumed
we
mind.
what
fulfilled
in the
case
of
mental
immaterial, or else
it
is
it
necessary to have
visual appre-
we do not
see
argues that the soul cannot leave the body and search the
skies for objects, or when he says that an idea is that which
is
united to
it.
of
the
of
Further,
it.
irrelevant, for
even
into immediate
if
immense journey
if it came as
in vain, since,
even
own
its
body,
it
No
intelligible sun.
only
olyective presence,
known.
it is
An
intelligible
sun
is
mind
the
in the understanding of
implies
an object
but
the
material
sun as
nothing
presence in
i.e.
it
"
as
secundum
esse
In
fact,
must be present
inferred, as it
a thing
it is
is
know
what was
nature.
This might be an
argument against attributing to bodies a capacity for knowTo know is, indeed, a perfection which bodies are too
ledge.
to
But to be knowable it is sufficient not to be
gross
possess.
an absolute nonentity. Only non-being is incapable of being
known. To be knowable is a property inseparable from all
that
is
it is
know
it
therefore
mere prejudice
to insist
ideas.
was assumed
that,
whatever was
intelligible
it
How
do we
of
is
know
186
M. GINSBERG.
it ?
upon
To argue
in this
manner
cannot be moved in
thing else to be
is
itself
moved
known.
instead of
must be some-
it.
its
He
capable of willing
different things by turning, in the direction it wishes, the
purely passive.
is
why
should
it
faculties of volition
and
which the
if it
any object
knows that
good.
it
power
pleases.
necessarily
towards
it is
it
is
why
thought and
why
extension
is
divisible,
187
Malebranche's aim
theory does not even accomplish its object
was to explain how the soul which is immaterial could know
;
by
we do not know
telling us that
material objects at
all,
ideas.
is
but
man
will,
a body
B.
A my
soul
which
God, who having placed the soul amidst a world of bodies must
have desired that it should be capable of knowing them, to give
the soul the faculty or power of knowing objects directly,
instead of having recourse to these mysterious representative
beings which can easily be proved to be hypostatised abstractions
indeed, to
main points
have found
of Arnauld's criticism.
He
seems,
Thus
5,
he
188
M. GINSBERG.
enumerated by him,
he had
of
knowing
all
The
soul,
It is
perception.
it sees in bodies.
insisted, does
that the
viz.,
On
mean
that
it
has their
it.
the
Most
by the former.
Arnauld
the
ignored
difference
or
contrast
original
concept
of
tained,
an
object.
between
idea
the
it
is
the
or
main-
assured,
of
trace
the
the
senses,
It was, above
object, the object that is of the exact sciences.
most
assured
all, the science of optics which furnished the
sight before
properties
of
relations alone.
we can
objects,
An
*
properties which
object
is for
consist
in
the real
spatial
Erkenntnissproblem,
I, p.
581.
and thus
comes
an object is
itself, which, under certain
physiological conditions, comes to be clothed with certain
extension,
it
to be seen
that
subjective qualities.
It is in other
primary
qualities
Arnauld's mistake
fully
by
Pillori.*
lies,
is
he
even
if ideas are
proved not to be a tertium quid
the
between
object and the mind, yet it is only
standing
since
first place,
it
Indeed, as it is well
plete theory of knowledge of his own.
known, the polemic about ideas had its origin in a purely
theological discussion about the "Traite de la nature et de la
"
que je ne pouvais
la
a
de
commencer
lui
montrer qu'il a
par
que
de
ce defier de certaines speculaplus de sujet qu'il ne pense
tions, afin de le disposer par cette experience sensible a
grace."
mieux
says Arnauld,
faire
sifecle,"
Annee
phil.,
190
M. GINSBERG.
criticism
own
it
out at
all, is
from the
illustration
which he uses
in
no
this
connexion.
is
less
existence of
its
mysterious
process
of
of the real.
objectification
Bather
before
we can
obtain
know
objects directly or to
by sensation
alone.
There
is
The having
objects
objects immediately
object.
But
An
sun
is
nothing
but the material sun according as it is in the understanding
of him who knows it, secundum esse quod hdbet in cognoscente.
The advance
of
intelligible
of the sciences
may
is
no reason to
There
was
is,
inconsistent.
jective,
He
whereas a rigorous
development
the
of
argument
character.
It should,
However
in the Dioptric.
this
may
why
to,
and
of the
Arnauld
is
no
extension
bipartita
to
combat
this
view as
De
vcritate ceterna,
de sapientia
et
justitia ceterna,
a work which
is
understanding
of
of considerable
Arnauld's
abandoning, as he says,
*
St.
philosophical
Augustine for
(Euvres,
and
du bon sens*
Tome XL.
St.
position.
Here
Thomas, Arnauld
192
M. GINSBERG.
is
involved
by the
"
New
He
Philosophy."
"
in
"
better than B.
it
is
puts
the
On
our
of
non vero
If
"
in
"
is
now, as
misleading,
of
knowledge
objective,
e.g.,
we
as
he
said
to
B,
are
word
we must know
hand, we may mean that
in this case
other
the
cause
efficient
causaliter
it,
and
in otyecto cognito,
tamquam
we ought
rather to say
"
by means
of."
is clear,
things in God
in objecto cognito, then our knowledge of God ought to be clearer
than our knowledge of anything else, and whenever we see a
truth
we ought
to be
To
this
none
of
"pensees imperceptibles."
of
to speak of
The essence
of
thought
an unconscious thought
is
or of
con-
is
sciousness,
less.
and
mind
what
is
is
is
"causaliter,"
Him
can see
all truths,
but
He
God has
had endowed
it
mind
to
eternal,
is
But their
a law and a justice which are binding upon all.
universality and eternity does not entitle us to hypostatise
them, in other words, they must not be regarded as "etres
"
subsistants."
we may mean
that
it
When we
say a thing
In the
two things.
is
first
place
all places
we may mean
and throughout
all
this sense
every universal
is
semper.
ulique
+3 =
ubiqne
semper, and from this it does not follow that it is
The same thought is developed in another place
in God."
There are, he says, two kinds of
with regard to eternity.
is
et
eternity.
is
applicable to a being
who
bub God
is
On
"
on
signifient les
en
ge'ne'ral,
etc.,
le
cercle
impropre."
insisted
fact,
may
be universal.
same
is
or
to
It is
objection
is
as belonging
ticular
If,
however,
it is
is
not
particular.
them
when
realise
that
regarded as having a
transcendental existence, they are open to the charge which
Aristotle brought against Plato's Ideas of affording no explawords,
if
the
essences
or
ideas
are
world of particulars.
195
VIII.
By
I
PURPOSE here
to deal
C.
LLOYD MOKGAN.
I leave
objective aspect.
is
and truths which are distinctively characenjoyment as such; not because I regard them as
important, but because those of contemplation nonmental in Mr. Alexander's sense of this term are, I believe,
less
This
relatedness which I
of
shall consider
content of mind, and the sphere of the knowable, as extramental, and have, as I believe, their primary home in the
latter sphere.
In
attitude of the
man
On
this
brief, I
of science
Without prejudice
may
ance
with facts of appearance, using the word " appearfor that with which we are, at any given time and place,
start
"
or they
when we
testimony
is,
of
Such
may
others.
facts
may
be
be second-hand,
This reliance on
of course, rather a
content, here, to
own
will
They
2
196
C.
LLOYD MORGAN.
"
take the form that a cloud
is
"
swinging/''
referring to
is
what appears
at
and
pendulum
place.
some
The facts referred to always comEelations are included in what here at the
prise relations.
and throughout,
outset,
some change
to
we
sense,
start in
daily life
and in
science,
we
we
call
of appearance
is
emphasise
doubt facts
understand
No
are directly
relational structure,
which
is
of the
and that
it
is
this
it.
immersed
bridge, are convergent, or that yonder stick partially
look
that
those
distant
mountains
or
in water appears bent,
blue
so
long as
appearance, I
am
my
statements have
reference to
facts
of
down
inform
me
that, as a
convergent but
straight stick
matter of
fact,
We
197
Some
be in a dilemma.
to
word
or
immersed in
water.
of
of
presumably
and what, in this sense, are really
we
facts
some rather
in
If
say that
looks bent,
it
found on
trial
The locus
not to tally.
now
it
It
is,
let
appears to be bent,
and now
it
looks straight.
We
and yet
Is
it,
as
shall at
once reply that it is, in fact, a straight stick, and only looks
bent from certain points of view, under certain conditions of
The bent stick, as fact of appearance, is
partial immersion.
somehow taken as a sign that " in fact " the stick is not bent.
The dilemma of the bent stick is, of course, only an example,
chosen
because
experience, of
we
seldom troubles
us.
come
of
with which we
realising that
we
198
C.
may
LLOYD MORGAN.
call
familiar
in its relational
thing,
looks
it
it
looks.
It is
of the business of
not
all
who
We
no valid distinction
is
of appearance
stands,
one
word
But
agree.
it
facts of
we may
little
It
relations of
Taking this as
it
between
facts
for
and, as
fact of
we
knowledge
it looks,
of
say, is round.
that
are, let
From
it is.
Here the
oval,
while
it
still
is
round.
round
the
penny
is
is
what
round.
We
Among
199
there
is
we
is
concall
we must,
knowledge
of fact
Now,
penny
affair,
at
only two, selected facts of appearance are, for human perception, in approximately perfect accord with the facts of know-
Why
of perfect accord ?
not frankly
say that these selected facts of appearance are the facts of
knowledge ? I see no valid reason why we should not do so.
ledge.
None
is
the
less,
is
suggested,
it
on similar terms,
But a further
distinction is needed.
which are
we
we
It is
may, therefore,
commonly
seem pretty
psychological point of
show
is
domain
the
of
it
mode
may
Yet there
be urged that
of genesis of
knowledge.
to say
and that
them
if
view.
may
is
clear that
This
said
and in science
only by selection.
in
Description in
It
is
If the
is
another point of
what
knowledge
this purports to
is
a fact
200
LLOYD MORGAN.
C.
We
know by
coming
psychological process, however direct or
There seems here to be
however devious, that it is round.
some little interplay between knowledge of fact and fact of
to
knowledge.
by
the domain of
which belongs
We
to the penny.
And
knowable penny.
till
something
knowable
independently
actually
known
of
any
does not
moonshine as knowable.
real
is
else
say,
moonshine.
knower
make any
and
(3)
that
being
whom
it
may
interest.
may
is
not exist
knowable,
As knowable,
"
in itself
"
must leave
this
in
is
some
to those
moonshine
but there
any
The
also
is
out
much
reflected
The answer
moonshine as something
to the
knowable
fact.
It
201
Permit
are
me now
two
spheres
reality, the sphere
as
of
but
parts
distinguishable
and
knowledge
the
There
parts
sphere
of
of
the
On
knowable.
my
figure,
"
in contact with
spheres.
is,
the
of
my
figure.
Since,
then, radii of
and accordant on
the
same right
line.
We
are
however,
is
the
knowable
there, at
facts.
For
only one
of
these,
of sensory experience,
knowledge.
many
fact,
not only as
by acquaintance.
however, not
radii, include,
202
LLOYD MORGAN.
C.
appearance which
that it is round.
is
And
may
which
is
which
is
of knowledge
knowable
the
to
fact.
How,
irom the
fact
knowledge as correspondent
then,
its
fact for
to the fact of
much rolling
May we
knowledge
knowledge
of the spheres,
not put
it
thus
that to get
is
That seems
And
to indicate
the correlation of
for
surface from the oval points of view no less than from that
which gives the accordant and correspondent round.
Yes,
assuredly.
points
non-central.
within
the
sphere
them
A few
because
words of
resume'.
we had
to
start
We
The
as
fact of
203
itself relational
that
on
followed
We
depends
We
relations.
the
sought to trace
inter-factual
of
presence
them
All
in structure.
home.
to their original
privileged
status,
accordant
with
of
may merge
fact
privileged
"
"
of
knowledge as
without
appearance
We
in identity.
then
"
knowable
context.
and
fact
The
non-contact radius of
on a
fact
imagined
non-contact
radius
of
the
sphere
of
is
knowledge,
and amount
fact of
relation
establish
right-line contact.
And
when
known are one.
us
Let
now follow up my figure of the two spheres
further.
Suppose that, on some autumn evening, the
acquaintance
there factually
field
on yonder
it
really
is,
little
distant
or than
it
knowledge.
knowable as
it is ?
is in fact,
as
Clearly not.
The
with the
field as
knowledge
If
we
"
under
204
C.
LLOYD MORGAN.
fact of
sense in which
does
When
If it
knowledge.
is this.
just
what
is
selves take
rank as
aim
Following as far as we
seems therefore that our
facts of knowledge.
common
speech,
it
to get
or, if
is
In
for.
to,
or
In a sense,
I take
it,
we
are.
We
are
it
up against
is
facts,
for,
and when
?
shall
secondary
205
As a matter
qualities.
of pious
am
which I
by some that
here concerned)
And
if it
relations," so be
All this
it.
is,
"
its
be said
internal
It
seems
we
Yet
if,
now
in the other, it
is,
way
is
moment
somewhat ambiguous. What
both way sat the same
field
is
"
though
I
mean
green
is
the same
is
that,
if
moment"
is
the fact of
other.
I
have done
my
best, in
what has
But truths,
of
206
LLOYD MORGAN.
C.
all
the while.
feel sure,
Every particular
fact
any such
When we
field.
"
substitute
coin,
"
No
regard this as
an
This
is
always a
"
this
"
or
relational structure,
"
that
it is
"
Itself of
and more
the limitations
the
knowable
human
of
enormous amount
perception.
But
to
owing
the
of
world
repetition
both in
and
time
still
place
repetition
Hereditary dispositions
provide in
some way
so differently interpreted
for progressive
development
among us
of
knowledge-
structure correspondent
to
knowable sphere.
There is structural connexion
known
when
certain things
happen
to
it.
is
observable
In any particular
case, the
207
knowable.
By an
mean
instance, I here
rotates
last
its
axis
Where
orbit.
We
And
we should say
yet
that there
There
is
is,
for a
for us,
Maxwell's demon
Now,
in
the
present
an
illustrative
example
my
a
purpose
familiar
of the
way
in
sufficiently well.
one.
Uranus
showed
influence
of Jupiter
208
C.
LLOYD MOEGAN.
From
suffice to account.
these,
Adams and
Leverrier, inde-
But, so
far,
there was
Leverrier communicated
contact.
his
no factual right-line
results
to
Galle
at
nomical knowledge.
Now,
meshwork
of
astro-
been established.
On
the
following night
changed
its
it
this spot
had
Hence, in the
knowledge.
And,
as further facts
came
in, it
when
but
One
moon.
course of the
;
field of
the telescope.
Now
209
onwards.
vision, proceeding
moon
so long as the
Here there
is
is visible.
And
sufficient
knowledge
so
of knowledge
if
one had
from
to the facts
in the heavens,
and
and
on the surface
test
what
us, or
we
of the sphere of
has, so far,
find
it
the sphere of
day
of incubation.
We
to
We
is
true in so far as
what
is
is
Of.
Radical Empiricism,
p. 13.
210
C.
Whether
we
take,
embryological truth,
passage, or leap
if
"
we
you
LLOYD MORGAN
example, astronomical
as
truth,
or
will,
We
any."
"
organised."
We
and these
right-line contact as connected by relational threads
relational threads are the guiding lines for the rolling of the
;
spheres.
any
may
be said to be true.
whether
it
it is
interpret.
it is
"
"
"
same
we
between
William James
conceptual parts
of
"
Truth
our experience
to
is
a relation
....
sensational
p. 161.
of
parts. "f
211
Theoretic truth thus dwells within the mind, being the accord
some of its processes and objects with other processes and
of
objects."*
we should
I suppose
way
to reality,
part of reality.
itself
reality
to
Now James
that
"it
is
of the
man
of science
have reference
"
says of
owes
course,
In other words,
all
and, of
its
h'fty
human
us."l
Are we,
then, to
last half-
may
be a
dawned upon
transcript has
which there
is
must be abandoned
Not
so do I read
it.
appeal
to
facts
experimental
to
Is
continuous
expression
it
curve
?
may
serve as an example
furnish a literal
which
Unquestionably,
is
attached
in
the
economy
nature of a
mathematical
of
scientific
we may
freely
literal transcript.
Now, on
itself is
this curve
and
any relevant
fact, as
And
is,
itself,
for
which
very nearly, at
*
this
least,
little
a literal transcript, in
Ibid., p. 98.
t Ibid., p. 57.
J Ibid., p. 58.
O 2
the
212
C.
sense that
it
an instance
truth, verifiable
and
knowable by
suggest, then, that when we have an empirical
is
acquaintance.
LLOYD MORGAN.
of the truth,
is
by
may be
this
which
exactness
All
we
is
instance
the
truth, of
presents
which
it
it is,
until
an instance,
still it
literal transcript.
that
is
it is not.
Grant that
it is
supported by
facts
perception.
Until
it is
That, however,
is
just
what has
established, all
we can say
us.
213
that
looks very
it
much
as
Yet
knowable sphere.
of the
if it
may
surely,
may
here be urged, in
knowable as
any
rate
then, that
it
is
is
we can
many
of the
is
get
it
man
of science, while
no truth-
we
could
he admits that
there
is
to indicate
fluent
And
process
the
man
of
science
seeks
no shadow of
to
error.
sistency.
of error.
may
or
would
merge
in
flowing
identity,
every
214
LLOYD MORGAN.
C.
however,
comes
not
is
And
so.
that
is
of error
in.
much
prefer-
though such
of truth
it
may
of its true
And who
modern
is
scientific
knowledge
?
above
distinguished
Now,
may perhaps
it
about truth-structure
truth
is
heading-
is
irretrievably
no room here
is
not tantamount to
There
static.
is,
it
asserting
may
that
possibly be
making, tenth-structure is
Well, at the close
something quite fixed and irrevocable.
of a paper already long enough, all I can say is that this is
said,
what
just
What
structure
"
structure
In any
the
do not mean.
do mean
if
ample room
us
let
making,
in
;
ably
ment and
ever-fluent.
the
so,
that
for change.
Quite
distinguish.
As
the
for truth in
obviously,
truth-
the
is
word
continuously flowing process.
be ill-chosen choose at discretion a better word.
case, leave
making
of
"
consistency
the
is
is
is that, too,
at the
evolution.
back
And
in the
of
not only
is
the truth-structure of
215
But
since both
and truth are in the making, much that is being progressively made in the sphere of the knowable can have no
fact
On
are
repetition.
much
Hence
at
But
falls
knowledge
Here
again,
216
IX.
By W.
1.
A. PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE.
where
to
our consciousness.
found a criterion of
to be
it,
Is there
the
any-
i.e.
how
viz.,
judge of
it
If not,
is
is
it
that there
is
instead,
we have
of it
and
of its several
Of
the
of experience be cleared
away
may
it
particular
forms of Value,
it
is
in
it is.
generally
to
all.
to
"
imaginary
(as
"
we
sense
an
rightly put
"
idiot, in
it)
of beauty
his
short
mind
"
is
clears itself."
cannot be given
it
A man
with no
by any explanation in
symmetry
(e.g.
There
217
")
plenty of
is
that
may
symmetry
we do
not,
which
"
works," or
and uninstructive
if
we
The pragmatist
"
fulfils
definition
a purpose,"
is
false
The attempt,
again, to
tages
or
demands
the
"pleasures"
no
it
or
brings
of
the
sacrifices
it
to
formably
sacrifice
better.
the demands of
of the
right hand
morality
;f
while
not
every
M. Arnold
Mr.
or
M. Salomon Reinach
Webb
suppose in
us,
and appeal
They
knowledge
to impart.
mode
of
thought
still
prevails.
*
Cf. Plato, Hippias minor, for the breakdown of attempts ,to find
criteria of Beauty, e.g., its practical usefulness, or capacity to promote
goodness or to please the eye or ear.
t Vide Plato, Meno, 79 b-c, Gorgius, 499 b if.
J C. C. J. Webb, Problems in the Relation of
pp. 4-5.
218
W.
PICKARD-CAMBEIDGE.
A.
still
offered us,
and echo
discordant
itself in
still
be with their
it
It is therefore in relation to
and convenient
It is natural
3.
"
"
subjective
"
"
goodness
There
factors.
we
is,
"
regard as
"
or
call
We
us.
by
"
beautiful,"
name
and the
noble,"
recognise as in
it
relation
to
it
On
we
activities in
certain states or
ourselves which, while other than the valued object, are aroused
"
"
in
which we value.
"
desire
"
express
it
"
have an
in
interest
when we
"
in
and
it,
it
"
nice,"
"
agreeable,"
jolly,"
is
this
"
arousing
interest
"
which we
by such terms as
it
"
pleasant,"
etc.
delightful,"
the second
"
the Philistine,
"
interest
moved
to
"
"
may
in it
choose
be
it
"
is
"
all
"
no good
to me.")
Or, again,
"
we
are
"
judgments
upon
its
219
to define or estimate
"
good,"
activities.
is
to one or another of
is
it
These,
held, are
(e.g.,
stir
on
faithful witness
claimed by
all as
another
is
aroused,
is
we
Accordingly,
and objective
various subthe
factors in our experience of Value.
(1) Of
jective states or activities which the presence of a valued
relation
this
to
antithesis
of
the
subjective
"
"
objectively
in the
abstract sense,
relation to consciousness
of all
Or
(3)
i.e.,
is it
some
"
none
if
apprehend
so, will
views
of these
it
if
is
we
I.
Subjective theories of
accordingly as different subjective attitudes are
taken as the criterion or basis of definition. Thus (a) either
4.
Value
differ
of the
two
i.e.,
we may, with
(i)
may
be taken,
what we
desire or,
* C.
v.
I,
ch. 4,
18.
220
W.
A.
PICKARD-CAMUlllDGE.
relation
of
greater pleasure
we
or pleasure
is
derive
pleasure
we derive from
"
objects are
"
Such
it.
(e.g.)
is
Hume's
definition ;f
produce
an
"
ment
to passion
"
(e.g.,
the punish-
important
if
it
so,"J or
anyone thinks
selected as a criterion
something
else,
arouses in
us
defines
e.g.,
as
Value as
"
to
may
when W. James
thing
is
or the judgment
important ";
refer not to the value itself but to
it
some
when
"
says,
feeling
we
21.
Even Dr. Bosanquet seems to lend countenance to this
/hid.,
kind of criterion when he approves as "proper" the remark that "our
"
interest in the content of an idea is itself what is meant by value
(Individuality and Valve, p. 296)
although elsewhere he plainly rejects
"
"
the view that " valuo consists in " being wanted (ib., pp. 70, 137).
;
t Dissertation on I'assions,
i
j$
I!
Hamlet, Act
1.
On
23.
Or we may\
221
we may
does."
an understanding of
requisite to
"
good," as
of personal desires,
first
seems to me, is
this Serbonian
For into
bog
it
The
into
distinct
conception
of
"
the
valuable
"
as
of
opposed
The
valuations.
to
the
merely
"
any doctrine
can find
of
We
sea
of
contrasted
feelings
and
down
at
who
countenance, and
is,
Can
we
in
honesty
otherwise
say
all
System der
of this
invite
way
of
thought
whom
Part
I,
ch. 4.
W.
222
A.
J'ICKAKD-CAMBRIDGE.
our desires,
i.e.,
strive
after
an
"
more
assured,
or
less
comprehensive,
"
moment
to
"
the thing, despite the actual
ups and downs of our feelings
"
"
about it. Thus a child's attitude to sweets may
actually
vary from eager desire to abhorrence, according as its surfeit of
them
is
the balance is
still,
fit
of desire
"
always
returns with periodical regularity ,"f and lasts longer than its
"
sweets
opposite and this justifies the unqualified statement
:
when very
hot," although he
may
On
the other
bad for X,
is
pneumonia
"
and repentance or aversion! last disproportionately longer/'
and the balance is thus definitely swung in this case away from
"
"
the side of desire to that of abhorrence. Thus in the average
it
"
value
valuation Ehrenf els hopes to find a constant or true
of any given moment.
valuation
actual
our
correct
to
whereby
however,
it
at
philosophical justification
all.
Unfortunately,
Ib., p. 66,
Ib., p. 67.
"The
monia "
and
evidently
has
It is struck,
68).
fact
and therefore
no
is
ch. 5 passim.
(ib., p.
in
"
accompany pneu-
ON
223
KNOWLEDGE OF VALUE.
OUll
much
less (as
he also claims)
for all
human
It could
philosophy.
at best to tell us
hope
how
things have
it
"
But why,"
be asked,
may
it
The
opinion
miracle,
viz.,
answer
that the
is
"
of the
that
the
validity
of fluctuating
suggestion
assumes a
mean opinion
doubt
why assume
but
suggestion of such
any rate
is
that
an equivalence,
classical,^
is
of
well enough
securus
recte ?
The
as a
On
"
dialectical
"
"
could not swallow them), and the average value of Ehrenfels
is left as it began, a mere historic statement of how a certain
remark,
let
them
it is
plainly false.
us take an example.
To make good
this
on the pleasure-pain
idea after a surfeit
scale,
50;
method
first
Then the
*
t
lb., pp.
68-9.
224
W.
"
that
(i.e.,
A.
of pleasure),
no constant value
when
PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE.
tlie
+ 25
"
for it at
of view,
but simply a
false
chronicle.*
Criticism of Special
(A) Interest {Desire
Forms of Subjective
Criterion.
and Enjoyment).
The
1.
Psychological Confusion.
is
essentially
of those
with
it
enough, but
all alike
deemed
to be
Accordingly, unless
we
"
we
enjoy."
to be
is
"
"
is
fictitious
(pp. 67, 69).
"
so represented
(ii)
admit
the
225
enjoyments, considered as
measurable
we have
at least that
clear
in
anything,
question both
these assumptions.
"
(a)
I enjoy
once
Of course
it."
our
know
And
Well, but do you really desire or enjoy it ?
but tactless friend raises this question,
candid
to
The spectre
arise.
And
In short, Is
it
is
good
it
that
worthy to be
it value ?
Has
may
(and,
by appeal to
and enjoy the object,
we
desire
if
we mean
business by ourselves,
we have somehow
lay
of
it.
ways
But in
:
we may
lightly forget
either case
it
is
it,
or
this,
no doubt, in
face it and
we may
and enjoyment are the charm that lays it, when neither will
come to us until it is laid.
Clearly the assurance that the
"
"
"
object is
good is (as Aristotle would say) naturally prior
and more certain" than the assurance that we desire and
enjoy
it.
8.
(&)
psychical states
like desire
or
of
how
far
the
intensity of
I can only
what
is
mental states we
r
W.
226
A.
HCKARD-CAMBRIDGE.
fluctuating, zero
is
though again
Of
difference.
desire again
measurement than
invisible objects
etc.
But
if
and other
it
"
"
"
to
of
"
we
column
of
some expansible
column through one degree is the same for any degree of that
scale.*
Now, so far as the physical objects go, I am not here
concerned either to cry up the amount of practical gain or to
cry
down
the
conclusion
to
them
* There
but
are, of course, other assumptions, which serve as a check,
into these I need not here enter.
commends
to us as
"
227
I
science."
want only to
These, dependent as
notoriously
lack
any
variation
we should
man
was
Yet
nowhere
is
generalisation
irritating to
A than
more precarious
nothing
an extraction under a
and
more
is
him because
it
does
not hurt
ment
it
is
down
is
possible.
The assumptions
if
not palpably
at
(e.g.) plausible to
an
that
whose
is
20 higher than that
say
object
temperature
of the hand feels double as warm as one only 10 higher
but is there any difference between the heat felt in objects at
:
1,000
Again,
it is
plausible,
if
two
trumpets yield double the sound of 1,000, for with the dulling
* The
authority of Plato (Rep. ix) seems at first sight against this, in
making the philosopher the judge of the comparative worth of both hia
own and others' pleasures. But the estimate there is qualitative rather
than quantitative.
228
W.
A.
PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE.
becomes progressively
less;
different occasions.
like those of
Attempts
a man's
of his
may be in melodrama
gape
In
expression like
less to
fact,
"
six times as
enjoyment."
9.
good, and
what
is
desired or enjoyed
We may
we
are
perhaps
desire,
admit
any index
at once a
a fragment the
gives rise to
enjoyment
fragment
considering
like the
to the value of
of
exaggeration of
The
which
satisfaction of a
desired or not,
fication
(e.g.,
vii, 5,
7,
1149
is
in itself good,
a, 14.
it
may
to
which
may
it
good.
229
is
rise.
give
in itself evil,
The pain
and
enough to ask,
a result in which pain
If this be challenged, it is
without pain,
attain
If
is
in itself a good,
if
normally
so to attain it?
"better"
and the
enhanced
is
of
riddance
you could,
is
it
its
it
be
(e.g.)
is
if
More good
who
than that of the Puritan who rigidly but dully plods away at
"
duty for duty's sake." And to this one kind of good the
his
The value
of a satisfac-
tion is
But
still less
amount
of value
them are a
and Enjoyment
possess.
Against this I
To represent our
desire
fact,
of
and
230
W.
good, and
if
PICKARD-CAMBKIDGE.
A.
anything be desired
it is
it is
"
its satisfaction
it.
"
insepar-
All satisfac-
tions of desire
much
them,
desired
are
less that
Plato*
so.
highest in value,
is
desire" of anything to
intellectual pleasures,
which
of
And
fill it.
The shyness
of religion.
by the
a gap
the same
"
"
coyness
is
felt in
true of love or
first
experience
enjoined as a duty,
is
evidence of
how
little
the intrusion of
What
yet
is
enjoyment.
hardened against the devil and
all
his
"
hardened against such fruits of the Spirit as " love and " joy."
We have indeed already rejected the Kantian doctrine that
enjoyment, if admitted, would degrade the high virtue of such
a character, but the doctrine is at least a forcible, if exaggerated,
manner
is,
set a value
even
if
Aristotle,f as his
"
On many
things
train,
that of
of a
we should
their
is
e.g.
difference, for
we
sight,
yielded none."
*
Phileb., 51
t Eth. N., x, 8,
TimcuuSy 65 a.
12, 1174 a, 4-8.
231
by what
belied
its
experience.
are
value
stories
despair
(e.g.')
of
little
appreciate
and
people so little
The
so
little
Is it not the
that people
desire
and
kind
worth
in the phrase
"
It is
me
no good to
"
If she be not so to
What
What, indeed
philosopher has
me,
But that
is
is all
there
"
?
is
The
to be said.
reflection, which the poet himself has wisely not made, and
for which in any case his apathy gives no warrant, upon the
(fr)
Degrees of Desire
That there
is
these
one
* Jeremiah,
V,
31.
2o2
W.
I'ICKARD-CAMBKIDGE.
A.
no degree of dipsomania
(e.g.)
make
will
even
arouse
these
if
or
little
no interest
is
answer
quite mistaken.
is
that he
is
at
any
man
It
and
more
rate worth
is
whom
if
possible
(i.e.
the
to
any one
to me," the
though
right-doing
the
is
that
it is
So a
man
in love
may
But he
amor.
"
him, and
if he says
anyhow, it is
means only (what no doubt is the fact)
most valuable.
it
"
or
value
"
to
But the
"
It is
it
fallacy of
desirable
"
tell
this
he
or
"
valuable
"
requires no
elaborate proof.
its
reverse side.
If
"
"
good consisted
would consist
"
"
evil
only in being desired or enjoyed, then
only in being detested and the source of misery, and as good
would be proportionate to the strength of desire, so would the
evil of
so
or
moment
"
and
"
evil,"
if
233
man
the stricken
is
for the
insane,
he
is so
Yet, surely,
Poetry, of course,
is
full
of
despair and,
anyone objects that poetry is no guide to fact,
the present war (e.g.)
there are abundant instances in history
is full of them
where men have come on reflection to see that
if
or our appreciations
and
the
same kind
of value.
The
zest or interest of
any
grow with the range and
but not uncommonly, if not
The interest
attack cools off.
of course, continue to
occupation may,
value of the activity involved
usually, the heat of the
first
SiaXa/iTret TO KaXov.
afterwards would wish (even without regard for public opinion) to see
their sons back in the flesh, but struck off the roll of honour.
234
W.
A.
PICKAED-CAMBRIDGE.
is
a weariness of the
interest
"
But
it
would be absurd
it
if
of the value
12. (c)
What
is
defence.
of
desire,
is,
as
we have
admitted,
always intrinsically good, although not necesbut it may quite easily itself be the
sarily a good of high rank
only good element in a given situation. The object desired or
itself
drunkenness
to
(e.g.}
we have
what, regarded in
suppose we were
intrinsically
and through.
and
In
itself,
invited by
i.e.
is
an utterly
evil
state.
Again,
be met
Individuality
and
of
Value, p. 127.
any general
rule
for justifiable
nised category.
" I
homicide
sufficient
235
is
a well recog-
answer would
be,
may
would enjoy
desire, or
or
it
may
think
it
good, would, in
Moreover,
it, be wholly evil.
enjoyment
supposing (as may very well be the case) that the desired
object is such as not, in fact, to yield the satisfaction or
fact, except for his
of
this
In
the
short,
residuum of value
which
value,"
"subjective
is
gone
Dr. Bosanquet
desired object,
merely someone's
(which
belief
may
13.
and Enjoyment,
so
no means
accepts his
when
his
Even the
alone.
view
own
of
desires or
or
"
So,
power
to enjoy
witness
"
against what his own personal
things would lead him to suppose,
own judgment
interest
"
in
may
tastes
"
e.g.,
"
me more
pleasure," etc.
Again, I do not see how the
can
be
said
not
to
burglar
recognise, even with uncomfortable
of the conscientious policeman
the
moral
virtue
clearness,
give
story
of
it,
/ Kings,
22.
it.
The
236
W.
same point
A.
PICKAKD-CAMBK1DGE.
Ahab
regard to yet another kind of value.
undeniably knew the value of the truth and of Micaiah's
in
least
in a
(B) Choice.
14. If
The whole
"
slavery
help
actually choosing
what he knows
to
cannot
be relatively or
is
irrelevant.
Judgment.
(i)
actually choose
it
as right.
thing, to
it
to be
I should
"
any competition or antagonism between goods at all just
as duty enjoins one course as right, and rules out all the rest
:
"
237
But
this, in
the
first place,
To say that
itself
goodness depends on
If
to
makes
it
quite impossible
say what has either.
lightness
it is a matter of indifference to me where I land, I cannot be
to a helpless standstill.
bound
to sail in
any
all
And, secondly, so
far is
"
right
"; i.e.,
none
what we judge
that
it
any
is
"
right
to be our
often
is
All
other.
"
at
all.
duty from
sacrifice that
what
resign
in
this
?),
is
recognise
Make
as good.
as do
it,
and
it
to
it is obviously possible to be
belong ")
deluded about the values of things witness the miser's delusion
;
that gold
own sake.
put off if we take
valuable for
This circle
its
is
as our criterion a judgnot
to
the
value
of the object, but to
directly
referring
of
such
as
a state or activity
quality
something else,
(iii)
ment
some
is
roused in us by
it,
as
(e.g.)
when
* P.
220, supra.
238
W.
A.
PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE.
"
judged to be) right."* The views connected with his general
division of mental phenomena into three classes
:
"
(1)
Ideas
"
(concrete sensuous
impressions, and
abstract
conceptions).
"
"
"
Judgments," wherein to the bare idea or presentation of an object is added a relation to the object, either of
(2)
"
"
recognition
(belief) or
"
rejection."
object
is
added a relation
explained to be a certain
"
("
of
form of
emotions
"
love
"
or
"
"
") is
"
hate,"
or
which
an
is
"
pleasure
displeasure."
the miscellaneous " voluntates
It is understood
fitness
of
so
act
to
taking them
in
"
or
relation in
"
love,"
'
blind,"
mere records
of early prejudices
"
may be simply instinctive or habitual impulses."
the other hand, just as other judgments are " self-evident,")!
so our loves
On
* On
II
characterised as right."
two judgments
is
239
Again,* as the
not quantitative
What
intensely loved."
put
for
it,
of
to
it
"
which
we
if
lightness
refer to the
"
then our
of choice
can detect
"
or
"
acts
"
"
love
"
"
(or
"
"
pleasure ") will also be right aiid
"
will be
Thus the question
good.''
"
phenomena
hard
"
"
We
common name, f
is
marks a class
of love
and
preference,"
preferring
If so
"
"
language has no
however,
it
exactly
Do
"
must be answered by
first
asking,
judge that the love (or pleasure) which enters into
my emotion towards is a right love ?" and this in turn must
I
be answered by
preferring X
where
unreliable,
asking
Is
to Y, a right preference
But
17.
cases
"
first
alas
this
"
?
available, to be circular,
it is
and in the
tries
rest to be
to conceal its
defects.
(1)
love or
right preference,
even where
is
circular.
The order
"
The act
of proof, as enunciated in
of preferring
'
right
therefore
But what
It cannot
is
mean
'
the
is
29-30,
'
'
right
therefore
'
is
as follows
our love of x
is
"
is
good.'
"
"
Tightness
is
*
t
I
240
to
W.
know what
we can hope
A.
PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE.
good and
is
"
know what
to
best
among
is
morally right.*
"
"
choice
does not mean choice of what is
If, however,
right
known to be morally right, what can it mean save choice of
what
known
"
"
to be
good
to be
"
naively makes us a present of it
Many might say, and with
a better right
that instead of our learning the preferability
.,
:
qualifica-
experience of
and hate)
"
acts of pleasing
qualified as right.
"
preference,"
right love,"
"
and displeasing
from the
"
(i.e.
of love
all,
but a circlet
round which
it is
It
of
is
remark
his
difficulties in
worthy
despite
expounding his criterion, Brentano still sticks to it that some
The one point on the circle where he is
criterion is necessary.
reluctant to let us start
object is good.
invite attention,
that admittedly
that,
is
compel us to
we
start there or
nowhere, seeing
that everything
"
We
in
have no guarantee
us a love with the
17, p. 12.
mine.
"
241
;*
we sometimes
"
"
to
right
our
Now,
"
or
real
"
:
that, since
"
better
"
better
if
would be
"
"
it fails
sound,
completely to
show us any
at
all.
On
"
good
"
"
there
"
good or
Brentano has
proper inference
sary, since
known
What
is
take the
is
without
is
some things
to us.
first,
draw
Unable
falls
He
to
to
back
first
"
"
"
better ") is in this case non-existent, and then
(or
good
he tries to save his own face by adding (in effect) the familiar
"
at
tag
least /or
us"l
"
"
"
to us.
If,
known
to
himself),
*
t
"
we want
us (and, in view
ad Jin.
On
here,
known
to
show
it
powerless to
to
of
his
is,
admissions, to
27,
32.
Which
therefore,
better
is
of this is (I
"
and how
Brentano
to the experience of a
p. 21.
p.
result.
J
27,
account of
existent."
242
W.
PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE.
A.
whereby our
love, or preference, is
sometimes characterised:
mean
love or preference
but at least
we must abandon
lies
a condition, or use
in that
which
is
desired, enjoyed or
and
this
Tightness
20.
tion,
consciousness, utterly
unknown,
directly or indirectly
Clearly
how
no
value
light.
is
known
to us,
and on
this the
is
24$
And
however
little
it
interest
may
us personally, be such as to
At
first
sight
it
"
looks as
if
In the case of
"
pleasure
or
beauty
A pleasure
outrageous.
cow
"
"
while in acknowledging
have seen this to be possible
"
"
beautiful (and we
even though they leave us "unmoved") we at least mean that they
will be enjoyed by someone, whose taste (or faculty of enjoy-
things to be
"
or
"
formally
On
first
sight at
any
rule, or in
easily seem, at
may
music
an unemotional
'
we
-however
true,
much more we
ourselves, like
except as
an element
in
"
truth ")
"
"
beauty would
"
be reduced
truth
Else, as
"
is of
its
own account
no value at alL
Q 2
244
W. A. PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE.
same
true
is
e.g.,
thing
e.g.
when we say
lives
"
or
"
convenient
of a very stout
man,
"
")
the
it is
is
anything else
(" useful
to
satisfactory,
to
and that
somebody or some-
we should hardly
call it
"good."
III.
What
THE IDEAL
CRITIC.
then
is
cannot exist in utter detachment from understanding, judgment, desire or enjoyment, while, on the other hand, our crass
misvaluations, and such
warn us not
"
to trust our
common
confessions as
is better,
"
but I enjoy
own judgments,
A is good
B
desires, or
more,"
but
etc.,
enjoyments
will,
and
taste)
was
ideally trained
and developed,
"
what would
"
prudent
be
fixed
by the
ideally
is,
in every
"sensible" or
man.
"
The obvious problem, however, arises, who, in the case of
"
The
value, is the ideal critic, and how is he known ?
is
plausible, because
"
in regard to the
we have
whom, when
right
245-
access to
him
in doubt,
we can
in the shape of
get at least
we
;*
how
either he or
We can,
therefore,
we apprehend
in
But
what
is right.
whereby our
ideal critic
may
common
The meaningmust by
not at all, and the
himself be known.
was
known immediately or
same is true of our judgment when and where they are to be
found.
There is no character whereby we can recognise the
in
expert
any one of them as we can recognise by his virtue
the man who is fit to advise us in morality. We can of courseconsent be
skill,
or in a thinker dialectical
but
if
man
and there
is
no presumption
is
We
its fruits,
*
E.g., the first Christian disciples undeniably appreciated the holiness of their Master, though clearly they often as little understood what
He did as what He said.
246
W.
The suggestion
that
we may
A.
is,
PICKAKD-CAMBRIDGE.
sham value
and barren
as that
which
We
Humpty-Dumpty made
his words,
more obviously
critic is
is
avowedly purely
ideal,
and we are
when
the ideal
our
left to
own
IV.
"
"
22.
viz.,
offer, to
that
it is
is
a truism or a
paradox.
must look
On
we
whole
effort is directed
247
i.e.
upon the genuine Good, the one thing for which (as Plato
It is true
points out)* we will let nothing stand substitute.
that
we
are
of
from
this,
it is
maintained,
it finds
middle:
so far as
that
and in
makes no
difference
is
its
goodness.
The reasonable
soul
is
progressive
analysis of the
Good
From
the side
itself
if
of
the
one by
is,
whatever degree
revision
of conviction
and correction by
judgment except
are subject to
later reflection.
so,
Psalmist picturesquely
calls
"a
248
W.
A.
PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE.
The
23.
difficulty is to distinguish
and awareness.
between apprehension
is
comes
rid of it
for knowledge,
how
we do apprehend
nature
we mistake
it
we
we account for
before we can
can convince a
man
that of whose
How
can
else
we detect an error
Or how could we
and
full
it
follows that
we
apprehend that
aware.
whom
who
is
(i.e.
symbolised to
me by
words show
my
my
existed only in
my
imagination.
conception or understanding.
Of the kinds
we
perceive,
we
give, like
most attempts at
definition,
men,
trees, tables
any account
would prove on
and
we could
reflection
249
"
"
not to bear thinking out
science
certainly anything that
has so far been able to tell us of the^constitution of the physical
world, like the very categories it employs, turns out to be
;
"
what we perceive
all
of our understanding
of
Yet
appearance."
self-contradictory
essence
or
otherwise, unless
we understand nothing
the absurd result that we
that
at
to
or conceive
therefore,
what on
must
all
all,
and inconceivable.
The apprehension
of things unawares,
if
a paradox,
least a
is
at
as Plato
coming
to
know.
It
is,
in
as well to our
knowledge
of value as to
any
other.
How
24.
then is this slumbering apprehension to be
awakened, and the mists of misapprehension dispelled which
we continually have discovered, and must always be prepared
to
discover,
How
thought
unawares, to become realised
?
Not, I
am
abandonment
of the
path of conscious
convinced
by any mystical
reflection,
but only by
in the words
are
is
though
The
aTrotedfAvetv.
"But,"
it
will be asked,
Plato, Meno, 81 d.
250
W.
PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE.
A.
some alternative
way?
The errors about value
that, as
must
activities
The immediate
it is
which we judge
to
be
what we judge
what we judge
is
to be
good we therefore
that
in
We
make
we
we enjoy
and we
remark
mean
choose, or do not
lulled
into
to give up, is as
fails
us
we
forgetting
find
better,
how poor
it
is
of
is
must be most
Thus, to
real.
* The
puroXoyia of Plato, Pkcedo, 89 d.
t Even the angry man thinks thus of his vengeance and the fool of
his follies
seriously shake his assurance, and both his resolution and his
enjoyment are shaken too. Cf. supra, 7.
| The familiar process whereby, to the abominable and faithless,
:
"even
their
mind and
conscience
Phcedo 83
c.
is
defiled"
(Ep.
Tit.,
i,
15).
VI,
12,
The
10.
ON
OUlt
KNOWLEDGE OF VALUE.
251
that
and beguiles
it
errors
above discussed.
The progress
mental and
all-inclusive,f
it
and because we
for there is
less directly
upon
have so
no form
many
of experience
it.
Phaedrus, 256
c).
deny that the incontinent lover wills and enjoys his course of life. His
will and enjoyment are genuine so far as they go, but the vitality of will
and keenness of enjoyment are nothing in comparison with those which
along the path of self-restraint. It is in this sense that we may
"
"
" false " to will and taste as well as to
true and
apply the antithesis
judgment. (So far as "enjoyment" or "pleasure" goes, there is ample
authority for this use in Plato as to will, cf. the antithesis irately a
lie
doKfl
252
W.
A.
The maintenance,
or its enemy.
either itself
and the
conduct of industry,
require likewise a belief in those particular forms of imaginative mythology which masquerade under the once revered
again, of religious fervour,
titles of
efficient
Even
in a philosophical society,
"
There
is
as Plato
demanded that
man
once a
men,
if
they
are to rise to
"
noble
tively require to be taught the particular form of
so
results
the
least
At
that
to
purpose.
appropriate
"
lie
far
community
proverbial, as
is
is
253
Immediate
or social betterment.
deep and
by the
fixed convictions,
with what
effort of thinking,
practical
action
all alike
(for
requires
jeopardised
most people)
its
its
suspense.
The dogmas
requisite to
most
effectively impressed
be they politicians, priests, or scientists who are
convinced and not critical of them and this means that those
by those
whose duty
it is
to organise the
Nor
it.*
this self-abnegation
is
of
from either as
as
it
may
what
is
distinguished
life itself.
Each
the other.
atrophy.
religion as
activity
hypertrophy
of either soon
passes
into
to,
an
to
become
politically insignificant
would be in
sacrifices
all
for
practical
efficiency
soon
Greek
* It is difficult to
approve the double effort of thinking in one
language and teaching in another, even in those who can both sustain
and effectively conceal it. The Platonic guardian who teaches what he
knows to be false, arouses little less dislike than a Blougram, and not a
very great deal less than the Prussian who uses the press to work up the
It is very doubtful whether a
requisite furor Britannicus or Americanus.
philosopher can be a fit person to undertake the religious education of
young or stupid people, or to be a statesman in any existent state.
254
W.
German
first
A.
PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE.
at the
means that
But
this
In
27.
it)
of
if
human
"
"
all these
so keeps us still
ways the
unaware
and
its
varied forms.
broken and
is still
torting
filled
in with imaginations of
we can from
influence
that
whose
dis-
estimate.
Nevertheless,
if
it is
At
of
we have no reason
to expect in
any near
future,
and
which any individual can contribute (it may be) but little.
least no argument can be founded upon it against the faith
Socrates, firstly, that reflection can progressively remove
dent as
it
is
which
it
If to this faith I
it is this,
* Of
individuals, too, those who develop in many directions not
seldom develop most vigorously in each. Thinking (e.g.) ill nourishes
apart from a reasonable domestic and social life, physical activity, and so
But this again obliges the thinker, for the sake of his thought in
the long run, continually to give up time to exercise, or to social and
domestic duties, which at the moment are mere obstructions to his
Plato's Republic reiterates warnings against such one-sided
thought.
forth.
developments.
At
least
finally
we need not
be fatal to
fall into
us, of
255
At
least
final
home.
256
X.
RECONSTRUCTION.
By
BERNARD SHAW,
L. P. JACKS, G.
C.
H. D. OAKELEY.
By L.
which we
1.
ETHICAL
principles,
P. JACKS.*
are
to
discuss
in relation
to
my
not,
by what should
point of view.
To save myself
whole
to
is
whom ?
do,
reference
shall
to
namely, we
actual
conditions
and
circumstances
that,
are
have
arisen.
connexion,
as,
The time-factor
indeed,
it
is
me to be important in every
"
If " after the war
may mean
seems to
become an
we
as
Furthermore,
are
it
discussing
out,
if
reconstruction
we were
free to act
we
upon
* I
may say that the whole of this was written before I had read
Mr. Bertrand Russell's Principles of Social Reconstruction, which I
expected would influence me, as indeed it has.
257
the war
is
over
reconstruction, that
is,
as limited
be faced
when
is
take this to
mean
that
we
in general, without
it
seems to
me
war
will be
we have
to expect
and prepare
question
that the
war
is
in essence
and
a conflict of
comes
to
ethical
same
preferred
with
a
moral
an
of
immoral.
If
a
conflict
principle
thing
the Central Powers, who represent one of these principles, win
principles
or,
if it
is
it
to the
the war, not only will the victors be able to enforce the
conquering principle and repress the action of its opposite,
but they
will
all parts of
the world
between the two principles at issue, and are waiting for the
end of the war to determine their moral allegiance. In the
event of victory for the Allies, we may, of course, expect the
same order of events on the other side. The point of
importance in either event is that the possibilities of social
reconstruction (in
The
conflict
having been
R
258
L.
P.
JACKS.
strife
may
be,
but
if
the
issue goes against their principles they will not be able,. for a
time to come, to make them effective in the work of social
long
reconstruction.
victory.
makes Right.
majority of
must do
so
ideal
men
to
make what
the
when
ethical principles.
victory of the
for
effective
all
this is essentially a
war
Surely,
it
would be absurd
of ethical principles,
but
to say
its result
will
?'"
They are
fighting, I take
it,
for the
of one or the
precise purpose of establishing the mastership
other in the reconstruction of society, from which mastership
when
As pure
theorists
we might be
concern
this
indifference
when
Whatever
259
of proving effective
might
It
ideals
if
immediately
its assertion,
as
it
it,
the
well
be.
remains then
struction
of
what are
to consider
for the
They may,
society.
I think, be
described
quite simply
as (1)
The
right to
run thus
Germany and
Und
clearly
hundred
expressed in the
mottoes*
classical
lips of
is
es
Einmal noch
From
in a
die
Welt genesen."
imposing
and
its will
its
moral inferiors
its
action
doing
is
on
all others,
in so
(4) that
its
own
duty.
social
*
They have been collected by Professor Bang, of Copenhagen, in his
book Hurrah and Hallelujah.
R 2
260
P.
L.
JACKS.
and
on the other, or
it
amounts
know themselves
to the
same result
as such
and be able
to recognize
Germans do)
to
relative superiority
question.
these
conditions.
(2)
"
right
that in
It asserts
human
affairs
no
The
award.
difficulty arises,
find a nation, or
as sheep
group
of people,
who
of
will be
mankind
acknowledged
but this is as
is to
work smoothly.
And
this, in
addition
is
we should be doing
Eussians, a foul
the French,
wrong
which forced them to accept the same
grounds, I take
it,
Italians,
in being parties to
the right
is set
up
Belgians,
any arrangement
position.
for nations
On
these
and individuals
261
and
it
is
now
It
fighting.
is
not
to be treated
Thus the
by him as such.
conflict,
principles (and
it
so far as
it
is
is
right,
and
The
have a determining
effect
bound
to
is
is
At
first
nations,
and
to international polity as
founded on those
rights.
of
human
relationships,
and
on the issue
of the war.
first
war ends
in
262
P.
L.
JACKS.
non-interference, and,
intended
The
would be
the
in
international
sphere
there would be a reconstruction of international
effects,
relationships
of
Golden Rule.
limited
to
But
international
affairs,
to
the
effect
relations
would be
between
In
home.
all
to
the application at
upon
their defence.
The claim
pundits
In
their business.
would be
is
no
263
blame
of
not,
as
many
suppose,
an easy rule
of
conduct.
It
is
Let us now reverse the supposition and consider reconI say the
Germans
for
one
is
side,
frequently
and personal.
On
it
would be a
of the age.
"
"
264
P.
L.
unless
it
JACKS.
German
question
their
by
victory.
and a
Such
at
least
the victory of
maximum
Which
of these
two
ideals
the
we have
life
more
is
purpose is
it be granted that the purpose of society is economic
the
of
the
natural
resources
of
the
the
earth,
exploitation
produc-
the keynotes of
its success.
which has caused the large business to supersede the small one
leads to the conclusion that, from the purely economic point of
view,
interest
would be
company under
to
iron
form
human
itself
management.
its
own
German
It
victory would
would be a step
265
what
Our
its victory.
I will
society, that
which instead
is,
of giving every
man
the
maximum
opportunity of
purpose
tampering
"
principle of authority
now seeking
to apply,
may
be
"
a draw
"
nor
is it
namely,
necessary to say
much.
much
in conflict a
were definitely
forget that the draw would give an
if
his side
meantime
field of
to settle
it.
in an indecisive
war
of
work
minds
expended
between the champions of the rival principles which, in point
of fact, is precisely what went on for many years, indeed for
many centuries,
On the whole, I
before 1914,
and with no
satisfactory result.
266
BERNARD SHAW.
G.
reformers on either side have any good reason for hoping that
"
the end will be a draw."
men,
civil
to
life
when
the
war
ends.
who
will
come back
to
for
them
a-fighting.
It is difficult to ascertain
if
otherwise
II.
The
enough.
By
G.
BERNARD SHAW.
War
throws us back
self-preservation.
011
German
diabolical,
lives is right
which
and every
we pray
may
artificial
267
famine,
And we
parison.
ing with
own
whilst
may
be to a
man pursued by
or
There
burning house.
is
not
much
interest
in
discussing
Nietzsche invited
out,
we had long
us,
left
to the side
behind
we
us.
us to evade
its
consequences.
We
moral superiority
"
months
of the
to criticize
traitors.
None
the less
all
268
G.
BERNARD SHAW.
We
we
an end
of us, souls
and
all.
Thus,
price.
that
it
gilt lead.
The
ethical
situation
is,
or Plato.
When we say to Germany
we starve," and she says the same to
us, we are both only saying what we said to our own countrymen
and neighbors in the false peace of commercialism. To many
a man this war has brought salvation from the most callous
selfishness and the most hoggish quarrelsomeness.
The war
between the patriotic German and the patriotic Briton is an
ethics of
"
Thou
Immanuel Kant
The
markets.
less
damage
Many
may
from a narrow and detestable private morality to a comparatively broad and elevated public morality.
We must
269
The primitive ethic of war, that they shall take who have
the power, and they shall keep who can, is so revolting to
war.
men
highly civilized
it
fiction that
in shocked
self-defence
and
against
attack,
that, in
human
manifest nonsense;
is
but those
ting their
of us
who
and yet hack their way through, may be cultivaintellect at the expense of their character.
Those
is
Germans and
something more
for
more
fiercely
but
it
It
may make
precludes
all
the combatants
States
they are
all
steeped in blood
and most
of
was
them.
270
BERNARD SHAW.
G.
cruelties
1'rightful
fighting for a
European hegemony
from one another. Germany will stay in Lille and Antwerp
if she can
France will take Alsace-Lorraine if she can
;
Austria will keep Serbia and Bosnia if she can Russia will
get Constantinople if she can Rumania will take Transylvania
if she can
Italy will hold the Trentino if she can and we
;
shall
German
the
keep
indemnities
devastate
it
conqueror.
and
if
so as
if
colonies
if
we
can.
In addition to
to reduce to
What
no ethical reconstruction.
of spoils
"
war by the
will to
Lord Roberts.
late
"
conquer
He
canism.
There
relevantly to
ethics,
or
Suffice
it
is
to our
Pan-Angli-
reconstruction
to
Germany
271
there
But
all this
It
decision.
She could
evolution.
is
not,
if
and compelled us
surrender
to
Kut
at discretion.
Turks
Baghdad,
but a glorious page of their history.
The Germans have a
whole volume of victories to their credit. They have captured
famous
in
fortresses,
and
great
seaports,
and
capital
cities
and they have driven the British army, the French army,
and the Eussian army before them in the nearest approach
Yet
headlong rout that modern warfare admits of.
they have obtained no decision. All the belligerents, except
perhaps Rumania, have plenty to boast of. The French have
to
we
to
Black Prince
to Cre'cy.
is
no sign
of a decision
glory.
Italy
is
in Cortina.
if
favourable,
may
be more disastrous
272
G.
Therefore
it
BERNARD SHAW.
may happen
We
shall
is
great
The
principle of reconstruction
is
clear
enough
we must
is,
The Will to
according to our present lights.
not because
the
has
dominated
situation,
European
Conquer
but
because
of
its
of its rarity and elevation,
vulgarity. The war
government
may make
but that
is
money
as
he was before.
for a
for
273
human
dream
of Anarcharsis
Japan are among the eight great Powers they must necessarily
combine with the western Powers in the new organization. I
that such a combination would be wrecked
suggest
by
its
by
Concert of
wreck only
paralysis.
not be
ir
miscegenation.
same
religion
and
irreligion,
the
They can
;
live
sense of miscegenation.
Francisco you have a clear
least
Thus, from
unit
of
Warsaw
civilization
to
San
and
if
Germany,
probable, has after the war to choose between
alliances in the east and in the west, and, choosing the west,
as
is
England nor France can prudently stand out of the combination, their accession to which would integrate the Netherlands
and Scandinavia almost automatically.
274
G.
eastward
BERNARD SHAW.
fall
is
unit.
now
to
to
The
pieces
Germany
is
alliances
dispelled
until psychologically
may
It is evident that
of these
Byzantinism,
lous
the only Pans left would be the Peter Pans, the boys
275
and
people
with exceptionally big ideas, noble aspirations, and burning
not,
patriotisms.
In
all this,
however,
it
now
to
the
of
war
to
is
much popular
is
make it
Those who speak
with that of
dissatisfaction
by engaging
afraid to venture
of the revolution
in Eussia as
if
country need
to be
it
The tendency
depends
reminded
of revolution
the revolution.
of this.
to produce
on the extent
If the class
war
of the
in
this
way
effected
change
by
which gains the ascendancy has
change at
But
all,
belligerence.
9
q _
b
276
G.
courtiers,
BERNARD SHAW.
knew nothing
either
of
business
or
political
because
more
democracies, would
scientific
be
much
in
less likely
the
to
is
more
avowed
great
produce reckless
which
other factor.
As long
in a western
power to
any foreign enterprise, his word
is nevertheless as good security as minted gold, whereas in an
eastern autocracy, where the autocrat can legally pledge the
federal democracy,
legal
life
and conduct
it
own
word
affords
will not
tastes or the
a*ct
whims
We
which
is
unattain-
make
it
interests of
of private adventurers.
It is difficult to see
rid of
how
these can be
by getting
and reorganizing the industry of the country as a
and
public concern that is to say, by adopting republicanism
altogether,
277
And
as republican
and
socialistic institutions
can
finally
we may take
it
a substitution
of the ethics
of
communism
ethical
duty for
many
years
but
it
does not
sum he has
to
face
but
it
cannot
face
many
of
what we believed
to
we
make
to escape
from
war can
do.
vital
of
now
importance
and national
in
efforts
278
C.
DELISLE BURNS.
nor new
politics,
Yet we
it.
nor new
ethics,
What
synthesis or dogma.
have new
shall not
will
happen
is
that
we
it is
new
shall
no
impossible
And we
shall
not say that the British people would never stand this or that
sacrifice of their personal convenience,
to
social
That
principles.
is
much
effort the
ground
it
III.
By
C.
DELISLE BURNS.
It
common
desire
criticism
will
Incidental
their disagreement upon details.
be sufficiently apparent in the attempt to-
we must
and emotional
279
hypothesis upon
social reconstruction
depends.
of
such
conflict
It
no
forces is
is,
have no ethical
results of such a
validity.
it is
An
if
numerous,
wealthy, or
less
That
less
obvious.
is
War
is
ethical criterion.
established by victory.
The importance for ethical reconstrucwar is due to the amount and kind of
which
material
left
is
when the
conflict
is
over.
The
For the
importance is one of fact and not of principle.
the
remains
fundamental
unchanged,
principle
hypothesis of
all civilised society,
world will be
difference
that force
different,
will not
which we should
affect
is
no
however
the
war ends;
but
The
this
act.
war
is,
indeed, dependent
of force
280
C.
DELISLE BURNS.
of forces but
between the
is
supposed to be a contract
belligerents.
treaty concluding a
It
itself."
and vanquished
a free contract, as
is
absurd to suppose
it is
jus
rests
it
postliminii
in
of
the parties.
Law embodies
the
The
same
The
results of
as the bricks
and mortar
of
is
The
likely
principles themselves are not
affected except in so far as it may or may not be possible
to apply them.
The ruin of the old house of social custom
and
left
over.
and we cannot
We
have
if
exactly what
the war goes on for
tell
amount
of
children
to build with
in 1914,
when
We
now
defiled
of simple
It is a gain for a
man
to discover
281
when
We
command
of natural forces.
The general
we have in view
there
is
social
principles
By
Voluntaryism.
situation
is
good in
we mean
that
The quality of a
personality.
by reference
ethically
to
as
proportion
allows for
it
And
is
or
one of character or
civilisation is to
the
First,
number and
be estimated
variety
of
the
for civilisation
it produces
cannot be judged ethically by reference to the ease by which it
is administered or the
power of each to do what he likes. But,
with a view to
social reconstruction,
we must think
of character
A society
some way dependent upon social structure.
would not necessarily be good in which fine characters appeared
as in
by accident
character of those
who
it.
The England
of his
is
to
one which
impose
is
itself
upon
man
is
others.
The
free
of social organisation.
and
"
282
DELISLE BURNS.
C.
To have a
anyone
will of
else.
from interdependence.
difficult to distinguish
Cain
when he seemed
to
The
"
principle
of
is
generally
made a mistake
non-interference
"
not adequate
is
it
is
to be profoundly immoral.
not
one which keeps away from others, but one which deliberately
looks to others to get and to give. This is the second great
ethical
of
principle
Communism.
That
reconstruction,
is
might do
if
it
may
be
called
good ethically in
other.
The present situation is
to
do for others all they
not
free
are
men
We
egoists.
and
to say, a society is
must embody
to
be
in
of social life
the passengers
must
is
all
who have
feel their
learnt to be friendly
common
over.
and
social co-operation
For past experience not only indicates the sort of society which
would be best, but also some of the means by which such a
society
we can
which
may
mean
that
failed
we can say
in general terms
tried.
283
succeeded.
men
itself
isation.
Clearly
the
principles
already admitted
make
it
and that
men
together
rather
The organisation
ethically good,
first,
the relations
of
when every
as equal in humanity.
adult
of
individuals is
counts
sex-
To
common humanity.
with
destroy the present domination of men over women, along
the equally pernicious clinging dependence of women upon
It is impossible to
men, seems to be ethically necessary.
reconstruction
attain ethical
changes
anyone objects
to
it,
To accept ethical
the present anarchy, strongly desire it.
unless
they move us to
principles is mere sentimentalism
vigorous action and, therefore, our principle of method must
be such that it catches the imaginations of men and women.
:
The equality
of
as
much
power
and
It is
there
there
is
is
more
of
And, indeed,
than
The one
284
to
DEL1SLE BURNS.
C.
act.
child
world will
the
free
is
be
rebuilt.
(&)
In the relation
ethical principles
should adopt
and
of association
club, nation,
of
in
"
"
groups
we mean
of organisation
we
and
state.
is
of these
and adhered
groups
to that
extended.
It
its
We
must
method of
anarchy in industry, strike and lock-out, ca-canny and exploitation, the real administration of a
demands
one loyalty
is
in every case
supreme over
all others.
The
any world
we can
that
ethical principle of
method
will
show
is
embody what
Civilisation progresses
establishment in organisation
or
in
by the
custom
of
effective
this
second
principle.
essential
and the
upon the
relation of one
is
absolutely
upon which
it
should be
ethical principles
285
"
own
interests.
Nor
is
much
as it defends.
a dim ethical feeling in 1914 that those who used force for the
maintenance of what they believed to be justice should not
derive any economic or political gain from their possible success.
But it now appears to be believed that if you are a virtuous
result
of
war.
situation in
Therefore
which each
we need
some
to establish
social
as its
more destructive war. Neither good wages nor good will can
save us from a ruin which will leave not even the record of our
Secondly, an ethical principle
hopes.
political progress
It is
known
is
involved in the
known
persons,
relation
the benevolences of diplomacy some form of political organisahave reached the stage in which it is both necessary
tion.
We
and
if
the
politicians so
to
put in
286
DELISLE BURNS.
C.
moods
given to changing
We
or citizens.
the
into
belief
much freedom
is
Britannia
is
We
for the
arrangement
of
the relations of
The
ment
Abstractly
all states
since
states
we
are
must
ought
practically,
still
begin.
The
concern here
but,
whatever they
until
some few
while
men
we may
is
an obsolete anomaly.
But now,
establish the
states are
existence.
is
first
It is not
to
is
already
have homogeneity in
necessary
the type of administration used by different members of the
League for within the British Empire there are greater
;
It
And, indeed,
it
of
287
There is a definite
and economic homogeneity.
of
values
the
and known relation between
goods in all parts of
the world. Cotton unites men who are diverse in creed and
intellectual
And men
speech.
in
designs.
in the use of
directing
them
to drive
It is true that
on
men
to be virtuous before
political
And
best.
programme
would be out
it
But
Only a
to be estimated
fool
human
actions,
by reference to ethical
of a
it
is
own
it is
more
another.
that no
attempt
policy.
tion
is
The
evil
plea of
immense
appears so
should
difficulty
to establish
some form
of
to
and
induce us
league.
to
That
defer
is
the
practical
The greater truth remains, that no ethical reconstrucsecure which does not involve, as one of its reforms,
288
C.
DELISLE BURNS.
we
first
beginning of that
it
and
high-minded
We
freedom above
for
all
the
necessary
from the enforcement of an irresponsible obedience, by which
the majority become tools in the hands of the few, as they
always must when war and the preparation for war are
conceived as the highest service of the state. If, therefore,
we cannot destroy for ever the possibility of war, our social
reconstruction must at least diminish
the moral degradation by which
it is
its
frequency, because of
invariably accompanied.
289
IV.
% H. D. OAKELEY.
The
having been demonstrated by the present war.
question with which they are mainly or largely concerned is,,
this
By what means
so to
From one
social,
we
and
reality.
new
social
"
voluntaryism
community
Whether we
constructions.
"
or chiefly
of the state to
upon
"
of first
unreal.
persons.
In principle,
all
of
human
all
other
international reconstruction
as
prior,
though recognising
290
H.
D.
OAKELEY.
by motives more
have similar effects on
more
likely to
the motives
is
developed and
far
beyond present
and become a
which
it
must pass
In the
first
principles, each of
which
of belligerents
which represents
it.
Thus
ceived as referred to the vast arena of the world war, and the issue
ome time
come
to
the past.
summation
educational
so
of principles.
history.
certain
native
home
the worship
its
The nature
of
is
expressions
representation in
of
human
the
life
good
may
cease
to
have any
291
in
to be of
this
as this
the fact that the analogy between the state and the individual
breaks down at the crucial point, since the kind and degree of
unity necessary for the morality of the act does not exist
In another more
in the spiritual being of the nation.
subtle sense than that above referred to, the war has
been
conceived
as
conflict
of
social
principles,
viz.,
conceptions of progress existing within presentday civilization, of which the one in full vigour of life before
the war has been depressed during its course, and the other,
of distinct
previously
to
national
292
H. D.
OAKELEY.
of
economic motivation of
The impression
human
the
their theory of
behaviour in industrial
life.
commercialism alone
may
spirit
between
amongst members
bitterness, because
of the
experience
we may
modern
civilization is crumbling.
of its standards
effectively to
future efforts
and
social issues
obvious
may seem
way suggested
The
conflict will
be
the
international
position in
relation
to
reconstruction
within the society or the state appears again from the consideration that there are certain ethical principles which
293
Only
"
By
The
their great
reconstruction
of
principles
second contribution.
What
new
will be
ethic or a
visions of
Are we in need
and philosophy.
Is
Is it
demanded
that
will
certain
social
become practical
politics
It
may
be agreed
"
new
may
come
into play,
logic of the
human
new
religion,
end
of the
when
the
new comprehension
worked as a
of
religious passion,
freedom of
is
as
brain
in
the
Middle Ages,
thought and spirit
294
H. D.
new
ages.
OAKELEY.
also
come unheralded
which
transformed.
are
result
by such
all particulars
of
some extra-
men
Philosophy would do
shown
before,
if it
could show, as
it
has never
how
into actuality.
and measurements
reality,
much
life.
so
sufficient for
customary
life,
as to
The
be blind to evidence that these must be overpassed.
admit
the
of
should
student
possibility
history
philosophic
of rapid changes in the depths as well as
life,
on the surface of
social
mental climate
is
not inconceivable.
many, when
"
reconstruction would
be
most demanded
for
social
moment
The
practical question
is
how
What
to be sought is a
which the various
on
basis of agreement as to the end desired,
movements may be able to proceed in common. Moreover:
if
of
there
is
is
essentials
this
would
at a turning-point in history.
sacrifice
in itself be
we have
arrived
is
to be
295-
new understanding of
which goes so much deeper than
described in one
of personality,
way
as a
more
Eecognition of
The opposition
keynote
that
experience.
for
under
ar>
by experience
Eespect
in the
for the
third
relations of
unimpeded growth
Voluntaryism
to
that
it
in
would seem
all
members
general
It
of
own
civilised
com-
lights," there
is
essential to
the
existence
of
a real
The
development which
will.
criterion,
In the recognition
found
estimate of th&
of personality.
of the
present-day demand for
well expressed by Mr. Bertrand Eussell in his
recent book,* i.e., in the thesis that the cause of social recon-
freedom
character
special
is
struction depends
296
H. D.
'impulses in man.
This
OAKELEY.
interpretation
brings
out the
new
"ior conditions
to
forms.
newer forms
of socialism the
emphasis
is
no longer so exclu-
of
give
'a
positive
freedom
his
'organising
own
the
through
consciousness
"the ideal
activities,
that he
is
men
of
enabling
the daily work of their hands some
part of that infinite and subtle personality which- lives in each
somehow
to express in
one of them."*
it
class- war,
'belief
a heroic view of
life,
and
to preserve their
own
ideal, their
depend on
It is the
it.f
same
'principle seen
Kant's transcendent
will,
at last realised
and
at
work
in
These interpretations
strange
or
fantastic, because
we meet with
* G. D. T.
Cole, World of Labour.
t Of. Reflections on Violence, G. Sorel.
it
in
simpler
297
data
on
which
we meet
the
in
common
interpretations
psychology or philosophy of
human
are
based.
truer
the great and almost universal force, when allowed free play,
of the motives which arouse the creative energy of man, or
transformation brought
be called the real will
difficult
to
would allow
conceive a
to all a far
As
practical
Employment.
on
this
Whatever conception
much
problem which
attention
is
is
of great
of progress is adopted, it
reformers,
and Governmental
Com-
human
being has at this time a right to the social and educational opportunities which will enable him to put forth his
To sum
up.
The
in after-life.
some
on
little else
now, at
is also
least in
* Cf.
(1) Final Report of the Departmental Committee on Juvenile
Education in Relation to Employment after the War ; (2) Educational
Reconstruction Proposals of the Workers' Educational Association.
298
OAKELEY.
H. D.
respects,
as essential.
if
living
its
on
this
view
The
ultimate.
persons who
society
which
be a "
Kingdom
As
war which
agreements
even though " the organised
rule of law" be substituted for "the moods of statesmen or
citizens,"
would shrivel up
rest,
like similar
held
agreements of more
by bonds that will
restricted
unless
scope,
together
constantly grow in vitality and strength. The rule of law has
only the strength given to it by the wills which are its source,
we put our
we appear
to
If
be
in
if
given up to
and opportunity
arises.
Out
men
escape in
299
to
"a
steadfast concert
nations.
if
it
which
are
to
form
the concert.
Conversely international
300
Gr.
DAWES
HICKS.
Introduction.
1.
2.
3.
4.
"
5.
"
Acquaintance
6.
7.
Conclusion.
Introduction.
1.
THE term
"
realism
"
TJie
"
Term
Critical Realism."
philosophical discussion.
is
being developed
expounding
and
"
the
neo-realism
"
of
the
six
American
Like
all
little else
and must
rest
If I succeed in
making
of
call
301
circumstance."*
the phrase
"
directly experienced," I
am
me
At
the outset,
it
is
to lead.
whom
is
Long
any
had been coming
am
now
not
so-called
with
"
reiterated appeals
demands
of
him
of
enduring interest.
of patient investigators
many
am
thinking rather of a
number
Nature
of
Lotze.
sophical views as a
first
It
into due
prominence through
is
Lotze's philo-
* Present
Philosophical Tendencies,
p. 315.
302
G.
philosophy, and
DAWES
the estimate
in
HICKS.
is
measure
singular
the
speculative
Like Lotze, he brought to the treatment of philosophical problems a profound and intimate acquaintance with
the entire history of speculation and a critical faculty of rare
work.
later,
towards idealism.
"
puts it, "the Copernican change consisted in displacing selfconsciousness from the position it occupies in every system
of idealism."
Nothing in
its
way
is
more
significant in the
was only
its
in
Adamson came
303
the
of
subject's
own mental
whereby those
life
contents are apprehended, it must be pronounced an inconceivable thought that the subject invests the contents of his
He came
a form which
has
only subjective
to see
that
it
first
possible.
we
call the
laws of real
to him, the
fact.
of
And
fact.
somewhat similar
line
Hobhouse
careful
of
it
seemed
the necessity of
reflexion
is
pursued by
and suggestive work on
The Theory of Knowledge.
Quite in accordance with the
of
Professor
Hobhouse contends that the
Adamson,
thought
Professor
in his
In truth,
assume that the object is first given as inward.
he argues, it is not given as either. It is given as a content
present to an inward state, but the distinction between inner
and
outer, or
object, gradually
comes to
At no
point in
judgment claims
the ground of
to be true of reality,
it
does not
make
"
The under-
nature."
So,
too,
his
304
DAWES
O.
HICKS.
much
of
name
Professor Lossky,
of
movement
Adamson
question
may
ment
what
the
"
of
immediately
period
neo-realism
"
now
so
preceding
much
own.
its
in evidence,
it
Unlike
the
was no reversion
to
come across
lines of reflexion
mean
all fact
to
would be but
the conditions of
a short advance.
305
of its
most
dis-
tinguished representatives,
reason, has been intent merely upon the affinity of all objects
with spirit. It is still occupied in endeavouring to reduce all
trying to show that every natural
object, and every atomic part of every natural object, and, I
suppose, every point in space and every instant of time, if they
things into
must be
are real,
It is
centres.
proved
it
is
spirit
is
it
is,
conscious or feeling
to be spiritual
if
it
would then be
idealism
that
its
is
it
had deleted.
In
but explaining
it
"
found," he adds, to possess qualities of its
degree in which
it is
understood, takes
its
own
and, in the
place in a necessary
order."
I have, then,
In
many
realism
it
"
crucial respects,
seems to
was intended
me
what
"
currently called the
is
new
to avoid,
and
out the
hold to be essential by
significance
positions
them
with
those
taken
contrasting
by the writers who have
"
associated themselves with the new realism."
of
certain
* Sir
Henry Jones, The
Working Faith
of
the Social
Reformer,
pp. 77-8.
306
DAWES
G.
2.
HICKS.
New Realism,
"
is
thesis
it
is
ground
vantage
of
actual
scientific
achievement
can
we
Furthermore,
no light can be thrown by epistemology upon the nature of
the existent world or upon the fundamental postulates and
generalisations of science, except in so far as the knowledge of
one natural event or object enables us at times to make
some theory
of reality in order to
make headway
at
all.
The
and
Now,
if
problem to inquire
assumed
made
far
and
to
have
from these
to things as actual
is
to
rank as a
science.
reality',
its subject-
It would,
critical
that description.
to
sufficient
method with an
307
"
"
of
epistemology
his
guard
such
against
misinterpreta-
tion.
Not only
knowledge
is
so,
Kant
any doubt
neither raised
as to
whether
The idea
is possible.
Kant conceived it, was necessary
we can know the trees, the birds, the
in order
rocks,
to
show that
is
such an extraordinary
it leaves one gasping
in a vain attempt to
What
undertaking to demonstrate that they were possible.]:
he proposed to do was to inspect knowledge in its character as
apprehensive of fact, and to determine not the laws under
which
it is
its
* Dr.
Bosanquet seems rather to countenance this misconception
when, in describing the change in spirit which came about with the
" All
development of post-Kantian speculative philosophy, he writes
difficulties about the general possibility
the possibility in principle of
apprehending reality in knowledge and perception were flung aside as
antiquated lumber. What was undertaken was the direct adventure of
knowing of shaping a view of the universe which would include and
:
(Phil. R.,
January, 1917,
p. 8.)
"
Von
U 2
308
DAWES
G.
nature.
The
"
"
dogmatism
naive dogmatism,
experiencing or
to
HICKS.
if
in abstracting notions
in
employ them
its
totality
seemed to Kant
critical
method
mere
critic represents
him
as doing
so.
"
science of the
and
limits,"
was a
is
when
immortal since
it
it is
argument must
remain an airy fabric without solidity or foundation, because
the prior question had been left out of consideration, whether,
Locke attempted
to establish
the existence of
309
the
most
Kant
explicit terms,
and the
upon
its
own evidence,
viz.,
upon the
logical
but this assertion relates not to the specific truths which form
the body of these sciences
the fundamental
it relates to
;
it is
The
question, then,
is
of philosophy
may
distribution
the funda-
what
all
involve.
facts
life
Now,
upon general
the
while
consideration
of
which,
principles,
naturally of the
Prolegomena,
40.
in strict
logical
DAWES
olO
G.
more concrete
HICKS.
studies.
Epistemology
it
have
of
"
from epistemology
mainly composed
for the
demanding
"
the emancipation
should, in
the sequel, be
an epistemological basis
of efforts to provide
metaphysical doctrine
"
written to expound.
it is
Even
"
"
he contends,
"
"
is
simply
that
is
to
say,
is
ipso facto
an
apprehension of reality
If
logical,
much
of
"
independence
And
if
is
is
just
which Professor
these complexes,
complexes
"
despite
their
inde-
"
* In a footnote
tells us that under the term
(p. 45) Professor Marvin
(a) the study of the logical
metaphysics he includes two subjects
foundations of the sciences (6) the theory of reality. I fail to see what
the former of these subjects can consist of, if not of the problems I have
been indicating.
t Neio Realism, p. 126 sqq.
:
imposes."*
"
311
it
independence
conditions have been ascertained and their compatibility with
the theory made manifest ?
So, again, even though, on the
ground that
it
"
cognition
be allowed that
"
is
and the
that cognition
is
on the
same plane with other things that are, or have being, does not
absolve us from the necessity of inquiring into its nature, as
an essential preliminary to the philosophical account we may
have to offer of those other things.
The very circumstance
that, within the sphere of ordinary experience, the distinction
between true and false plays the part it does is surely in itself
a sufficient warrant for the contention that until the significance
of that distinction has been
it is
of things."
And
is
subject of investigation,
called the
"
ultimate truth
of natural science, it is
is
made the
wrongly
surely in itself
metaphysical
extended use.
an analysis of knowledge in its
examination of the conceptions by which
we endeavour
to interpret
the world,
is
in no
way rendered
is
Ibid., p. 133.
t Ibid., p. 33.
if
we are
is
to
to understand,
312
DAWES
G.
so far as
may
be given to
we
universe in which
3.
HICKS.
us,
find ourselves.
more
characteristic
of
which
that
as
objectivity
Why
that that
which
known
is
the
presented
was
it
knowing
and
is
it
reference to
It will
an object
be sufficient
to
recall
as constituents of
in
objects
means
The
that
is
to say, essentially a
and, in and
by the
in
the
first
presentations,
place,
or
the
object cognised
is,
process of
of the categories,
is
cognising, a
The process
effected.
manifold
involves,
sense-material
of
impressions, not as
such
conjunction or
sense-
cognisable,
and
These
devoid of any power to group or arrange themselves.
to
particular a posteriori elements Kant seems often inclined
the
of
real
action
the
are
things upon
say
given through
faculty
place,
is
of
sensibility.
The process
received.
As
of sense-data
ways
in
is
what
is
thus given.
313
mere
it
in the
and connectedness.
The
categories
given material.
And
is
that
it is
precisely the function of the act of synthesis to give to sensepresentations that centre of reference, that unity in difference,
which
is
what we mean by
function, in
component
special
this
to
words,
in the object
to
identify
of
The unity
finite individual
all.
it,
apart from
its
contention of
Such, however,
of self-consciousness
which, as
precisely its
meaning.
it is
which constitutes
sort
meant
other
their objectivity
is
not his
Kant viewed
"
"
unity of an object, an inner object, it is true, as contrasted
"
"
with an
outer
but the unity which is implied as a
object,
prior
condition
contemplation.
in
^A,s
"
transcendental
subject, the
Whilst actualised,
if
"
common element
which consciousness
the expression
"
is
what
it is.
314
G.
DAWES
HICKS.
of objectivity.
The
upon some
which
issues,
of
(a) There
to dwell,
is
When
either.
to
it is
said that
"
by
by
from what point
So
framed.
of
far as
view the
Kant
is
first
possible in
to us,
is
it
is
hard to see
concerned,
it
been
must, however, be
coming
know, and
(ii),
that
only on occasion
of,
and in
to, the sense-presentations resulting from such stimuFurtherthere apprehension of objects on our part.
reference
lation is
more,
and understanding,
active.
leads inevitably
"
knowledge by acquaintance and know"
have been contrasted in recent discussion.
ledge by description
But, as the analysis proceeds, it becomes very evident that
manner
such
is
in which
"
Understanding cannot, we
find,
the content of
itself
objects, sensibility
is
315
empty;
it
cannot
The
receives.
"
In no other way than through the combination of these two can knowledge arise." (5) The assumed
former
is
blind.
nature
heterogeneity in
characterised by
creates for
of
receptivity,
sense
and
the
other
problem
by
as
is
to
one
the
spontaneity,
difficulties, of
ficial
thought,
which the
arti-
manner
of
their
co-operation.
Leaving, however, these difficulties on one side,
the point I am more concerned to emphasise is the following.
The
In a certain
in the development
awareness of things,
the
prepares
way
common-sense
"
"
for
the
and
is
that
for
differentiation
of
"
classes
what
crude
'
of
The
primitive
experience of the first look,"
more accurate discernment of
intelligence.
the
knowledge,
sensuous universals
in
of
a reflective
interpretation
as
of
allows
no
and
room
the
for
indeterminate
particulars
of
sense
What
this
progressive development.
he virtually did was to take scientific experience as typical
of all experience, and with that alone before him no doubt
the
severance in
question
No
316
G.
DAWES
HICKS.
sooner, however,
in the table of
the
primitive
is
consciousness
primitive consciousness
mere sense receptivity.*
is
as
it
is
condemned
to
implicitly, in
to the
"
blindness
"
of
is
by Kant assigned
is
to
knowledge
There undoubtedly clings to his entire mode of
exposition the view that cognition is brought about through a
mechanical affection of the mind by a real agent, the result of
as a whole.
is
furnished
by the
marks
of
must accordingly be a
itself,
life or
mind
as such lie
conscious subject.
And
awkward predicament
so the
one
it
has
all
things
and
distinct
* "The
from the
common
finite
root,"
knower.
place,
suggests that the two contrasted stems may have sprung, was only
" hidden " from him
through the unfortunately narrow sphere to which
he confined attention.
317
Where
in need of revision.
As
"
affections
"
or
"
to say, a
is
thoroughly
impressions," sensations
was necessary
may
and the
be said to be that
Now,
it
have depicted.
For
let it
of
"
"
impressions
received into
is
relations,
them
let
it
be
to
things which, as
stand
over
agreed,
against the conscious
Then, obviously,
the act of knowing will no longer be an act of synthesising, in
318
G.
Kant's sense
DAWES
HICKS.
already synthesised.
The
and
discriminate
it
its features, to
of it
distinguish
some extent,
to recognise, to
become aware
to
it
its relations.*
not in
itself
fact,
how
We
shall
we
come
to
appear as
way
in
self
recognition.
On
to
the question as
Clearly, I think,
upon the
sense-data,"
UK
Meinong expresses
it),
4,
The Two-Fold
To that question
Cliaracter of the
know;
or,
of
more generally,
now
turn.
Act of Perceiving.
* I am not
saying, of course, that no synthesis will be involved in the
act of knowing.
Synthetic, in a certain sense, I should say every
cognitive act undoubtedly, is,. But the synthesis will not \^ a. puffing
together of the parts of the object.
different items of awareness.
Jt will consist
in
holding together
319
something
to
judge,
Meinong, "one
of the
without
all,
to
declares
something
apprehend,
most self-evident propositions yielded
is,"
thing"
is
it
directed
is
"
this
some-
is,
dependent
no doubt, true
Not
for itself.
so,
awareness
The
physical event
other than itself.
To speak
a mental event.
Awareness
is
is a dependence of a
event
can be described
physical
would be
upon what
in question
in
every event.
of
in
and
to speak of that
"
something
of
which there
indispensable correlative.
"
"
upon which the act of
something
directed
which
is
no existence,
"
an
of
is
is its
Meinong
calls
its
object (G-egenstancT)
awareness
and
to
is
the
"
"
term
to distinguish, differentiate
apprehension, and
to
Under
about them.
"
"
things
numbers,
of
known a priori
the general term, he includes such differ-
and
perception,
propositions,
scientific
hypotheses,
philosophical
theories.
such as a
I
am
false proposition,
not
now
going to raise
subsist.
320
G.
DAWES
HICKS.
act of thought in a
in being
manner
known
"
thing,"
an
"
"
something we are concerned with
kind usually described as physical.
"
is
an existent fact
And
so
far
the
of the
term
"
As
referring to perception,
no one,
I take
will challenge
neither identical
it,
is
upon which it is
So much even Berkeley allowed when he insisted
perceiving
is,
"
but
only by
what
way
of idea
"
(Principles,
49).
which
it
is
These are
(i)
otherwise,
* I think
of the
which
it
is
question.
321
and
act,
(ii)
is
of the former
thing
the
is
of
object
the
act.
cognitive
was
accustomed
draw
to
between
"
The
distinction
Shadworth Hodgsoni
as an
consciousness
is
say, which,
most
to
it
whatsoever.
look
more
closely at the
thetical
nature.
But, without
touching
that
controversy,
concrete instance.
am
322
<J.
DAWES
HICKS.
From
mental in bringing about that mental state of mine.
the primrose there have probably emanated modes of energy
be they of the form of transverse vibratory motions propagated longitudinally through the ether conceived according
to the undulatory theory, or of the form of the electromagnetic
waves conceived by Clerk Maxwell and Hertz and through
them
my
'In
-fibres of
whatever
connected.
ithis
What happens
chain of events
then
What
Commonly
it is
is
made, either in
the brain or in the mind, from molecular motion to a so-called
Under cover of the ambiguous term
secondary quality.
"
transition
is
is
more
we
in consequence of the
serious than
is that
any
it finds.
All
cerebral change there arises, not a brand new quality nor the
awareness of one, but a mental state or activity, in and
through which, when a certain other set of conditions has been
fulfilled,
and not
until, there
The
object.
entire
"
directed upon
mental act had been, as Meinong puts it,
would
not
come about.
something," the awareness in question
323
short,
call
become
awakening,
related
to
in
if
it
perception;
irrelevant.
totally
is,
them
related
therefore,
as a
knowing
Our knowledge
of
different
facts
is
them
is
to
them, but
it
is
not
known.
related to things
perception
And, in
itself.
knowing
must necessarily be
Leaving
cognitive act
now
itself.
mode
its
Any
of
occurrence,
consider
accurate description of
its
the
nature
itself
attempt, all
act in
We
Now, a
this reflective
attitude
it
is
we have
own manner
for, as
more
possible
for
seen, the
of origin.
or less, to take
him
to
up
turn his
becomes a
What
to yield.
an act of building up
x 2
324
G.
DAWES
HICKS.
it
from without.
aware.
Kant was
comes
to
be
of scrutinising it
it
really taking up
who, having followed some such sequence of events as we were
considering a moment ago, proceeds to ask What, now, should
I further observe if I went on inspecting this series of events
:
And
it
seemed
to him, naturally
from his
means
of supplying.
But a
self-conscious subject,
who
has not
know
Lossky in his paper read before this Society three years ago.
It is a summer's day, and I am walking on a river bank
covered with vegetation, but instead of noticing the
details
merged
me
all
life.
green banks, the reeds near the shore these gradually stand
out as distinct from one another. And as the cognitive process
continues, the growth near the banks, which before had appeared
like a confused uniform mass, breaks
up
in the
825
of the sweet
sedge, and even in the dark mass of the reeds their stems,
leaves, and dark brown brushes can be distinguished from one
another by their colour, shape, and position. We have here,
concerned,
it
is
of perception
typical
own
will
it
in
Viewed from
exemplified.
itself as a
describe
not
process,
the
of
features
Whoever endeavours
it.
his
or succession of acts,
act,
it,
faithfully
a perceptive act of
will invariably
it
constructing
of
an
an
evince
object, but
of
dis-
object, of
gradually
differentiating
cerning distinctions which were not at first noticed, and of
It is
tracing connexions which were not at first discerned.
perfectly true that in the instance I have been using the
at
the results of
a long prior
mind
experience
were
and
activity
is
exercised
we
be in our
too often
essentially a process
thus find the process to
is
it
"
Hutchison Stirling's illustration
When, one morning, the
and
all
their
before
day broke,
eyes a ship stood, what it
unexpectedly
was was evident at a glance to Crusoe ....
But how was it with
Friday ? As younger and uncivilised, his eyes were presumably better
than those of his master.
That is, Friday saw the ship really the best
of the two
and yet he could hardly be said to see it at all .... What
to Crusoe was an object, was to Friday only a dark and amorphous blur,
a perplexing, confusing, frightening mass of (ill-differentiated) details."
Cf,
Textbook
to
Kant,
p. 54.
320
G.
DAWES
HICKS.
no ground
for
such
supposition, but on
"
"
the con-
be crudely
may
trary every ground
things
discriminated from one another without the faintest recognition of either the relation of difference or of the differences
as
aspects
from
distinguishable
the
that
facts
differ.
The
than
it is
"
directed
not imply that the object or any part of it is existentially contained in the act of being conscious still less does it imply, as
;
is
"
out there
"
is.
It implies that the cognitive act has now
a
definite
character it has become awareness
acquired
specific
a
or
of
more
less
distinct and definite something.
of something,
The awareness
ness,
of a primrose.
an aware-
nor the primrose, as existing entities, are in any way part of, or
contained in, the awareness the object of an act of awareness
is always other than, and distinct from, the act of being aware
;
it.
the case
we
physical,
yet
it
whether
of a water-drop or of a primrose.
is
not
it is
Both
327T
REALISM".
not a bare aetivity that remainsen tirely untouched by the attributes of the things which itdiscriminates there is no such thing as awareness in general;
Cognition, in other words,
is
just as there
general.
its specific
awareness
is
character
of.
is
It has
become customary
what
am now
desirous of doing
is to
make
clear, if I can,
the
it
Rather
cognised as an object.
the whole act,
aspect of a material
"
ideas
"
an inseparable aspect of
is an inseparable
bod}'-.
who spoke
of
was taken to be
"
it
is
extended."*
itself
And
"
blue," the
"
"
it is
not
a.
That was
"
"
presentations
01:
idea of extension
"
"
to be-
came
to
be regarded as
of a cognitive act
and the
act
a severance
hension.
from
its
"
that."
is
The content
"what"
that
is
inseparable
not blue, but the awareness of blue, just as the content of the act
of perceiving a primrose is not a primrose but the awareness of
"
that a sensation
Psychologists must admit," says Professor Holt,
is a red sensation, and the
of
a
perception
landscape is as big as
the landscape."
The Concept of Comciousness, p. 148.
"
of red
328
G.
DAWES
HICKS.
apprehended.
I
can perhaps make
my
content of
my own
apprehension
which
Now,
state.
the act of
in
it
And
psychical existence.
to
of
another existence
me
seems to
this
hard
And
table.
existent reality
of
a certain
definite
my
mental state
is
am
of
of hardness, in
any
am
Hardness
than myself,
not a content of mind
is
a content
to existences other
&s, for
is,
on the
of
the
constituents,
is
not
awareness and
"
5.
"
Acquaintance
and
329
"
Description"
reference to the
us,
In
on secure ground.
always
perception
method
its
It
is,
and
is
of their
of procedure
is first
to analyse the
warm
temperatures as
felt are
the temperatures of
analysis,
single out the elements that go, for instance, to constitute the
perception of the brown table, and attend merely to the apprehension of the colour. And by such means we may observe the
characteristics of the sense quality itself
manner
That
in
which
limits,
But
lead the
inquirer astray.
In the
first
place,
it
tends inevitably to
aggregate made up
by
artificial
it is
which
it
itself
is
an
to imagine that
was tempted
to
It
of
sense
330
G.
DAWES
HICKS.
it a whole and
gives it meaning
on
such
a
So a process of
quite inexplicable
supposition.
or
is
called in to do that which cannot be
thinking
judging
accomplished by any combination of acts of sensing.
The
qualities.
is
consequence
is
developed
Now,
of
and
much
been so
late
"
"
description
in
vogue,
illustrates the
'*
acquaintance
just mentioned.
dangers
Mr. Russell
conceives
relations with
that
which has
"
between
cognitive
to do, radically
or description,
several
is
objects
objects of
mode
of
Obviously, Mr.
acquaintance
a sensible presentation, and
it
acquaintance
does not intend
Russell
the
is
"
"
Amongst
"
"
to
identify
sense
"
* Grace A. de
Laguna, Sensation and Perception," Journal of Phil. t
534
xiii, p.
(1916).
331
"
"
are two specific kinds of knowing, and that there can, at least,
be the former without the latter. And in this respect we have,
of
Kantian theory at
once
arise.
not, I
have
said,
"
"
take
acquaintance
of
an affection of
is
apprehended
more
scrutinise
closely
"
its
acquaintance,"
difference
it
totally distinct
exist
may
when we
of
sensuous
respect,
There
to disappear.
so
involved,
offered
Yet
the mind.
account
the
when
is
not sensed.
it is
But
if
"
married
a
"
vanishing point.
No
error
must be
it all
"
dreams," must be
us."*
One
asks,
"
perplexity,
An
"
act
"
some mode
"
act,"
indicate,
of
* Our
Knowledge of the External World,
p. 85.
332
reverse
given
"
DAWES
G.
we
HICKS.
feel passive
in sensation."*
am
bound, therefore, to
made, however,
say, Kant's
an object
is
problem at
If,
less
of
at,
"
would assuredly
that
when he speaks
a thing as a
of a sensible object
"
table, but
is
sensible object
mean by
objection,
"
is
repeatedly meaning by
told us he does not
it.
It will not
and
language of
Ibid., p. 75.
t Ibid., p. 107.
\ Ibid., p. 76.
common
sense
is
333
stand
are,
it.
as such,
that he
is
"indubitably
in America, but
England, his
pageant," but
"
tables,
then there
is it
argument would be
two
"
As
himself admits,
complex
"
three-dimensional
Professor Whitehead,
"
that
world."
"
moment an immensely
We
imagine,"
we have immediate
writes
experience of a
known
to us
by the
formed by
"
exact points, without parts and without magnitude ;f and
senses,
happen
to raise
urge
is
score.
What
am
concerned to
Ibid., p. 86.
334
it
(hard though
"
DAWES
G.
belonging to
"),
to
ie
HICKS.
interpret
philosophically
term
the
directly apprehended
"
"
things
"
difficult to re-discover."
what
I ask, then,
which, be
helter-skelter sense-data,"
we
it
remembered,
is
yet,
question.
by
The kind
calling to
He
thought."
"
perception."
"
direct sense-presentation.
is
we imagine
it.
Thus
it is
actual in our
And
I take it that
when Mr.
and describes
is actual there."*
Eussell talks of " common-sense
"
it
as
to his view,
this result
jas
is
taken
to be largely
is,
cry,
Ibid., p. 155.
had intended.
Once
335
again,'
ledge
Man
according, at
any
fictitious artifice,
Nor does
rate, to this
and there
is,
calls it
in truth, no
be any number
of
such
"nature";
new Kantianism,
artificial
why
"
the
web
nature
"
but
is
at
all.
Indeed, the
creations.
amazing thing
is
crucial
of
stage
arrested.
how
the speculation
the
"
"
Kant
is
to
make
sought
return
to
is to say,
universal
very remote
"
epoch."
prehistoric
"
"
"
stones, mountains,
devising the belief in so-called things
but of somehow, without
the earth and moon and sun," etc.
any
of the
their
Verily, the
336
DAWES
G.
now
Eeverting
"
acquaintance
then,
is
that
and
HICKS.
between "knowledge by
to the antithesis
"
it calls
know-
no cognitive
The crudest act of sense-apprehension is still an act of discriminating and comparing, an act involving, therefore, the characteristic that, in a
And
act of judging.
mistake and
liability to
separately the
illusion.
sense-particulars, of
some
is,
separate sense-apprehension
judging asserts
All too readily
itself so persistently in
must
be
in the
epistemological reflexion.
it
by analysis may
It'
why
is
if
the
"
"
things
of
common-sense
experience
For,
"
be veritable existences
of perception progressing
in
and
if,
earth
through
our
trustworthiness,
it
into
and by analysis, to
from
an
external point of
seem,
what would
337
Only, in that
made by our
abstract-
empty.
6.
he does,
the existence of physical objects, conceived as they had been
conceived in The Problems of Philosophy, should have come to
It is intelligible that, following the line of thought
seem
"
Mr. Eussell
to
dubious.
To
infer
the existence of
"
matter
"
"
sense-data
"
by the
aid of
which
Kant
directed
his
that, if the
"
polemic.
Accordingly,
"
class of appearances
will
"
"
of which the
of
thing
the
in identifying the
In that
"
"
thing
"
"
with the
"
thing
may
aspects or appearances.
an interesting parallel
is
to
"
to
him
to constrain us.
838
G.
DAWES
HICKS.
Mr. Russell has worked out his theory with great skill, and
has certainly succeeded in presenting an atomistic philosophy
to
it
were proved
that sense-data
Now,
it
has to be remembered
and brain
particulars.
When, then
momentary
we see,
we say, the sun, what we really see are groups of appearances that owe their existence to the physiological assemblages
of particulars in relation, I suppose, to certain of the particulars
as
to
the
assemblage"
their
number
all
legitimacy
the last
of
including
named
* Monist,
despite
within
the
"
whole
that
their
the
fact
339
is
causally dependent
upon
other
"assemblages."
of the particulars
with the vastly greater
that go to constitute the sun on the one hand, and eyes and
nerves and brain on the other. These are not and can never
My concern
number
is
for
"
Mr.
Eussell,
at
appearances
such
places."*
appeal to
Does
Dinge-an-sich of Kant.
therefore,
To christen them
purely arbitrary.
entity which
may become
sensibile,
we
sensibilia
are
seems,
told, is
an
relation of
In the second
of the
term
"
Y 2
340
G.
DAWES
HICKS.
between
"
"
apparent
and
"
real
own
"
"
"
thing
may he
"
of
as
a
certain
series
contended,
appearances."
regarded,
And by " appearance " Mr. Russell desires to have consistently
it is
"
"
"
for the
a certain series of appearances
thing of
common-sense experience violently contradicts the deliverances
tion of
of
common-sense experience
When
itself.
"
"
thing
Certainly, no unsophisticated
to
consist
"
of
common-sense contrasts a
"
thing with
to be not existing
"
"
a series of
"
its
what
this
appearances,"
now
"
things
to these
entities,
"
For,
"
that
assume the
newly invented
is
newly invented
And, in reference
role of
of the old.
familiar antithesis.
The
me
table in front of
is
"
to be regarded, not as
one single
But the
That
is
am
it
the
may
be directed upon
*
it.
which
And, be
it
my
act of perception
noted, I
p. 403.
am
not
now
341
my
referring to
am
"
belief
is
there
still
when
not perceiving it
I am referring to its at least apparent
To retort that the table
persistence whilst I am perceiving it.
;
appears to
me
from what
different
judgments about
it is
is
it
because I
whole case
make
of
false
immediate
Here am
acquaintance, as contrasted with judgment, away.
I in immediate relation to that complex of sense-data which,
what
This complex
seems to me to persist.
If the persistence be an illusion,
due to false judgments on my part, then I ask, where in the
"
world do I ever get the undiluted " acquaintance with sense-
ex hypotliesi, constitute
data that
is free
become
to
namely,! as
"
with
acquainted
"
entities succeeding
Where do
I ever contrive
sensibilia as
for
is
everywhere
what becomes
prevalent,
"
of
that
infallible
knowledge by acquaintance,"
"
the ultimate certainty on which all
to be
of
In treating of
what
exists
must be based" ?*
knowledge
the theory of continuity, Mr. Eussell himself supplies an
indubitable as
We
"
urges,
A single
surfaces A and B.
data."
sense-datum
e.g.,
in sight, to be a finite
which are
may
the colour
differ
it is
is
* Mind,
N.S., vol. xxii, 1913, p. 79.
t Our Knowledge of the External World, pp. 148-9.
342
DAWES
G.
HICKS.
In
momentary
and in
sensibilia,
My
one
"
Far from
sensible object."
"
sensible object
contention, of course, is that the
"
"
another.
To
physical object
thing and the
"
is
it.
not
put the
we
of these characteristics
Through the
error.
and
it
it
is
effects of contrast, or
wise than
Our appre-
to apprehend.
is,
Many
of perceiving, to discriminate
hension
of parts
always liable to
what
may appear
to us other-
disturbing influences
And
of the contention I
it is
am
criterion.
But
this is
is
colourless, or
even that
its
to
the
"
more
"
is
Under the
"
more
343.
"
may quite well beincluded the elements which the physicist has good reason
"
for thinking go to constitute the " matter
of the object.
perceptible.
luminous body
may
and
consist
We
we
must be the
colour.
warrant.
M. Bergson,
is,
however, no
reel
scientific
of a flash of light as
being the condensation, into one simul-
itself to
guished by
"
resolves itself,
quality, such as a colour,
enormous number
But a red
elementary movements/'^
mode of wave-motion and no explanation
character whatsoever is afforded by taking it to be " the
colour
of its
on analysis, into an
is
of
simply not a
find
no valid reason
for
On
thus the wave-motions, although not the cause of the colour, are
the cause of the stimulation of the sense-orean which occasions
* Matiere
344
DAWES
G.
HICKS.
we
which
its
body
as a
Why
if
not that,
whole
may
why
should
have qualities
states
it,
"
iise
causation
of
you cannot
perception to
life.
Sense-qualities,
mind's structure.
no
light
or
on the coming
mode
so the latter's
we
mind
the
to be of
of origin is left
"
"
appeal to a re-action of the mind upon stimulation. There
"
"
re-action as in the notion
is as little in the notion of mental
of
>
For, after
"
all,
motion"; and
"
upon stimulation
scarcely an effective way
re-action
is
a "
mode
of
of disposing of
it is
"
materialism to transport into the mind," and when there to use
as your principle of explanation, the very mechanism you have
"
shown
any
But
its
So
far,
at
ground of
lingering fictions.
that they are no longer held to be mental in character, are
"
"
"
"
precisely the presentations or ideas of the old subjectivism,
Perception, Physics,
and
Reality, p. 224.
345
"
life of
mind
to a
any
order.
They
and the only difference they exhibit
direction."
But, if that were the case, I
consciousness,
ference of
is
a " dif-
fail to
see
"
but yesterday.
is
directed
upon
it.
is
We
that differed from one another merely in their modes of " direc"
tion ? Professor Alexander gives, I venture to urge, the case
is
its
that the
itself
upon
346
DAWKS
G.
of existence
which
in
obviously what
both
HICKS.
kinds
these
blended
are
for
mode
is
enough to
he is virtually recognising what I have been calling
"
content
of a mental act.
In short, empty consciousness
object to
the
"
endowments."
"
"
'
Consciousness/
said
William James,
"
when once
it
has
on the point
pure diaphaneity,
of disappearing altogether."
Professor Alexander will not
"
new
countenance its dismissal
but the adherents of the
evaporated to the estate of
is
is
Professor Holt's
name.
the
by setting forth
my
case in
oppo-
sition to his.
We
are, so
universe in which
all
things
physical,
Concerning these
for, if
we
to be of
"
entities, there is
no question
one substance
neutral entities
"
all,
a substance which
form a system
of substances,
they must
is
"
all
be said
neutral."
These
and mathematical
entities
the forms of
order,
of
the
order.
347
"
"
being come the
secondary
qualities, or, more properly, the qualities, and with them the
concept of intensity. Upon these supervene geometry, the
Next
in
this
hierarchy
of
and animal
life,
consciousness
or
And
yet,
it is
Each one
of the qualities is a
contended, there
no improbasome day be
is
the
entities,
all.
Thus the
"
vital force,"
which
to
former generations
from
the entities of the inorganic world, is now generally acknowIt is, then,
ledged to be explicable in chemical terms.
Professor Holt's contention that a "
may
mind
"
or
"
consciousness
fundamental "neutral
entities."
"
more
mast
bow and
fore-
through
have
remain
so),
(and
they
passing
although
thus gained membership in another manifold the class of all
objects on which the illumination falls. A mind or consciousness
is
may
348
G.
DAWES
HICKS.
the
subsisting universe.
class or
If,
So conceived,
group of entities
now, we
are ready to
recognise with Aristotle, that thought and its object are one,
why
should
we
hesitate
to
recognise
that
and
sensations
their "objects"?
when included
in the particular
call consciousness,
may
be
you
In the
I confine attention to a few.
the ground at once.
the "cross-section" which is consciousness is alleged
first place,
to be defined
the
human
by the responses
being
is
of the
responds.
human
being
enchanted
is
nervous system.
And
principle
of Prospero's
law of gravitation,
349
"
would surely be
For, on
futile.
it is,
and not
to their
assumed
logical
components
"
to consist that
In truth,
"
"
consciousness
is suronly because
on
introduced
into
the
nervous
which
it is
response
reptitiously
declared to depend that the account given of the nervous
section."
it is
to the surface.
On
is
represented by
are
sub-selfconscious."f
argument,
it
is
clear,
the
at
it
is
"
no neural responses
meant as
subconscious, unless
this
is
Now,
the
sake
identity
any
insisted that
rate,
granting,
of
for
consciousness
with
its
of
the
objects,
350
G.
DAWES
HICKS.
of which
entities
'
web
of
we
an object which
conscious
conscious in a
is
outside
that
context
cross-section
do
not
is
equally
suggest that
the
it
same,
would
be
a meaning.
events, large
"
it is difficult
numbers
to attach
or,
at all
"
"
"
objective
as
the
other
components
of
"
being
;f
so
that,
Ibid., p. 207.
and
292.
351
what
is
only another
recognise itself as
interpret what
is
idealist writers
"
halt."
finite
mind
that
able to
is
"
Hegel's Absolute.
There is no other basis upon which a realistic theory of
knowledge can rest than the distinction between the act of
if its
real
in earnest with
it
is
Tn~eT^ distinction
to be grasped, that
meaning
and recognise that
it
an object
requires
we should be
"
in
and
In perpossible.
ception, the mind is unquestionably directed upon an object.
But to suppose that the specific character of the mental
of
is
"
"
activity involved consists merely in such direction
me an
*
seems to
p. 4.
352
DAWES
G.
from
as
outside
the
HICKS.
a part, so to
speak,
conscious subject's
own
mode
of the
an external
position of
the whole
of
objective situation
And from
direction."
"
"
direction
it is
"
Scrutinise,
view
constitutive," in the
sense,
is
"
"
1
Kantian
what
is
Nothing
mode
sentative theory
of
"
"
/
"
is
then,
From
independent existence.
of
by a further
"
no
first
"
repre-
"
the awareness of red," and
instead of
transition,
"
We
far cry.
that to the
that
we go on
is to say,
to substitute
"
red
"
for
quagmire
realism
"
idea
"
"
esse of
by the "new
the term
"
"
"
the
object
idea
related to the
this fashion,
problem,
prescribed
is
"
or
"
indicates
idea
"
is
pcrcipi
and
insisting that
it.
"
"
object
is
353
it^_rejection forces
"
of
object
in fact,
is,
act
of that
way
upon which
the-
is
knowing
is
ported into the act, or that the content of the act is, in any
"
nearer object," as Dr. Bosansense, an intermediary object (a
quet
calls
it),
the
specific
We
that
is
what
report of
way
in
arisen
is
is
must be
is
no impediment
need not assume,
is
"
diaphanous,"
to be trusted.
if
its
But the
of its
the two states, the act of being aware of red, and the act of
being aware of blue, and almost inevitably the former will
"
"
appear to be made up of awareness" and red," and the latter
of "awareness" and "blue."
The "red" and the "blue" will
"
awareness" in
appear to be readily distinguishable, while the
the one case will appear to be indistinguishable from the
"
"
awareness
blue.
One reason
"
Awareness," so regarded,
"
"
I think which Kant
must be capable
*
of
accompanying
Ibid., p. 223.
all
my
presenta-
<
354
tions
"
and naturally
G.
DAWES
it
HICKS.
blue" and
to detect ;
is
it,
it,
"
colour,"
too, will
seem to be
"
will be
no
made up
made up
of
of
less difficult
is,
and
with
its
"awareness of
definite content,
ness" simpliciter,
red,"
continuum
ditions of
which
feeling-tone
seem
to
be their invariable
find
not in
conation
mental
characteristic of
but
in
Doubtless, in psychology it is
advisable to restrict the use of the term "knowledge" to
life.
cognition that has reached a certain level of psychical development; but the main principle is not thereby affected.
human mind,
at
know
fulfilled,
rate,
demand
it.
Even
of
if it
knowledge, and of
in perfectly completed
would remain,
of
knowledge
for it is
itself.
could be
all
knowledge
is
known
7.
My
Conclusion.
The
physical theory.
concerned
is
have striven
355
to add, in conclusion,
it,
so far as possible,
And,
me
guard against
may be
that
commonly
lives
are
tried to
called "dualism."
the world
is
or
full of entities,
modes
Nor am
matter.
I in the least
of being,
character
which
are,
must form
an interconnected system.
So much I am, on the contrary,
to
a bare statement of that sort
Yet
quite willing
grant.
amounts in
answer,
if
The question
itself to little.
it
can,
is
for metaphysics to
would be
differences
which everything
have
arisen
one
ultimate
being
of
realism,"
notwithstanding
its
When,
for example, it is
356
G.
DAWES
"
meaning
called
is
"
what
is
mental
HICKS.
"
if
"
is
it
is
by physics," while a
aware
of something,"*
type.
it
"
modes
"
mental
mind.
or
"
"
attributes
"
"
"
qualities
may
be
by a
was
to
Berkeley
disposed
regard pleasure
"
in this respect to
ideas," whereas Mr. Russell
It is true that
and pain
as allied
and
that,
But even on
ground.
"
new
realists
"
the
are by no
make
A more
Both the
"
new
"
interpret
"
thing
as
made up
of
is,
however,
"
its
appearances."
"
of
"
"
this.
would displace
it
"
assumpA
with changing appearances.
permanent things
"
he takes to be a certain series of appearances, conthing
nected with each other by continuity and by certain causal
laws.
Leaving, for the moment, on one side the atomism
"
that
is
is
post-Kantian
view
of nature
idealism
* Russell,
In his able
357
its
is
"
called the
"
real thing
"
rest
No
content of reality.*
differ
of "appearances."
Now
to
"
the
realism
"
for
which in
this
upon the
stress
by laying
which are
not,
an act
of
of
to
any
"
"
things
appearances
"
"
other.
"
appearance
Appearances," according to the view I am taking, are not
themselves existing entities, but ways in which existing entities
"
are apprehended.
"
"
and
thing
"
the
thing
made up
"
of parts
is
whole and
as a
may "appear"
quality
"
its
and
in
of qualities,
a countless
its constituents.
its
number
ways
of
"
"
thing
is
of its qualities
But
of ways.
appearing
it
this
remains
IX
358
G.
DAWES
HICKS.
reflexion
well be.
How
whole, and
how they
another,
are
under any and all circumstances be predicated," or that " all its
properties can be predicated of each of its parts." Absurdities
of that order merit not serious refutation.
On
"
thing
we
are,
The
empirical grounds, to lay down.
hardand
the
I
which
apprehend by sight
brown-shiny-oblong
solid-oblong which I discern by touch I am entitled, it seems
I think, entitled, on
to
of
table,
namely, in front
And, further
the table are on a different footing from
sitting.
same portion
of space,
"
bat
In
like
subsists
in
And
disposed
of,
"
once for
brickall,
by
sensations,"f
is
359
nothing
it is
essentially
an
and
discovers,
is
stituting a substantial identity of existence is again a metaphysical question upon which, for our present purpose, it was
mind
is
and
The mind
something
connected together in a manner as
activity,
of beads
a cinema entertainment.
its states,
is its
little
states
or
modes
of
analogous to a series
to a succession of films in
360
XII.
SOME ASPECTS OF
THE PHILOSOPHY OF
PLOTINUS.
By W.
E. INGE.
THE
His philosophy has been the intellectual foundation of Christian mysticism, and of many theological systems,
from Scotus Erigena to some quite modern writers.
And yet
Dionysius.
he
is
copy from each other the most superficial and often erroneous
In our
descriptions of his views, and do so unreproved.
universities, the history of
"
Augustine.
purgatissimum
et
Os
of Plotinus
illud
Platonis
lucidissimum,
may
be interesting
quod in philosophia
dimotis
nubibus
erroris,
361
2. Seville.
One
of
the
most
sit."
vigorous
thinkers
that
"
Troeltscli.
scientific
In
my
opinion
and philosophical
the
spirit in
naturally gives
4.
me
"
Eucken.
great pleasure.
The
philosopher of this
third
Geist des
Plotin"
5.
Benn.
"
No
other
thinker has
ever
accomplished a
longed duration."
6.
Whittaker.
Aristotle
7.
"
and Descartes."
Drews.
"
of antiquity."
have avoided
in which
exaggeration by which the vision of the One has been made the
I have not demonstrated that he is
centre of this philosophy.
if
362
W.
R.
INGE.
result not of
is
is
one of
he approaches it
throw any new light upon it. " Some of the blessed ancients
must have found the truth. It is enough for us to select the
it
Time
which
it
is,
as
PlatoJ says,
resembles as
of Spirit,
and Time
is
much
but,
We have,
it."
when we
analyse
it
But we must
not,,
particular things as
parts of itself,
their future."
existence
vidual
life
of their
Each
to
be
"
+ So Augustine, Confessions, xi, 14, says, Quid est tempus
scio
si
quaerat,
quaerenti explicare velim, nescio."
me
}
Timceus, 37.
3, 7, 3.
Si
nemo
363
real.
In the
symbol and copy of the perfection of Eternity.*
eternal world, on the contrary, there is no future or past.
Activity there is but if it were possible to take a section
of eternal life, as we attempt to do for this life when we
"
"
from the past and the future, the
the present
separate
section would exhibit all the perfection of the whole.
The
;
of
Time
is
succession (TO
aXXo
/JLCT
perfection.
Will
is
rest,
of
The views of the Stoics and other schools about the nature
Time are found to be erroneous. The Stoics identified Time
A
(TO
be
many
times.
Hestiaeus of Perinthus,
Is
is
interval of
motion"
(lavrjcrews
of
motion?
It
is
not
"the
"
interval
"
(between the
first
and
But
this only
last
(f<f)ftris) is
xi, 24.
364
W.
K.
INGE.
it
Time.
Plotinus then considers the Aristotelian definition,* that
Time
"
is
the
The
of motion."
difficulty
we are no nearer to
in
what
Time
is
itself.
is
Time
knowing
something else than
"
the number which measures motion according to anteriority
and posteriority."
Unless these last words are used in a
certainly a standard of measurement, but
"
which would be
spatial sense,
words
might
suggests
that
be
the
is true,
used
by a
is
idealist.
subjective
Plotinus
said, and
ought
measured by motion; Time is
to
Aristotelians
have
to be in itself.
the Epicurean
Lastly,
Plotinus
cussion.
this,
now comes
Time
is
to
natural
The
is
an accident
no explanation at
all.
(<t>va-ei)
Plotinus wishes us to
is
it
had
to be.
In saying
we have
to accept as
intellectual
of
given facts
the meta-
speculations
Things
physician belong to the life of Soul, not of Spirit.
that are real to Soul are part of the atmosphere which the
365
It is
breathes.
bound
to accept
though
intellect treats
them
is
life.
speculations about
transcend it*;
forced
it
away
upward
In nothing
The
Time.
is this
Spirit
so
still
much
Any
in
Soul
involved in
that
the
means
but we are
we cannot think
them;
when
it
It is for
it.
explanation of time in
he
"
half
Shall
we
is
it
as
"
contrary to Nature."
Time that
still
bosom
of Reality
its
it
"
"
the nature
what
it
"With
this
motive the Soul of the World took upon her the form
of a
sees
in
made
Time
in all things.f
for itself
when
it
Time
the form
desires to reproduce
is
the
It is
"
the
the soul as
another.^
*
TTpwrov fifv eavrr/v fxpovucrtv, avri TOV atatvos TOVTOV Troijjcrncra' 7re<ra
KOI TO> yei/o/it j>< e'ScoKe 8ov\(Vtiv xpovw, 3, 7, 1 1.
+ ovde at -\l/v)(al tv xpovip aXXa TO. Tradrj avrfav Kal TO. Trotij/nara, 4, 4, 15.
I 3, 7, 11.
W.
366
R. INGE.
We
In the vulgar
not.
"
sense of
eternity,"
time-series,
"
Time
having no beginning and no end, is itself eternal.
is the activity of an eternal Soul, not turned towards itself
nor within
It
is
is
"
itself,
composed
life
its
course
move-
This
attendant,
inseparable
and
uniform
is
unbroken activity
representing
of
what we may
its
correspondence
creator.
More limited
ideas
particular
in
the
Spiritual
Time.
real
call
in
steady,
with
the
activities,
World, are
much Time
as
is
If they
we might
determined
time-systems,
by
many
particular activities.
is
interesting in
itself,
aroused so
Bergson's
moving
much
enemy
interest
is
that
"
among
which has
philosophers in our
false intellectualism
own
day.
which immobilises
counters."
By
of thinking,
3, 7, 12.
itcura
In
q
4, 4, 1,
VOTJITIS.
he says that
all spiritual
perception
is
timeless
367
matics (for these are the methods of mechanical science) are not
applicable to living beings.
may describe the course of
We
insists
and
no
inner
what
teleology,
is
left
but
chance
The
be mere
to
lawlessness.
is
This seems to
me
places are
is
no unique
simultaneous.
Nor
can I agree, any more than Plotinus would have agreed, that
we are within a movement." If we were, we could not know
'
that
we should
purposes we
"
only
sentence,
an
the
material."
is
infinite past.
"
"
time
dimensions
is
another.*
is
that space
Nor can
no warrant
I see
why
is
one of
its activities,
for degrading
the mind
is
and
one and
continuous
"
* So
Miinsterberg says
Things have their space-shape, but are not
of
one
have
their time-shape, but do not lie in time."
;
they
parts
space
:
368
W.
B.
INGE.
He
past exists.
seems
to give us
an
infinite
end.
his
Time he
The
in English.
is
calls la duree, a
no bare
repetition,
is
that there
but the past flows on into the present, and modifies it. This
the future does not affect the
interpenetration is one-sided
;
he
therefore,
present;
Time, or la durde,
must be
in
says,
the process
real.
sciences,
is
and
irreversible,
where
purely quantitative
all
so-called changes
is
in the earlier.
If this
which duration
is
Time would be
The
misapplication of
"
would be better to
call it
"
and
"
thinking in
the mechanical
scientific
no
of
in mathematics, a science
"
Scientific thinking,"
wholly disregarded.
it is
Bergson thinks,
which we have
of
confusion of Space with Time
to that
The characteristic of Space is
found Plotinus complaining.
that it can be subdivided indefinitely, while Time, as we
experience
it
or split up.
tune
if
p. 124.
it
369
contains.
what we may
perceived in
any
spatial perception
and par
revanche, there
"
the order
Bergson, like Leibniz, who calls Space
of co-existence," impoverishes the content of spatial experience
substance.
different form.
"
within ourselves.
They are
real over
"
its
and though
essentially
they
may
stretch
out
to
they
infinity,
are
of a whole.
The soul can transcend them, because the true home of the
The soul is not really in Space and
soul is the eternal world.
Time, though these are the
field
of
its activities
they are
2 A
W.
370
INGE.
K.
we may speak
other in Time,
Where
the system.
the
When
consists.
sequence
is
of
only
these states
change within
logical,
neither
time nor change comes in. The ordinary and the scientific
"
"
notion of efficient cause resembles that of logical
ground
only
are
involved;
but
it
generally
distinguish
activity
and
passivity
in
things,
which
in
overcome
its
it
Strictly, there
is
is
It ascribes activity to
mere
is
profoundly unsatis-
this
to
what they
call
causation as a
way
cedents.
that there
as
371
manner
rid of
is
if it
in
as it is plain that
if all
descriptive
to confess that
it
is
For
Plotinus,
things
The
cannot be causes.
certainly
uses.
They belong
to
"
nature."
"
"
by past
states
which he
finds to be characteristic of
duration
it
eliminated, as
is
movement
is
the
if
to
the
calculations.
Science,
real change,
and predictable
alternation
lot of
introduces
no
new element
uiyevT<av
earl,
(ftvaris T'
Gavaroio TfKtvrr),
(f>va-is
XXa
\
first.*
into
To
But
things,
this it
ovStvos
this
which
may
be
tarlv cmavrmv
\
A 2
W.
372
answered that Time
R.
INGE.
may measure
may
be a teleological
If
series.
another
is
Causation
it is
"
it
explains nothing.
cause
summer, nor day of night. Post hoc ergo propter hoc
is an anthropomorphism on the analogy of human purposive
For an automatist
action.
its
of
correct
sense,
is
it
precisely
is
absurd.
Causation,
what Bergson
used in
"creative
calls
evolution,"
"
freedom
"
and
it
on the part
of that
which exhibits
its effects.
watch
is
He
only makes
backwards or forwards,
admitted, there
is
it
for,
"
real time," is
Lastly, he
What he
may be
ment
argument
to
mean
a real
"
if
we take
free will
373
in proportion as
will our will.
one event
is
and
any
real indeterrnination
is
it
to
happen
all,
We
manifestations.
in these
in their
That will
in a certain series.
is
willed
certainly not
in a predetermined action.
superhuman
The World-Soul
through
The
it
"
itself
as the
is
supreme
for
them and
their environment.
"
(Aliotta) has
made
only approximates
science.
It is
"
on the average
to
the
laws of nature
really
is
"
"
diagrams
"
"
of
irregular and
"
unaccountable,
What we
call
without psychical
errors.
activity.
Nothing
is
given
of Bergson's chief
374
W.
R.
INGE.
of science.
Plotinus would say that the laws are certainly
the world of Soul, but that nature is so too.
Whatever may
be
the
of
explanation
apparent
disorders
in
nature,
no
Platonist can observe with glee that the world does not seem
to
"
him
He may
to be a perfect cosmos.
which he
is
is
always impelled
the pathway to reality.
It is thus that in the psychic
world he discovers the truth of teleology, and in the spiritual
it
is
"
distinct idea
yonder
becomes a
finite
"
here."
purpose
Every
The time-process
of
God
it
is
is
same
flower
beings
new
is
a sign of
of
soul.
human
prejudices.
It is only
(p.
that experience
completed,
while
Rather, the
examine any
itself,
spirit
regularity
in inorganic
is
is
rather
phenomena
and intelligibility than in the practical world, and hence to a higher
degree of truth." The scientific concept is not a symbol for the symbol
is always worth less than the thing symbolised, whereas the scientific
concept is of greater value than the series of facts which acted as the
;
375
makes men say that " God does nothing," because they cannot
"
Variation
unknown
Why
laws.
why
act of God."
should
facts,
"
"
spiritual
than
We
evolution
"
to
wobbles
"
little,
shows.
statistics
freer
life.
On
and many
But there
saying of Proclus that only the highest and lowest things are
Mathematical truth
simple, while all between is complex.
be
an
to
may perhaps
compared
empty outline of the rich
glory of the spiritual world.
presentation
of supratemporal
It is
reality.
"
With
a splitting up
some apparent
the
"
concrete
(as Plotinus
dislocation of law
the
soul-world.
is
more marked
region that
life is
little life
it is
in this
impermanence
of
definite
activity directed to
finite
* Dr. Schiller.
t OVK avTTi TfXeioOrat, dXAa TO Trpaypa ov earo^afero,
itself.f
6, 1, 16.
W.
376
INGE.
R.
There
need Time."
is
"
Movement by
movement
does not
itself
no
mount."
process, there
showed
to the pattern
in the
and willed as a
This interval
is
Time.
differences in order or
to say,
what
is
is
of
process.
But
is
this a legitimate
comparison
his field
of vision.
"
We readily
not here
grant that the
us think of the past and future as being
no less real than the present. What is the ground of this
difference ? One reason may be that we can move voluntarily
but
it is
difficult for
with
There
it,
like the
is also
The movement
movement
of
of
Time
carries us
which we
We
side.
lies
377
of all
that
If
how we
have these
could
it
is
which could
ideas,
must
indicate something
vision.
life.
in our
mental
difference
of the future.
Very much
to us as the future
mysterious faculty of
of the past
of the past
is
memory.
of natural
knowledge
We do know
regard to the future.
we
law does
for us
with
for us
with
Yet,
we must remember
if
lost
is
life of
the Soul.
From
this,
no longer," and we cannot regard them as homogeneous parts of a landscape which we traverse as passive
The will, of which Time is the form, has a wholly
spectators.
and the
it
has to the
378
W.
Time is transcended
has
is
its
INGE.
R.
being
truncated of its living relations to past and future
fuller
and richer
life in
which
all
meanings are
is
it
completely
its
will leave
Yonder are
also Here."*
The
life of
the Soul
That
is
to
which swallows
its
own
children.
From
all
The
nothing for history.
general tendency of Indian thought has been in this direction,
in strong contrast with the Iranian and Hebrew religions, in
of
Philosophers
school care
this
of
God
is
The
understand reality or to help in making it.
religious genius, it is true, soon learns both that the truths oi
aim
to
On
one
man
caricatures of the
side,
we have
of business,
immersed
different.
in irrational activities
torpor.
Christianity
5, 9, 13.
has combined,
379
Yet in
idealistic
element, through the vulgar conception of heaven as a fairyland existence in Time and Place.
To this error, and not to
any
essential part of
"
Christian doctrine,
is
to be attributed the
"
become an actual
The
disease."
final satisfaction
of
human
who had
and the
Aristotle
The view
of
Time
Stoics to keep
Time
of the best
some
is still
is
it
less
is
certainly to be
insisted
on than a
highly instructive.
Consciousness.
Soul "turns to
belong to
(yiyerai').
mirror, in
knows
itself
it."
and knows
Consciousness
is
which
itself truly
we
itself
not primitive
it
of life is reflected as in a
only when
it
knows
is
accrues
itself as
The soul
Spirit.
But
1, 4, 10.
p. 291.
W.
380
INGE.
R.
sciousness
is
be as one.
Consciousness
is
"
We
Plotinus
cannot get outside ourselves."
observes also that we do things best when we are not thinking
of ourselves as doing them.*
belongs to us."
Thus, what
we
When we
consciousness of externality.
find it
"
in
Spirit,
we
"
is
for Plotinus
and
are what
else.
to
me
It
what we say
but of something
means that we are not ourselves fully." This seems
idea or consciousness of
perfectly sound.
consciousness
of a
standing we claim
Consciousness
of
self
is
in
truth
Strictly speaking,
"
we mean a
it is,
cognitive state
which
is
We
its
if
there
is
no
by self-consciousness
object, there is no
own
own
object.
Every cognitive
state
" I have
have observed to Leonardo da Vinci
of
should
think
one
everything
nothing
paints
In some arts the automatism of the expert
then comes better."
The thoughts of the professional bowler at the
is
obvious.
performer
moment of delivering the ball cannot be of a very complex nature. Sir
James Paget "remembered once hearing Mdlle. Janotha play a presto by
Mendelssohn, and he counted the notes and the time occupied. She
played 5,595 notes in four minutes three seconds."
* So
Raphael
noticed that
is
said to
when one
its
What we
self-consciousness
is
381
its
call
place
in
"
"
moments, when we really enter into our work, we
leave it behind.
But there is an experience of living a
"
waking state," as Plotinus calls it which becomes ours when
effective
When we
the One."
the experience
is
we
real,
Plotinus
distinguishes
which
unity
of its parts
is
two forms
of
sometimes
called
consciousness
(1)
and
aiaQ^cri^
||
It is
Soul knows
knows
"
that
there
fcf
in
its
own
order
thinking.
It reasons
to
gain knowledge.
transcending the conditions of their
powers
own
are
directed
activities.
to
It is not
* A. E.
Taylor, Elements of Metaphysics,
t
J
5, 8, 11.
It
knows
5, 3, 4.
II
5, 3, 6.
IT 5, 3, 4.
TO.
(vbov yiyvop,(va } 5, 3,
1.
p. 79.
W.
382
INGE.
R.
is
is gained, the
externality of
the object has wholly disappeared, though the duality which
is the condition of thought remains.
Discursive thought is
"
"
the polarised
of
copy
VOTJO-*?,
which
at
is
once creative
and immanent
He
overlap.
Soul
world of
Soul
is
and must
Spirit,
ovaia; there
realm of Soul
is
within the
of
no line between
is
is itself
it
"
life
it is
and
Spirit.
in this
it.+
The
world that
That part
move; Spirit is "above us."
which remains when we have separated from it
of the Soul
||
is
its
is
passions
ics full
and
hence
belongs to
below."**
when
it is
the
"
"
"
here
nothing yonder that is not also
But the world of Soul, as we know it, is only real
there
it,
is
taken as a whole.
It is split
up among individual
* vovs
Aoytof*e'os, vovs er
+ vov
5, 1, 3.
T)
'fyvxn
TW
"
e>
voi}Tto ovcra
Konpos fam/co?
calls foxt) o rfjs
II
jjtoijs
is
identified
Koa-fios.
tls evaxriv
e\0iv
r<a
by Proclus with
v<p dvdyKtj.
fax*!-
4, 9, 5.
4, 4, 2.
Plotinus too
6, 4, 12.
1, 1, 8.
IT 5, 3, 9.
Ibn Gebirol.
**
13.
5, 9,
Vitas of
and
in experience, is a
which
This
individual.
is
as
soul-world, as
we know
for
the
striving
of this world.
made
world of
known
are
things
The
in time.
383
this
view of
life
any
other.
it
have lamented
of souls,
soul-making,
to live.
There are
is
"
speech.
other heights
God
of
too,
in other worlds,
of sight
and
human
Greek thought,
is
is,
make
it
home.
The
one side and with the supra- conscious on the other.
Greeks were less interested in the gradual emergence of
consciousness out of the unconscious than with the gradual
emergence
ness.
and purpose out of inertia and meaninglessthe immediate experience of an organic indi-
of order
Soul
is
in various degrees.
down
all
"
We
such an all-embracing
barriers
"
between the
The soul
is
indi-
potentially
teristic of
almost
Leibniz uses
knowledge in plants and even in minerals.
similar language
each of his monads, though impenetrable,
was supposed to be a kind of microcosm, sleeping, dreaming, or
;
W.
384
He
awake.
man.
R.
INGE.
Ferrier*
writes
"
:
What
unconscious perceptions in
do we mean by the word
consciousness to the
mean by
animal creation
consciousness the
bat
generally,
by
notion
means
no
In the
of
to attribute
we
man
first place,
which in
self,
whatsoever.
reason
Man
have
might easily
same time
without at the
his
accompanies
invariably,
mind
endowed with
been
becoming aware
of
his
not,
as it appears to me,
that
"we
is
"
we
So
Lewes holds
breathe,"
and
an incidental accompaniment
mind."t
An
Drews,
philosophy of
by Arthur
Hartmann
tries
to
one
is
exploit
for anti-social
aims.
and hedonism.
No
is
how
which
clear-seeing intelligence,"
which
is
an
"
over-conscious
transcendent as well as
* Quoted
by Rickaby, First Principles,
t Rickaby, loc. cit.
p. 344.
only by the
blind irrational
will
"
385
of
of conscious creatures
"
alienation between
one's
as
spirit
spark of
and power
will
and
to
think, feel,
flame
divine
life
and with
as
life
of
engenders a
we acquire the
God were in us,
and act
will,
regard the
to
if
Such
modern
religion
science,
which
and
should include
the
discoveries
of
Such
consciousness.
oppose
say,
is
just
way we
what
is
not consciousness
an instantaneous consciousness.
consciousness
is
sciousness, then,
what we
just
is
and accumulation
memory
is
How
far,
would be no longer
of
all
we wish
that
is
to
to
by calling
momentary mind,
And, in fact, an instantaneous
call unconsciousness.
consciousness
memory
is
matter, or at
it
is
not only
pation of the future it
consciousness
it
condition
to consciousness.
it
the
of the past
All con-
a preservation
But, he adds,
it is
also antici-
he proceeds to ask,
2 B
W.
386
INGE.
R.
It
seems
to us to be
form, and
may
exist feebly
may
be diffused in an attenuated
wherever there
is life.
capacity of choice
is
The
truth,
many
Two
It
withdrawn from
is
it.
may
requires an
prefer the
increasing
humdrum
exercise
movement and
of
action,
consciousness,
or
which
it
may
Life
is
There
is
chance.
"
The dynamic
"
takes possession
So we have on
Thus consciousness
and
one side
"
is
is
sometimes ensnared by
it.
Liberty
is
and
of stimulus,
and without
briefly
would be put
sketched has some obvious
it
no
effort
But
it
is
at
forth.
affinities
bottom irrecon-
cilable with
neity of
it.
life is
It is based
supposed to show
itself in
motiveless diversity,
387
Such a view
is
abhorrent
to Platonism,
since
it
seem
act
to us devoid of
life,
but a plurality of
outside, as
it
finite spirits,
who
predetermined.
is
across which no hard lines are drawn, are the image of the
We
complete harmony which prevails in the eternal world.
are not driven to assign some phenomena to mechanism and
others to miracle
everywhere.
not depend upon the interference of finite consciousness with
mechanical movements. The great dramas of organic evolution
and
of
human
individual
history are in no
an enriched form
of
transcended.
Plotinus
ness.
This
is
is like
what Bergson
Spirit enjoys
"
and internality
calls
in relation to Spirit.
cosmic conscious-
word consciousness
p.
itself
95.
2 B 2
"
?
W.
388
"
R.
INGE.
It is
upon himself
in thought
Self-consciousness, in a word,
plays the part of Matter."
another name for inattention.
is
chief function
clear that
belongs to beings
it
eternal world
different
must be
it
raised
to
"
Spirit
is
what
it
the Ego.
The
disputable.
subject and
is
first is
object,
that there
is
corresponding
to
antithesis of ego
men
fear
death
property.
because they
we
to
duplicate
own crema-
know whether
that
4, 4, 21.
World and
t Eoyce, The
interesting thought
consciousness."
\ 4, 4, 4.
389
"
precious part of our possessions, our personality," will survive
death.
Plotinus will have nothing to say to the first of these
empirical
self is
the spiritual
"
all.
by no means
idea," the
to realise, is only
"
"
ours
potentially.
distinct place
We
my
it is
has
self that
its
"
"
is
yonder
simply meaningless.*
have to admit that in Plotinus there are traces of a
real conflict
tality,
is
elvai,),
Spirit in Soul,"
"
World-Soul.
am
for
view
of
On
Plotinus.
and time
creative
an
is
impossible to believe
it is
independent ego.
A statement which throws
personality
is
in the form of
and
was
it
for those
in a
Eckhart says,
likeness of God."
"
the
It is not
much
an answer
soul
my
on Plotinus' view
light
to the question,
soul
which
is
of
how
The
390
W.
answer
is
INGE.
K.
them
to the
harmony which
which
If
the bodies
are here
are
(6
copies
ei/
va>
of
spiritual
powers
man who
is
above
Spirit
all
men.
This highest man illuminates the second man, and the second
the third. The lowest man in a sense possesses the others, not
that he becomes
what they
them.
but that he
are,
is
is
in contact with
and lowest rank, but receives also something from the second,
and the second receives activity from the first.* Each man's
self is
/cad' bv evepyei),
ranks,
passage
live,
is
and that
his
not."
life,
of existence
He may
depends on
not
reflecting.
Or
translates.
those things which are objects of perception in the spiritual world, and
as objects of perception exist in the spiritual world." He insists that
irdvra evravda 5<ra KaKfl.
The objects which the senses perceive and
"
"
"
identify here below are discerned in their true nature yonder."
In the sixteenth line of this section (Volkinann's edition), I should
read ov
men/'
dXXa
irapaKtipfvos (Kfivois.
in the ascending scale, although in
"
third
means the lowest of the " three
* Plotinus
says "the third,"
i.e.
live
in
of
life
may
391
the
lastly,
"
he
that
of
the gods and god-like men," the life of Spirit. The" soul, as
a microcosm, has within it the potentiality of all three lives,
but
it
which
of
which
chooses
shall
remain
of
latent.
its
faculties
If
activity as characteristically
shall develop,
it
we have
to choose
human, and
and
one kind
sphere of activity,
we must select the second grade, that of the discursive
intellect;* because the merely sensuous life is infra-human,
personality as individuals
and since
resides in that
we
Yet
while in the body, can live permanently on this level.
allows
that
Plotinus
too
often
we cannot remind ourselves
us no fixed fulcrum of self-consciousness as the centre of our
activities.
We
are
potentially all
things ;f
This being
division
so,
of
we must not
soul-life
which
three
It
represents
considering.
existence and value, but these
lay
much
we
stages
shade
off
stress
on the
just been
the ladder of
have
in
into
each other.
* See
Every
what
life,
within himself and even with himself. But in the higher part of
contemplative life a man is above himself and under his God."
" Das Ich ist eine
t So Keyserling says
Kraft, die als solche keinen
drenzen kennt."
1, 1, 10.
J Surds ejcaorof, 2, 3, 9
is
392
is
W.
INGE.
11.
below
is
itself,
and
But neither
continually offered.
is
strict classification.
man must be
"
A man must
interpreted
be one" as
he says himself; and "the soul cannot be divided quantiEven here below Soul is " undivided " (dfjLepicrTos)
tatively."
"divided," and
as well as
is
it
sophies which teach that the ego or self is not given to start
with.
Our nature, our personality, is in process of being
communicated
after unity
and
(fywyas Oebdev
/cal
is
a microcosm striving
We
universality.
to struggle
The individual
to us.
It is impelled
dX^r?;?).
by home-sickness
The great
through which the new birth is effected.
saying of Christ about losing one's soul in order to find it
unto life eternal would have been quite acceptable to Plotinus,
(cbStVe*.*/)
who would,
it
modern
"
Christians.
qualification
books
(for
it is
Individualistic
example) treated from this point of view.
"world of claims and counter-claims"
God nor
not make them
Neither
to leave behind.
man
for himself.
modern exaggeration
human
social
individuality
and national
is
life.
them
of
The
does
democracy on
in other respects.
4, l, l.
this side as
much
they
this
view
Nirvana
393
If
we
selfhood
is
an
illusion,
how
are
we
?.
And
if finite
indeed
And
we
personality
is
an
ideal,
which
because
we
and sensible
is
would disappear.
if it
could
fully personal (as Lotze argues) while there are other persons
over against ourselves. Plotinus says that the soul does attain
p. 278.
394
And
circle.
having
attained
this
perfection,
the
The
analogy
between
accidental.
is
personality
above
all
Personality
expresses the moral nature of man.*
and morality
is
not
We
recognise ourselves
expresses the social nature of man.
the other persons
with
contrast
persons very largely by
as
whom we meet
in friendship
transcends them.f
or rivalry.
Thus thought
first
and at
last
of separate individuality,
We
begin to
know
ourselves
by
realising
Here
excel-
of a unitary purpose.
may
refer to
The
lently.
unhappiness
is
* Leibniz's definition is
Persona est cuius aliqua voluntas est, seu
This is perhaps to
cuius datur cogitatio, aflectus, voluptas, dolor."
identify personality too closely with consciousness.
t This point is argued admirably by Carveth Bead, Natural and Social
'
Morals,
J
p. xvii sq.
vol. 2 p. 286.
395
XIII.
S.
J.
MACKENZIE.
is
as a
com-
it is
to be
Some
of
these terms
words on each
to
what
appear to
of
me
to
but
few
be highly misleading.
as a convenient introduction
follows.
of Plato
In recent times
it
has, perhaps,
more or
less distinct
from both.
Berkeley
i.e.
to those that, in
some form or
other, emphasize
some
It
may
be applied, with
qualifications, to the
Hume
with
that
But
and it is only
can be applied to
it
it
is
396
S.
'
MACKENZIE
dualism.
But
that principle
revealed in
is
many
it
distinguishable modes
and
described as cosmists.
Both rest,
is opposed to pluralism.
on the conception of substance.
Singularists hold
that there is only one substance, while pluralists believe that
in general,
Most
mentalists
peculiar
view of
pluralists.
He
one.
universe.
his
are
The
position
a dualist in
is
his
he regards God as
singularistic,
and
system
is
pluralistic
is
;
singularistic
whom
but, in so far as
is
and most
Descartes
of
to
With
now
may
pass to the
be conceived.
it
397
It is
These are very closely connected with one another.
in
which
is
a
sense
has
that
there
M.
as
evident,
urged,
Bergson
Now, what
is
particular arrangement is
explained by something else seems clear enough. The arrangement of a house is partly explained by the design of the
architect and, more definitely, by the purposes of the original
owner.
These, however,
may
themselves
the consideration of
of
whole, mathematical
explanatory
systems
and
systems
of
human
The sense
1>he
conceptions of
398
J.
men have
8.
MACKENZIE.
its
application
to use it for
It seems clear,
the interpretation of the universe as a whole.
however, that such attempts are necessarily doomed to failure,
so long as they confine themselves to
mathematical type
for
methods
methods
this
of
of
a purely
explanatory within their limits, are not completely self-explanatory, and are not capable, by themselves, of carrying us
beyond the limits within which they work. In the first place,
while mathematical systems may be said to be self-explanatory
within the orders that are constituted by their fundamental
conceptions, these conceptions call for interpretation by reference to their place in relation to other fundamental concep-
tions.
to be explained
by means
of a
complete
system of categories, such as Hegel attempted to develop in
In the second place, however self-explanatory the
his Logit.
they do not contain the
explanation of anything outside of themselves and no method
that is thus limited can supply us with an interpretation of the
may
be,
existent universe.
In
human
life,
again,
we
find
something that
may be
which have
to
but at least
human
we do not feel
any further explanation. Hence it
we stand
in need of
to
if
him
to be best,
399
Phcedo ;
the
in
was
it
it
by
repeated
essentially
and
seems to
lie
at the
some
of the
is
We
seldom be sure that any persons, even when these persons are
ourselves, have been guided simply by the thought of what
much less can we be sure that what
seemed to us best
;
seemed to us best
was the
really
human
is
It
best.
may
be true, as
good
passions," and
Mephistopheles, only to enable
"slave
the
of
used,
in
the
us to become
more beastly
Good
is
to be used
must be
to be
supposed
way from
most,
it
it
of
language
"
that in which
it
is
human
human life
operative in
for
life.
The
is that,
and self-mastery,
it
as
tends
to be guided
We
unexplained.
by
Most
of
what we
do,
an end that
aimed
it
as
is
is
at,
400
J-
what
is best, is
S.
MACKENZIE.
done as a meaiis to
it,
may seem
to
"
:
it
some way,
Spinoza, M. Bergson, and
to be, in
In this sense,
present throughout.
others would appear to be justified in their rejection of final
If we are to
causes in the interpretation of the cosmic process.
have
must be
finality at all, it
"
immanent
may
finality."
which
is
causa
sid,
is
much more
perfectly
I
shown
understand
it
Hegel's Logic,
rightly, is an attempt to show that the fundamental conceptions
which are used in the interpretation of our universe form an
if
interconnected system, in which by a series of mutual implications the simplest can be seen to lead us up to the most
complex
complex that
End
are
of Spiritual Unity.
included
among
these
and
are
thus
difficulties in detail
of
401
is
raised by/
change.
The problem
though
of finitude I
it lies at
the root of
all
the others.
By
more
When
difficulties
finite.
lightly,
finitude I do
it
the-
raises
In Greek
philosophy the boundless is nearly always associated with thechaotic, and in that sense it is pretty definitely opposed to
the conception of a cosmos. Yet it is seldom in that sense
that the infinite
there are
still
is
now understood
ception
it
of as being, in
is
it
The sense
we
is
If the relation
conceptious of contingency, change, and evil.
whole and part is applicable to the cosmos at all and it can
of
We
Now, on the
face of
it,
2 c
this-
402
MACKENZIE.
S.
J.
does not appear to be the case with the parts of the universe
and I suppose not many are now satisfied with the explanations
*hat were offered by Aquinas or Descartes, or by many others
;
who have
dealt
with
the problem.
way
perfect cosmos.
well
is
the
to break
it
up
distinguishable
and
It
This, I believe, is
of
problems
it is
to find
1.
The
apparent
Problem
of
universality
Notwithstanding
Contingency.
of
connections
causal
is
in
detail,
the
the
perhaps the
most conspicuous
I should
"critical monists."
cosmists.
of
They
whom
to
Professor
describe
prefer
to call
Hoffding is
themselves as
them
tentative
is
to
some
certain
We
of its phases.
things
occur;
themselves, somewhat
discover an orderly
but
chaotic.
way
in
which
Difficulties of this
selves to the
minds
of those
who have
tried
most
definitely to
as
403
somewhat
was led
similar fashion,
to
compare the
life of
of his character
ceded.
is
is
is
discoverable.
Some
of
the
difficulties
that
were
felt
by the
earlier
The portents
connection.
of our
commonplaces
own.
of
an
Yet
order of
causal
is
still
how
any amount
the element
of
writers in our
emphasised
it.
been referred
existing state.
seems
to
differences.
M. Bergson,
2 c 2
404
J.
S.
MACKENZIE.
Now, the
qualities
particular
qualities
in
only by
what circumstances they
may
be expected to appear.
Hume.
Again,
a certain
number
if
it
This
was by
is
is
From
the
number
of existing things at
number
existed, at
conceivable.
It
is
difficulties
is infinite, it
may
and
of
for
kind
of our universe.*
If
room in it
every conceivable number
and
this
is
of qualities,
our outlook.
it
If, for
405
And
and
this
might be supposed to
to qualitative differences, as
however,
about infinity, as applied to existing things, have been com-
pletely
still
be raised.
that
is
be attached to such
to
considerations,
am
not
Recent discoveries in
competent to form any judgment.
would
to
have
seem
modified
physics
considerably the estimates
that were
others,
it
would require a
fuller
attempted.
It has been contended by some that the appearance of
contingency in our universe, though fatal to the recognition
of one kind
of
order,
furnish us with a
may
is
more truly
explanatory.
that which
is
and
conception of what
solution,
owing
is
this
meet
which
is
this difficulty.
When
it
is
But we might
406
it is
J.
MACKENZIE.
S.
scale
such a
in
values,
way
that one of
definite
them stands
all
others.
It
kind between
its
circumstances in which
two bundles
human
of
hay, and
there
are
We
men, or
all
men
lot,
all
Now,
might be supposed at
least to
be
and, at
any rate, it
might be supposed that the one which was chosen had a certain
;
introduce us to a different
mode
of statement.
critic
actual
seems to
me
407
mean any
existent thing, but only those things (such as the State) which;
have become actual through a process of development. In this
sense nature
Hence
it
is
is
unintelligible leap in the transition from Hegel's logical conceptions to the postulation of the relatively chaotic realm of
unintelligible or chaotic.
aspect
There
as of
is
an
ultimate
absolute.
there
There
is
is
no
is
appearance in nature of
But
this opposition ,
has been
built.
universe
is
to be interpreted
is
growth.
Now,
of Plato
open to criticism at a
doubt whether even his Logic is
408
J. S.
MACKENZIE.
^nature
is
and
apparent,
removal
ceases to present
it
any
real difficulty.
The
of this
After
difficulty.
we have
we may
The
fact of
Parmenides, at
least,
really exists
mode
moment, as Heraclitus
did, as
flux.
according to the
other view, there never is any existent reality, but only a state
Plato sought to
>of transition from one unreality to another.
;
doctrine
is
Kantian antithesis
realm of
Maya
what
is
illusory
or Illusion.
But even an
illusion has to be
made
409
can be
so regarded.
which
Change, without
persistence, could only mean the substitution of one thing for
-another.
But it seems equally true to say that only that
persists can be regarded as changing.
essentially
an eternal now,
momentary.
fundamental.
Its
This
is
significance,
i.e.
the
we
If
persisting.
we can only
try to
represent
it
as an existence which
is
first
however,
more
definitely
"
real duration," which has
brought out by the conception of
been specially emphasized by Dr. Ward, and more fully by
Professor Bergson.
In close connection with this, we may
notice the recent contention of Dr. McTaggart, that the timeprocess
my
may
intention to discuss
try to
sum up
in
my own way
what appears
to
me
to be their
essential significance.
"
ence
is
at once
momentary
but, in
development of
with us, for good or
for evil,
lives.
410
J.
MACKENZIE.
S.
choice
and
is
it
among human
Children,
beings.
come
In old age, on
the other hand, people are apt to live almost entirely in the
and tending
past, ignoring
to forget
what
is
also,
though men
present or recent,
earlier time.
are, perhaps,
In
more
dominated than those of a later age by the customs and traditions of the past, yet it
interests are
more
is
in the present
up
In this sense, at
ment
and surroundings.
least, it
cendence of the
moment of
to
commonly described
which desire
is
in
the
East
as
Nirvana
state
in
we might
chief
satisfaction
in
the
the past.
Now, such
considerations
may
is
is
but that
its transitoriness is
411
somewhat
illusory.
In
The same
works of
is,
of course, true of
art,
many
been
and
to be forgotten.
piece of
music,
As Tennyson
significance.
and therefore
time-process
in
the
universe
is
said, it is
What
may
never built at
is
is
all,
that the
suggested
be a somewhat similar
and yet
having an eternal place within the whole a place which we
gradually come to realise as we approach more and more to the
construction, building itself
up by successive
stages,
"
by Plato as that of being spectators
The process from nature to
existence."
attitude described
of all
time and
spirit
all
beginning and end, but of such a kind that the end means the
apprehension of the whole.
At any
rate, so
much
it is,
it
in recent years
it is
hardly necessary to
412
J.
MACKENZIE.
S.
term,
it
may
we have
evil
We
mean
loss,
actions, feelings
solution that
is
commonly given
that
is
it
the condition of
is
mark
Why,
it
may
be asked,
should not our development take place in a direct and straightforward way, without the need of obstacles ? This question
naturally occurs when the obstacles are represented as the
means
of
moral development
that, in
and I think
many
When
it
it
is
at least partly
is
loss, if
virtues
be
somewhat thin
in their
texture
if
At any
rate, it
seems to
by
side
if
we
try
and none
of
cannot
more
me
which contains no
the qualities
side
difficulties to
to think of a universe
413
and
subtle beauty;
I think
this is explained
by the
pain and
us to the existence of
that
their occurrence
retrospect,
some measure,
loss.
It is at the
moment
meant
In
for ourselves
others, our
of
and
to reconcile
far
from
who cannot
losses
It
is,
and
that hang heavily upon us, but rather our follies and
And thus we are led to notice what is called,
misdemeanours.
more
specifically,
moral
A considerable
evil.
is
covered by
When we
where there
is
may
an opportunity
is
the element of
to malevolence, I think
it is
at least pretty
is
no such
414
J.
MACKENZIE.
S.
we may
is
hesitate to accept
never
it
evil,
attitudes.
some
among men
injustice
because he thinks
is
it
I think he does so
do not venture to
or destructive impulse.
What
is
even
men from
form
is.
which is connected with the egocentric attitude; but the limitation of men's outlook to their
of limitation is that
class or nation
Now, these
perhaps, hardly less pernicious.
limitations do not present any special problem to us, once we
is,
change;
It
may
problem
all
be regarded as particular
It has already
its
it
415
an apparent contradiction in
is
be maintained that
change and
it
this
and I think
pain.
may
is
rigidly separated
it
by
would be
If
And
it
According
to
Hobbes,
man
rest in
in a state
"
Shoeblack
infinite
"
cannot be
vovs seeks
Certainly
to
we seem
enjoyment
to
or,
satisfied
with anything
less
of the whole.
And, perhaps,
this
may
be the secret
of
time-process in general.
the
moving
Yet,
if
we
are to interpret
It
it in this
is
overcome
"
;
implying the
"
Dr. Bosanquet,
that,
from
his
"
point of view,
before.
...
finite is fully
It
to recognise its
own
nature, and
that in this
416
J.
S.
MACKENZIE.
advance."
Is it not rather true that it finds its only security in the effort
to rise
above
progress
is
itself?
It
is,
of course, the
it
case that
human
absorbing what
is
is
is
implied in
It involves the
this,
would, however,
Hegelian conception of
the universe as going out of self and returning into self or,
in Caird's phrase, as being a self-differentiating, self-integrating
;
it is
the utmost that can be said about such a conception is that we are
inevitably led up to it, and that it does not appear to be either
known
to us.
Still, it will
and understanding
My
what
is
and
to give
the
way
insuperable. Of course, I
is
though
as intelligible.
urge
is
that
even
we
are
to try to
417
intelligible
enough
it
difficulty
is so.
If
be
the
characteristically
knowledge or attainment.
some justification.
418
XIV.
By G.
E.
1.
By
G. E. MOORE.
"
presented sensations."
I propose to call
them
what the
so,
and
to trust
entities are to
at
Then
much
"
materials of sense
"
as
again,
"
sense-data
"
seem
make
out, generally
"
a sense-datum could also be called a material of sense."
some
be
inclined
to
include
Then
under
people might
"
sense
not only presented sensations and
but
perceived facts of a certain sort such, for
presented images,
again,
"
materials
of
419
And
another.
"
materials of sense
"sense-qualities,"
"
in
red
since
they are
"
and
"
blue
"
qualities
when
stand,
most fundamental
their
all
treat
to
as
might be called
which belong to
sensations
words
be inclined
certain
also
"
The words
"
the mind ?
might,
sense.
of
"
Are the
therefore,
just as
and
"
"
referred to
class of
"
"
localised
"
and
worked up
"
"
referred to
by the
class
all
even of these.
And
seems to
"
calling
me
2 D 2
420
G.
MOORE.
E.
"
are the materials of
which might be meant by the words
"
?
and
that
it
is also the question
mind
of
the
sense affections
first
people.
I propose, therefore, to confine
mind
But the
?"
"
:
Are
assertion
that they are, might have two very different meanings which
is,
I think,
important to distinguish.
It
it
mind or it might
mean that every presented sensation is an affection of the
mind of any individual to whom it is presented every sensation
presented to me an affection of my mind; every sensation
presented to A an affection of A's mind and so on. Of these
two assertions it will be seen that the latter asserts much more
all
if
the latter
is true,
the former
must be
but
is
an
affection of some
mind
me
is
this line
and, for
my
sensations presented to
see
how
part,
me
if
are affections of
my
mind, I do not
some mind.
I
Are
to confine
all
And
what
am
it
421
means.
The proposition
the
"
assertion
modifications
in question seems to
that
"
of
the
all
my
me
sensations
to be also implied
to
presented
me
by
are
interesting part of
for all I
my
"
assertion that they are " affections
of
meaning
of neither
proposition,
which
expression
is
I take to be implied
proposition seems to
me
it,
by both.
to be also implied
Manual of
The same
means
are
"
mine, we could not safely infer that what he means implies any
such thing. For the expression "x is an immediate experience
of
in
me
"
presented
simply stand for the pure
tautology,
mine
"All the
"
might
sensations
it of
the adverb
quite meaningless.
sense in which we
It
is
"
"
immediately
quite certain
to
me
to be
there
is
some
seems
that
422
MOOKE.
K.
<;.
"
you mean (as you very well may, for this highly
ambiguous word is used in such a sense) something which
does not imply that x is apprehended at all, then, it seems to
experienced
two ways
no
are
me, there
in
which
thing
can be
"
"
Stout
that
not
is
"
mine
of
experience
All the sensations presented to me are immediate experiences
"
of mine
would be a pure tautology, and that he is using it in
"
x forms part
makes
"
two phrases
the
of
is
lived through
of the life-history of
by me
my mind
which he
is
"
(p.
and
(p. 3)
"
7).
And he
"
is
"
my
act of attention,
"
my
my
act of judgment,
"
my
desire or
is a
by me. Now,
most important sense in which any act of attention or judgment, or any feeling, which is an act or a feeling of mine, is
feeling,
"
are
lived through
lived through
and
"
that there
"
"
"
an experience of
saying that it is experienced by me or is
"
"
"
"
This meaning of experienced or
lived through is
mine."
of such a nature that from the assertion that an act of attention
is
an act of mine,
by
me
or
it
"
experienced
Stout to be asserting of
is
sense in which
"
all
by me.
all
lived through
therefore, I
"
by me
"
"
subjective
in just this
"
take
lived through
my
What,
"
me
same
423
"
"
lived through
And
this
proposition
"
"
subjective
one which
is
and
proposition,
implies
that
"
"
affections
or
the
all
"
of
sensations
modifications
"
of
my
what
is
implied by the
me
to
presented
mind.
are
me
"
"
of my mind,
both by the assertion that they are
affections
"
and by the assertion that they are " modifications of my
"
"
lived through
mind, and by the assertion that they are
by
me, however
much
may
from one
differ
another in meaning ?
It seems to me that what
considering what
is
"
"
by saying that they are all lived through by
just that sense in which that they are lived through by
something which follows from the fact that they are
or judgment,
me, in
me
is
acts of
judgment
"
through
which
in
"
is
it
or attention of mine.
This sense of
"
lived
at
was
t2
lived through
was attending
to a given object
"
by me at t%
and that at
and
ts
an act
of attention,
to say that at
had ceased
t\
was not
to attend to O,
"
living
implies that the act of attention to 0, which I was
"
at t 2 was, at t\, not yet being lived through by nie,
through
,
and was, at
3,
But
to.
424
G.
MOORE.
E.
ti
that at
and
t2
it
was being
lived
it
tz
want
It
tion.
seems
me
to
to
"
that this relation expressed by " lived through
by me is such
that to say of anything that at one time it was being lived
is,
me
it to
To say
is,
of course, to say
And
to exist.
to
it
It says
make
it
has ceased
no more than
the judgment
it
have ceased to
the feeling of mine, which did exist while I felt that emotion,
not merely that it has ceased to be mine, but that it has
ceased to exist.
to
me
And
all
it
seems
Whether
everybody constantly assumes to be true.
seem
to
to be so
is another question.
me
They
and that
is
why
is
"
lived through
it
"
by
is
me seems
by saying
to
me
to
But
it
may,
it to
me
TIIK
MIND
425
such thing.
when
That,
know
existing,
have to
an act of mine.
But
refute.
it is
it
This
seems to
me
seems to
false
is
to
me
to be a false one
know how
to
meant by saying of
all of them are mine.
is
my
different
I think I do
it
Whether
me
it
it
has ceased to be
this is so or not, it
seems
to be
"
by
through
me
ceased to have
ceased
is
it
me
And
to
to exist.
the
presented to
tions
"
of
it,
me
are
or are
"
has
it
affections
"
of
lived through
the
sensations
"
my
"
all
me
just this
The question,
therefore,
which
have to
me any
relation
me
which
is
is
me
that
426
O.
E.
MOORE.
me
"
through
"
still
is
strongly held by
by me.
says
many
And
want
it,
me some
people,
mind, or "modifications" of
my
of
have ceased
in fact,
is,
affections
me
me
seems to
and
"
It
or
"lived
seems to
it
such relation.
With
discover.
possible, the
is
make
the view that they have seem doubtful to me, in the hope that
somebody
be able
will
to
mistaken.
I think, then, that
all
my
main reasons
me
doubting whether
for
have to
me any such
relation
me any
And,
which
is
constituted by their
is
seem
to
not a relation
has ceased to
then
it
presented to
For,
if
exist.
seems to
me
If these
true,
me
my
is
all
which
it is true,
all
have
it
to me,
and that
it is
427
such that the assertion that one of them has ceased to have
me
to
implies that
it
to
exist.
all
are affections of
which they
mind,
to
it is
convincing argument
be sufficient by itself to prove the required point for there is
no doubt that all the sensations presented to me are presented
;
me, and
this relation
if
this property.
first
required point
they
tion,
have
it
in favour of the
me
some relation other than that of presentabut also the further point that some such other relation
all
which they
to
all
As regards
it
It is evident to
to say.
all
me
have
any other
relation
is
to
sense
is
in
certainly
not evident at
which
are.
my
And
of
acts
if
all.
they
a relation
other than
that
all
is
For
it
meant by being
seems
"
to
me
evident
lived through
"
is
428
G.
MOORE.
E.
me
"
"
at
although, ex hypothesi
all,
by me and
because, as I shall
they
go on to urge, the relation of presentation does not seem to me
to have the required property, whereas the relation of being
"
lived through
me
really are
lived through
"
"
has.
If,
lived
through
"
me
by
in
this
the
sense,
is
what
hope somebody
be able to do.
may
As
regards the second point, whether the relation of presentation itself has the required property, I have two things
to say.
The point
to
be discussed
is
a very
simple
one
that
it is
conceivable that
is
any of them
conceivable
and
do, I
It
they do.
am
only asserting
me
seems to
quite
it
And my
is
so.
me
to be a
know with
cases in which I do
clear distinction
between
importance, though
me
to
be of the utmost
it
shows.
If
am
429
bomb,
exist
for instance
and
come
in such cases I
into existence
know by
me
due to
is
has ceased
If this is so,
then
that
has ceased to
it
exist
that,
though
do
it
follows that
imagine.
it
it
me
difficult
it
to
430
W.
E.
JOHNSON.
By W.
II.
E. JOHNSON.
and
in other cases
is
that which
continue to exist
when
it
there
sensation.
feel.
which
have ceased to
that,
when an
any sense in
which such a statement could be questionably true or false. I
cannot distinguish between an emotion ceasing to be mine, and
emotion ceasing to exist. If the emotion were mine, in the
same sense as a book might be mine, of course the book might
cease to be mine without its ceasing to exist.
But if we hold
my
me
in the
temperature ceases to belong to the bar of iron is indistinguishable from the fact that the temperature that belonged
to the bar of iron has ceased to exist.
In short, if sensations,
my
are
modes.
we
etc.,
We
between an emotion
of
of yours,
and no
is
(in
my
"
"
words
existing
and
"
For example, if a
ceasing to exist."
is followed by a movement 'from B to C,
movement from A to B
the former movement must be
the latter
body
begins to exist."
which continues
from
"
cease existing
A to B
from
B to C
is
"
when
to C, is occurring.
from
that
to
said to
called
also
"
431
let the
to B, as
movement
(partially)
t\
to
t2
movement
movement
the body
in
question
of the body
is
absurd, because
is
identified solely
by
to
the
particular
its
being the
t2.
There
are,
Of
course,
if
we deny
that there
is
such an
of time.
In short, we cannot put the alternative whether a particular sensation ceases or does not cease to exist when it
ceases
to
be presented
(i.e.,
ceases
to
be
mine) unless we
This
regard the particular sensation as being a continuant.
seems to me obvious from Dr. Moore's way of talking of the
W.
432
that
generally,
it
Or,
or
may
if
if
may
may
ceases to love B,
it
may
be, of
Or,
more
A
A
"
not be that
fact, it
If
relation of presentation.
course,
JOHNSON.
E.
or
"
this
may
B"
loves
or that
ceases to be a fact,
has ceased to
A"
book belongs to
not be that
exist.
ceases to be
or that the
book has
X"
a particular sensation
has ceased to be a fact, then
just as the particular person
might or might not have ceased
so the particular sensation X might or might not
to exist
have ceased to
Thus
exist.
it is
me
obvious to
that Dr.
Moore
could not have put the case as he does unless he had implicitly
taken a sensation to be an entity of the nature of a continuant
like a material
What
of presentation ?
Dr.
Moore
refers
to
Incidentally
unpresented sensations in
"
the following passage
We may have sensations which are
:
discussion
to
me
presented to me.
sensations,
;
or
if
which,
when they
arises
they are
whether there
is
time).
I cannot discover,
is
mine can be
says, in
"
what
said also to be
presented
temperature may (for a given period) be said to
but we should not say that the
belong to a bar of iron
to me."
infer that
being presented to
"
of
This
being cognised by."
"
iron.
I,
therefore,
may
433
me
to
less
"
"
panied by
mean by
being
aware
of"),
what
"
"
is
"
"
and something
may always be accommine
that Dr.
it
own view
Moore
does
My
presentation
a necessary condition in order that an object may be directly
This introduces a question of fact, viz., Are all
cognised.
?
is
that presentation
is
sensations,
by me
when
this condition
is
fulfilled
it.
On
this view,
mean
sensations, I
referred to
localised
some physical
unlocalised
"
Does
object."
to
whom
or
referred
or
localisation
"
I talk of
Resented
of interest varied.
sensation
"
mean
localised
would
unreferred sensation
this
be other than
In
any
same sensation
may
be sometimes
no
434
DA WES HICKS.
G.
referred
sensation
sensation
In
my
"
physical object
of a sensation
are
identified with an
"
"
be
could
"
view
be developed
may
and
localisation
relation of presentation,
which
cognitive development.
When
unreferred
reference to a
into
What
III.
There
in
is
By
Gr.
is
DAWES
altered
is
our cognitive
HICKS.
accounted
for.
He
"
"
simple sensations is to be
discusses in detail each link of the chain
nervous system
soul
"
said to be in itself,
he avers,
detail
is,
in one form or
it is
The
external stimuli
utter disparity of
or
nerve-processes
435
objects.
The
is
an inner
otherwise constituted."
shown
to be contrary to fact, a
we
The proposition
negative.
presented to me
nature that they can only exist while they have it.
What precisely does Dr. Moore mean by " presented sensations
"
?
between
sensations
"
and
"
to
my mind
is
taken by
me
to be a
And
"
436
DAWES
G.
actually sensed
the
at
in looking
HICKS.
is
yellow buttercups,
not
"
consciousness
"
"
"
the " qualities
existentially present to
"
"
which the
vary while the
qualities
And
may
"
If a buttercup is seen
the
instead
of
the
centre
of
the retina, or if it is
by
margin
seen by a colour-blind instead of by a normal person, or if it is
seen by twilight instead of by daylight, or if contrast come
things
changed
to
proposes
particularly
wrong
would
to
it
is
The
buttercup."
Stout
none the
but,
less,
"
call
sensation."
in
Now,
"sensations,"
respect
am
not
He
saying,
largely
agreement with Stout.
assert, if I correctly understand, of what he calls
in
"
presented
different
in
is
sensations
from
"
"
that
"
they are
qualities of things
"
;
entities
"
certainly
in a
lived through
(erlebt),
immediately experienced," or
by the conscious subject in a way similar to the way in which
are
"
lived through"
and
if it is
that
"
is
presented sensations
"
it
Stout
insists
experienced," or
distinction
is
"
that
the consequence
When
mind
it is
by the
"
sensations
"
Here,
to be emphasised.
"
are
immediately
it, that no
to be
"
sensations
"
and the
437
"
"
experiencing of them they are as immediately experienced
"
the experiencing is not one thing and the " sensation another.
"
"
They may, it is true, and, in his view, usually do, enter into
;
When, on
namely, of thought.
experienced,
directly apprehended, which
different from an act of thinking or judging.
act,
"
or
"
"
or
experienced
lived through," in a
way
"
to him, the " presented sensation
is not.
is
it,
an
it
is
again,
is
And
this act
immediately
it seems
in which,
Both, that
is to say,
thing which
"
"
sensations
"
"
are
immediately experienced
"
to give
presented
some con-
And
"
modes of
(like himself) hold sensations to be
consciousness," there is no distinction to be drawn between
"
the " presentation of a sensation
and the " existence of a
for those
who
sensation."
"
sensation
"
the discussion
Mr. Johnson,
is
is
"
immediately experienced."
"
Sensations,"
as
"
modes
of
"
consciousness," Mr.
Johnson
attention."
438
DAWES
G.
HICKS.
am
meant sensa
by
sensations
"
be
which acts
"
modes of consciousness
it
if
"
or sense-data, or whatever
stand,
the sense in
in
which what
is
attended to stands
the
using
qualities,"
term
in Stout's sense.
Just because I see no reason for
"
thinking that sensa are affections of the mind," I likewise see
latter
no reason
"
for
that
thinking
"
sensible qualities
am
only too
is
open.
But what
"
from
as distinguished
sensa,
way
of
is
sensa-
"
of
what
Mr.
Johnson
exist,
acts or
"
qualities
calls
modes
of
"
continuant."
"
Sensible
And,
as
is
my main
lies
here, I
ceiving, or
my
perceiving,
is
with, as
"
Meinong puts
something
"
become an act
of
of the sense-organs
That
of per-
it,
is
forth-
directed
thus occasioned,
439
If the
which the stimulation has proceeded.
visual
an
act
of
and
act in question be
the
apprehension,
object from
this
upon
a state in which
Awareness of
the
may
become what
"
proceed to
may
concentrate attention
Or,
"
of a
been
red.
specific
disputed,
normal
I be a person of
question will,
am
that
differences as acts.
asserting
cognitive
Every
what
here,
what
do
exhibit
acts
state of consciousness
and
largely definable by
it is
it is
its
awareness
aware
indeed,
has,
qualitative
seems
to
specific character to
of.
me
be
of is "existentially
The awareness
vision, be awareness
present"
of red is different
from
awareness + green.
former, and
look red.
all
it
If
perceive
so to
you could,
as
it
you perceive
would not
be visible
itself
it
it
would not
would not
look at
would be as disparate
I should say
is erlebt,
"
or
awareness of red.
And
awareness of
is
this
an
"
means, as I conceive
it,
that the
whole, and
of
such a
indivisible
character that
it is
red
lived through
content
it
*
"Das
Cf. Husserl, Logische Untersuchungen, 2te Theil, p. 164.
blosse Erlebtsein eines Inhalts als dessen Vorgestelltsein zu definiren,
440
G.
DAWES
HICKS.
How much
etc.
or will be cognised
it,
by
that act, will depend largely upon the particular nature of the
act itself
to
which
it is fitted
it,
to discriminate
of
forth.
to speak, of
is
may
and
there and
And
error.
if
we
describe
made
itself,
and in virtue
of the
object
Let
"
"
of
the
content apprehended
"
be."
me have
red rose
would not
act of
is
the
common
object presented to A, B,
and C
apprehension, each
directed upon this one object, will gradually discriminate its
various features. They bring to the task minds and bodily
respectively.
Their
respective
acts
of
a botanist, and
is
manner
in
which the
us say, is an artist,
A,
The red colour of the
colour-blind.
let
rose, let
it
slightly different to
A and
B, while to
it
441
them
It will seem,
we
"
These
entities
"
rn
TI, r%,
are
ways
in
which
is
appearing
to A, B,
call r\ y
and may
by assuming that
they have been produced, in an admittedly inexplicable manner,
by the operation of R, or of some unknown X, upon the bodily
organism, and may go on existing after the operation has ceased,
Lotze's sense,
or
persist as such, or
by substituting them
am
for
not saying
question.
of
them
is
pronounce.
What
entitled to turn
retort: "Well, at
exist
it is
there
is,
am
saying
is
any
them
difficult
is
to-
not
am
defending and
rn most indubitably
is
being pressed
is
and through
whether
it.
Again, it
442
G.
DAWES
HICKS.
"
different is
appears
a colour which
is
an end of the
matter."
That, too, is begging the point at issue.
contention against which this objection is urged
The very
is
that E,
under which,
nature of
if
under any,
is
of these
cognised.
ways
We may
It
worth
is
that,
noticing
"
existential
although
Stout
that
meaning anything
have been trying to bring
all,
essentially different
is
out.
insists
so
consciousness
presence to
he
is
"
really
from what
desiring
in
consciousness,
and
"
existence
question whether the term
in the former of the two cases.
The answer
becomes merely a
it
"
is
properly applicable
A,
that
7*1,
r2 rn are
,
"
not, at
any
them.
They may be
but
it
is,
it
rate, in
seems
is
"presented to"
said, if
to
AliE
am
What
asked,
respectively
ways
which
it is
say
presented
to
TI,
"
If I
percipients.*
r2> rn to A, B and C
I reply
to be only in
being
"
presentations of
443
is
inconceivable that
it
inconceivable because
its
"
coming
be
to
"
does
"
not mean
coming to be as an independent existent." And I
can only surmise that, when Dr. Moore finds it conceivable
that
he
TI
is
is
"
continuant
"
of
is
this
kind,
any such
"
it
because
is
continuant
"
as
"
I find it difficult,
The
relation of
"
presentation is, he tells us, a necessary condition in order that an object
may be directly cognised," but he does not tell us what he takes the
nature of the relation to be. His example of the temperature belonging
to a bar of iron no longer serves him, because admittedly the temperature cannot be said to be " presented to " the bar of iron. If
my
the object that is the necessary condition of the object being directly
cognised ; and if the former, in what sense can cognition of the object
be called " direct " ?
444
G.
exist";
sensation
while,
ceases
to
DAWES
come
where
HICKS.
into existence
"the
fact
"
be
that
him
to
given
is
visual
due to his
presented
turning away his head or shutting his eyes, the case is very
different.
Nothing, I think, could bring out more clearly than
is
"
sensations
do not, and
"
seeing
as Dr.
it
seems to
me
with
talks about
"
watching a
firework
is
visible,
in
this
instance,
display,"
The term
"
term
is
"
visual sensation
visible sensation."
"
What
taken to be an
ordinarily
of
would ordinarily be
see
it,
it
ceases to appear to
him
just as
it,
a thousand other
and
it
will cease to
had ceased
my
"
not cease to " exist," and that their alleged character of
being
dubious.
rendered
me
is
thereby
immediately experienced" by
So
common-sense view
of the
when
carefully re -interpreted,
is
445
In short,
insuperable difficulties frequently pressed against it.
Dr.
no
to
take the
Moore
is
that
he
has
case
right
against
my
"
"
"
"
but
presented sensation
"
sensation of a spark
is psychothat, on the contrary, the
logically inexplicable, unless there be a spark which is not a
sensation, upon which the act of apprehension is directed.
sensation of a spark
to be a
"
IV.
By
J.
A. SMITH.
discussion, Dr.
is
of all that
than doubtful.
"
universe of
myself bidden to enter a
from
the
actual
world
of
remote
experience
widely
find
restricted, I
"
discourse
that to
me
this
For both the subject and predicate of our question Dr. Moore
proposes substitutes, which may or may not be equivalents, but
him
which
to
In the
first
"
"
materials of sense
"
by
446
J.
will be understood.
clues
his
to
A.
SMITH.
But he goes on
to furnish
some further
various
first
meaning,
by enumerating
things
which he excludes, and secondly (and more importantly) by
giving a list of the qualifications, the possession of which
admits to membership of the class of entities with regard to
which he proposes to discuss whether they are or are not
"affections of the mind."
rather
my
I have
luck has
I regret that in
failed, for I
my
case his
or
with which I
Dr.
am
acquainted.
In the
Dawes Hicks
presented,
This
object.
(c)
list
historical
"
"
sensations
can be conceived
appears to argue that because
or thought about by us without our thinking of them as
presented or localised,
by
may
exist both
and
before
If
etc., it
"
"
present,"
physical body."
at a definite place,"
"
it
would be better
related to a definite
ambiguity between the logical order of specifying characterisation and the time order is very puzzling to me.
What,
means by
baffles
me
to discover
is
It cannot be
sensation."
447
merely a meaningless
to.
The
"
him means more than " entity or " term."
On the other hand, it does not mean "sense-datum" or
"
presentation," for what is so-called may be a sensation and not
pronoun, or a peg to
name
obviously to
be present to any mind, and it does not mean " part of the life
Not that it may not be or become any
history of any mind."
but that
of these,
it
its
to their peculiarity or
and apart from being presented, part at least of the " belongings" of some mind, or, as perhaps Dr. Moore would say,
some individual mind otherwise than
related to
as presented to
or lived through
name
it.
mind.
come
"
existence and
into
language here
Almost
to
(I
literal
is
then
cease to exist,"
in despair of understanding
what the
perceive"
when
I imagine
I distinguish
an equivalent
is
what
of
my own mind,
"
I perceive both
really perceive
or,
as near as
as
from what
do not
"
offer
or as
I attach to
it,
we
entities are
refers,
in
....
but his
this phrase as
etc.,
some would
448
A.
J.
It
perception.
SMITH.
is
Whether
(that) mind."
am
right or not in
my
identification
once more he
after being
perceived
is
or
presented
necessary to
perceived,
to
me
appears
plainly conceivable
are
still
that
as
long
way
or
many
its
being
professes himself
another, though
he
as
with regard to
whether
He
its existence.
viz.,
finds
it
"
quite
sensations which
was unthinkable
How
could
it
am
me
otherwise than by
deal
form
of
The "materials
formed or transformed
what
it
means we are
elaboration.
its
we
in the
end
to think
that
what
this
naturally
means
in
the
present
"
is
449
what
Is this, then,
the world of and for perception.
perceive"
this world and the objects which make it up, made out of
"
of
affections
"
or
"
alternative) out of
"
mind
(my)
passions
of
the
supply
(to
"
body
suppressed
I think
might
"
itself to
one
who
the heterogeneity
worlds, and this,
of
willing to do.
it is
that
"
''
than
passions of body
"
affections of mind," or, to put the opinion in more accurate
is
it
them
is
not true
it
No
the fiction
"
a truth which
to
it
cannot express:
of so
much importance
to our thinking
I see
no
Not that
is
that opinion
is
wrong
2 F
450
on
SMITH.
\.
.1.
my
it
is
of
human moment
The
reflect
we
We may
begin.
me
produced.
be these.
Always
to
when we
ourselves
find
before us which
how
I desire to see it
facts appear to
we
and
it is
we should
well that
ask ourselves
answering ourselves we
have no aid but imagination, which gradually as we pursue
its history back into the archasological stage becomes first
came
all this
to
time
"
deserts us.
Of
this,
fair
us
forsakes
in
be,
and
in
all
of
Hicks
quotes
from
Lotze
is
Against philosophical
compared
fulfils
may
"
materials of sense
"
(and therefore
"
sense
"
Of the
itself) I
would
"
say
they were once, all of them,
passions of body,"
and then were changed, transmuted, or transubstantiated
into "affections of the mind," and
only then were fit
that
elaboration into
"
sense
"
or
"
what we
perceive."
and perhaps
idle
The answer
adventure.
would suggest
affections
that
"
and
we have
"
"
passions
right
to
say
are
is
ridiculously
that,
from
precise
being
all
bodily,
451
"
its
"
sense
it
it
portal
by which
moves
in a region of fiction
it
it
ness that
we
it.
quitted
and fable
our careless-
to
mind
a fiction
inevitable
and dissolved
and potently
In philosophy our
by philosophical criticism.
has
another
that
what
the mind perceives
answer,
viz.,
question
is and cannot but be made out of its own substance, and that
of a vision
its
is
self-engendered and
its
creatures which
it
the
feigns or
devises to satisfy its own needs they have no separate existence or private properties, but hold all, even their existence,
;
by
its
tribunal
as
to
non-suited.
place for
only mention
myself with
imagination,
it
lest
an
I
it
excursion
believed
myself
to
enlargement of knowledge.
My
one of commending the wisdom
and the
man
be
contributing to the
aim was the more modest
of
the
man
of
science
think they
cleaving,
do, to the opinion that sense and the things of sense are
made out of bodily rather than out of psychical stuffs or
in
the
street
in
as
2 F 2
JAMES WAI;
452
1.
additions.
If to that opinion
most likely
it
own and
the
would be
my
common
still
view
profit,
wiser of them
Perhaps,
not to dip into works which insinuate the other opinion, and so
to retain undisturbed the natural prejudice that whatever they
do or can perceive
is
moving
meet with
its
tion preserve
of scientific value.
counter hypothesis,
we
If they,
by the attractions of
tlie
when-
The ghosts
capricious
flit
ideas."
ask-
that
if
V.
human
profit.
By JAMES WAUD.
am
it
to be psychological or
episternological
which
?
it is
The
bound.
first
two
domain.
are
surely
circling
rather in
the epistemological
453
it
"
"
Materials of sense
pages out of twelve to get under weigh.
and "affections of the mind" seem anything but cognate
concepts, and one would have supposed that at this time of day
it was
generally conceded that nothing denoted by the one
could either be included under, or could include, the other.
sensations
too,
he
this
"
for
"
"
"
them
is,
entities
far as
so
"
;
and
the phrase
calls
usage
materials of sense
is
have
new
"
presented
to me.
Then,
confusing one.
this
is,
my
in
opinion,
till
am
satisfied,
of fact
Moore
is,
on safe ground.
the
affections of
modes
for
and
of consciousness
this I take it
all
the less as
life,
erleben, or
it
seems
to
me, he
is
right,
and
his
strictures
on
ence perfectly
or
justified.
more generally
as
series,
454
but
lative,
WAHD.
.IAMES
dual series in which, though inseparable, because correthey are yet, because correlative, perfectly distinct. In
word, experience
implies
and
correlatives, subject
the
duality
At
object.
this
the
of
psychical
point Dr.
Dawes
'
doubt
Professor
Stout meant
deny the
between presentations as objective and subjective
and in the end I note that Dr. Hicks admits
states or acts
Personally, I
if
to
distinction
that,
on
this point,
Anyhow
he himself
will venture,
till
is
"
all."
the contrary
is
proved
in maintaining
the
supposition
that
sensations
themselves are
if
he had
we understand by
relation such that we can
What
exactly do
this
Is
to be trusted, it
seems
that I
"
Baldwin's Dictionary
If
455
have done
much
make
to
Professor Stout,
who wrote
it
But
calls
my
It
that
implies
experienced
the
an
that
also
it
is
itself
presentation
immediately
this
object
implies
objective
experience specifies and determines the direction of the thought
to what is not immediately experienced.
The presentation
has a presentative function in virtue of which it presents object*
;
As
"
(p. 210).
one; but
it
"When
"
mean
to include
under
that term sensations which are not only presented, but also
'
'
and
localised
He
i.e.
allows,
what he
a serious ambiguity here to which Mr. JohnProfessor Smith have already referred.
Perhaps
There
son
and
Dr.
Moore
is
will tell us
nor referred to
is
If
could not,
Stout's first
only
physical
it
and reference
presentative
function
even
though
it
ceased
to
be
itself
JAMES WARD.
456
much
presented,
Smith
refers
of
nificance
between thought about the epistemological sigpresentations and the psychological nature of
themselves
presentations
as
actual
confess
facts.
can
it
some coun-
tenance.
moment
have
meant by the
the question
digressed
Vorgefundene
is
is,
mean
we
experience
it
is
commonly
and Schopenhauer
Herbart,
What
somewhat.
relation of presentation
given to presentation
das
to
to
by Avenarius to
Vorstellung,
in
by
object
disclose
or
Gcyenstand,
individual
and
the
gegen
out the relation that the term implies by the only relations
that \ve can distinctly intuit.
talk of the relation of
prepositions
vor,
ob,
We
which
is
Nor
is it
a static relation,
for, as
a matter of
fact, it
meaning of experience. The two together, acting and reacting, constitute a whole for every experient.
Subject and object, ego and
non-ego,are
we mean,
all
there
is for it.
When, then, we
talk of a sensation,
no difference
to the subject;
457
is,
need
when
to note is that
the subject
is
definitely
aware
of a
we
it
quite
what
it
was
in
memory,
sensation,"
facts of
If
etc.
this order
"
unpresented
but his reference to the
we now have
all
the
sentational events.
But, again, it
sort were in Dr. Moore's mind
Dr.
Dawes Hicks'
is
;
doubtful
if
facts of this
Moore
"is convinced
"
sented image, if they are not pleonastic, only leave me, like
Professor Smith, utterly mystified as to what precisely Dr. Moore
intends by presentation.
In Dr. Dawes Hicks'
of
which
458
AKV,
<:
"
respectively
to A,
7' 2
If r\
comes
then ...
it
to be only in
is
inconceivable that
it
appears
then
He
Moore
of perceiving E,
should continue to be
when that act has ceased." But is it the case that the appearance of E came to be only in and through the act of perceiving ?
Can r\ be at once the way in which A apprehends E and also
which
long chapter in
psychology is here passed over in a sentence, and till that is
concluded, I do not see how we can talk, either of the presentathe
way
tion of
in
appears
to
or of its appearance to A.
The
"
difficulties
"
Dr. Hicks
purely receptive, in
largely constructive, and the task
beyond the power of the individual percipient.
implied
is
it
is
is
XV.
By
L. S.
STEBBING.
I.
THINK
it
that
said
"
relation
slippery word,"
owing
concrete meanings, and certainly
it
is
many
very
different
it is
is
it
What
meant by
is
Universe,
i.e.,
relatedness,
that
and reality
to the nature
reality
is
and can
an
it
of relations.
interrelated
whole
is
The
monism
or of pluralism.
"
"
referent
"
and
relatum).
"
mother
and
different
from
"
child,"
"
"
Thus
greater than
"
motherhood
"
implies
i.e.,
of
460
L.
S.
STEBBINt:.
untenable.
to
because Professor
But
reality.
this
it
common ground
I
hope
realists.
to
relations
Also,
to
deny
be the
II.
The
theory needs
that Mr. Russell and others
mental or internal.
first
To
the
name
of
"
the doctrine or
this theory
axiom of external
"
no relation ever
it
Op.
cit.,
426.
of
461
"
If this
axiom holds
the axiom of
(i.e.,
two
implies something
in the
"
natures
"
of the
two
objects,
i.e.,
it
objects, in virtue
there are such facts as that one object has a certain relation to
another, and such facts cannot in general be reduced to, or
inferred from, a fact about the one object only, together with a
to say the
whole question
is
badly framed
is
it
misleading, that
is
;.
a mistake to
is
it
is
led,
ment
to their terms.
generally so
is
"
says,
it
fair, falsifies
the
whole
and
462
(as 1
am
now
forced
STEBBINC.
S.
L.
one sheet of
between) which is
paper (with
both under my pen and on the table while 1 write, the claim that
its
'
'
it is
But
is
just to
to
is
external to
To begin
own account
of
"
:
the relata
(2)
is
constituent
of
many
different complexes."f
of internal relations, I
"
"
word
internal
seems
an element of
The word
spatiality.
"
relevant,"
should
it
to nu-
suggests
which Professor
The word
associations.
"
"
interpenetrating
and
it
the
implies
it
opposite
seems
to
me much
discreteness.
Some terms
example.
different
Thus,
"
home
contexts,
relations into
which
the term
i.e.,
it is
wax
itself
Then again,
enters.
circumstances,
"
is
is
modified
its
by the
as Descartes pointed
* liadical
Empiricism, p. 105.
t Journal of Philosophy, Psychology and
No. 6, p. 158.
Scientific
Methods,
VIII,
463
mines
behaviour.
its
Once more, a
is
the hope
of
facto,
of a
philosophical theory.
own system
is
so
whole.
Some
as I should
or,
philosophers
who admit
they assert
that
that
some
are
relations
internal,
although
shall have to consider later whether
We
which
us
now
is
it is
possible to conceive of
of a relation does
is
badly
framed, and the whole problem is thereby vitiated, for to ask
the question is virtually to assume external relations which can
We
in their relations
the relation
is
relations, but
we have terms
continuous with
its
terms, and
"
The opposite
"
and "
terms
i.e.,
i.e.,
it
implies
464
L.
STEBBING.
S.
But
this
same error
is
to be
it
he treats the
reality of relations
rela-
"
"
For the
of"
relation,
fact
If,"*
their relation.
in
It
seems
me
to
relation,
Hence, there
is
is
no
related to
that the
way
in
which Mr. Bradley has stated his objection implies the very
view that he is opposing, and that it is only this which has
him
led
he
is
viz.,
that
all
the time
same argument
is
argument
show
to
valid only if
it
interpenetrating.
he argues
"
external.
In
neither
short,
holds between
and
to
is
say that
and
it
B, tlien
modifies
it
is
and
and D.
ippearance
and
between
is to
its terms.
and
For if
B that
say that
it
it
it holds,
really holds
465
would
be unrelated.
modified
arises
from
and
all logical
merely
in
having
specific relation to
observe
neglect to
some
eternal
the
What
is
called modification
self-
term
some
had ceased
to
Now,
this
be interpenetrated by
its relation,
only
i.e.,
if all
be
self-identical,
appear as
(75)
Thus, 7
may
Nowhere does
this
assumption.f
then,
If,
of
capable
relations,
which are
term
is
we have terms
some
of
essential.
a relation which
is
"
grounded
what
is
is
of
essential to a
well appear to be an
here becomes important
may
It is obvious that it
external relation.
and some
superficial,
to a term."
By
essential
Italics mine,
426.
Op. cit.,
t See below, p. 474.
466
L.
S.
STEBBING.
what
is
in essence
involved in the
is
This
is
not
we had complete
of one
externally
But
if
at
related only
all.
also break
down
different
many
"any given
complexes "). From
(viz.,
entity
this
is
a constituent of
breakdown, I believe,
like
rejects
(1)
that, if
not
He
many
accept
this,
things,
if it
mean
But it is necessary to
that the theory
Mr.
Russell's
that
here
out
implication
point
"
or
can
inferred
relation
be
reduced to, a
a
that
from,
implies
simples, but one inter-related whole.
knowledge could be
inferred.
of
(2)
467
claims,
be regarded as a quality of
is
true,
(a) Eelations
but
it
the relation
for
does not
not to
is
its
relatedness.
that
is
would
it
quality, but,
it is
relations.
a superficial
NOT
ceivable.
quality
and a
distance
is
it
Thus
relation.
is
yellowness
is
is
weight
and
a quality,
Nevertheless,
qualities, or adjectives,
Eather,
It
is,
I think,
if
man
it
is
in
no sense
is
"
only true
in-difference
if
is
is
In
his
Lowell
Lectures
Mr.
Eussell
presses
the
same
Cf.
Bosanquet, Logic,
II, p. 278.
2 G 2
468
L.
involves
STEBBING.
S.
"
there can
statement that
the
concerning the
same
thing''
two
never
and he goes on
is
two facts
be
"
to say
fact
entities
thus,
may
What
ask
is
a fact
and what
a thing
is
Mr. Eussell
altered
he
that
is
by the
relation
in
which he
finds
by
"
strictly
identical
"
?
the
Certainly
man
so
himself,
who was
mean here
a
concrete
human
A relation
we cannot ask
o'clock.
"
When,
because he
is
modified in one
again,
Mr. Eussell
way by
that
of
man who
is
is
a son,
he
is
simply
assuming once more that we assert both (1) that no term
can be in two relations, and (2) that this is so because the
*
Pp. 150-151.
sonship,"
469
not
strictly identical
"
Of
"
with
course,
man who
man who
is
sonship,"
require.
is
concrete indi"
by
fatherhood
"
is
in
gives rise to
the difficulty.
If
by the relation
are related
is
"
and
is
a father
is ?
is
is
father of Y, then
of fatherhood,
relation,
terms
of
and thereby
a relation,
to
and
make
is
to insert a
Y
X
new
This
is
what
or external,
it is
we have
because
to realise that
their relations,
i.e.,
we have not
terms inter-
terms.
IV.
it
is
"
initio
by a
internal
speak of a
definition
of
logical
or interpenetrating
terms.
The conception
of
Mr. Russell,
of
"
identity-in-difference
"
viz.,
Hegelian conception
as virtually dependent
'
'
is
of predication, as
upon a pun,
in
'
Socrates
470
is
L.
'
'
if
STEERING.
'
of identity, as in
is
S.
the hemlock.'"*
Socrates
Certainly
is
the
clear
it is
Now,
me
Bosanquet
make
seems to
sistent
to
self-contained,
difference
"
and cease
must
are grasping at
the Eeal
is
'
go,"
is
The admission
any
is
that
"
'
in the
experience for
and he adds
"
:
What our
pluralist realists
Undoubtedly
But I insist on
'
the words
in the
end because
extreme Absolutists.
lute
'
in the end,' as
and adaptable
for
and now
and to make
it
it
handy
this,
how
"
bare identity
"
an
* Lowell
Lectures, p. 39 n.
Mr. Russell
clearly
is
is
"
of
471
tained.
an identity-in-difference is that
such an identity requires terms which imply something beyond
themselves.
But it is obvious that self-contained terms and
that completed experience
relations between
is
is
meant by an
Now, a
itself to
self-determining system
and as such
identity-in-difference,
distinctionless unity in
which
is
it
it
can stand
just
what
is
cannot be the
And
as
we
odd
is
and becomes a
bare,
unity and
its
distinctionless,
seems
to be
its diversity
Absolute.
undiversified
common
property of
Mr. Bradley also seems to want
idealist monistic writers.
absolute identity without any difference, without " a shade of
Yet,
this supposition
the
diversity."
shipwreck, for he
the knowing
this
applies
it
is
distinction
which the
But such
knowledge
relational.
the
distinction
between
duality
to
duality
relation
Yet Mr.
subject
is,
that
am
is
to
Joachim
and
object
convinced,
say,
speaks
is
essential
knowledge
of
transcended.
as
to
such
the
is
"abolishing" the
* I think this
implies that the universe is in some vital sense
but I do not think that it necessarily implies that change
monistic,
472
L.
S.
STEBBING.
subject and
"
object,
object
will be
known,
be abolished.
it is,
is
And the
uncalled
for.
is
Knowledge
supposition itself
is
quite
objective,
cannot,
appears to
relation.
and
its
object
is
its
have raised
realists
of
an act of knowing
The cognitive
is
not an
relation
existent.
is,
it is of the
unique
terms should be modified
indeed,
of its
unaltered.
then
table.
my mind
is
my
mind
is
altered
how
But the
remains
473
how
otherwise could I
know
the
multiplication
table ?*
what
of realism
mind
is
And
yet
it
the object of the knowing act, i.e., the real object, is independent
"
of the knowing of it, so that, in some sense,
experience makes
no difference to the facts," seems to me indisputable, if by that
V.
then, the conception of concrete unity
If,
absurd
becomes
it
is
not intrinsically
upon the
allied
own temperament
one's
that
is
not
But
if
it
is
rational
and
one's opponent's
that
way
as to
* I owe this
example to Professor G. Dawes Hicks,
t See p. 465.
474
L.
much
STEERING.
S.
of
Mr. Russell's
definition of a
would apply to
all
"
term
"
is
it
The eternal
That mathe-
who
rather,
should
say that
It
is
not at
logically
incom-
That
all
not
to say,
incompatible although physically they may
we cannot tell what sense-qualities will combine except through
an empirical investigation, and apart from this we do not know
be.
what modification
is
of
an entity
is
is
possible.
view*),
we
book
may now,
pattern.f
as Professor
This
defence
* James
rightly warns us against confusing the logical with the
physical argument, but surely, physically, the book on the floor never is
the same book as that on the table. See Radical Empiricism (loc. tit.).
t Unfortunately for the satisfactory working of the external theory,
of the immediate data of sense do not appear to have the charac-
some
teristics
appear
of
(i.e.,
terms.
Thus, two slightly different colours may
be apprehended as being) precisely similar, but when
logical
may
475
is not proved, and that for the rest the proof can
be only empirical. Now, take the book in another set of
position
relations,
and Reality
Bradley's Appearance
Mr,
realist of
Russell's school.
in relation
Surely,
to a pluralist
the book as an
here,
intelligible
as
it is
it
itself
to be intelligible
"
nonsense
to urge that I
with the
it
"
It
is
no answer
to this
am
confusing (my-whole-reaction-to-the-book)
(book-itself), for my point is that there is not a book
apart from
how
The denial
it it is
understood, where
it is
placed,
and
of this
Of
course, in so far as
abstraction
thing
each
is
whether
case.
it is so,
or not,
This contention
may
in
pendent
of
that the
their
mind knows
being known.
objects
Nevertheless,
this
inde-
For
it
is
the first is compared with the third, which is again so little different
from the second as to be indistinguishable from it, nevertheless the first
may be distinguishable from the third. But if this is the case, then is it
not reasonable to suppose that some entities have not the characteristics
of logical terms ? This point is well worked out by Mrs. Adrian Stephen,
Proc. Arist. Soc., N.S., vol.
5,
pp. 277-282.
476
L.
S.
STEBBING.
may
Is
not
it
and independence.
reciprocal interpenetration
VI.
conception of concrete unity is much more
than
even Professor Bosanquet and Mr. Joachim
important
Now,
this
demand
with the
saving phrase "in the end." Mr. Bradley and Mr. Joachim
also sigh for an unknowable and inconceivable blank identity,
since they too conceive of unity as the annulling of differences.
"first
"
ultimate reality ?
What is meant
by the assertion that coherence is an adequate account of
"
and
"
"
the nature of truth here and
This
way
mistaken.
"
of
looking
complete and,
is
"
in the
me
end
"
?
radically
ultimate reality
this
at
"
unless'
therefore,
it
later
knowledge
of reality."
Yet
are discussing,
* This
is
in the
we cannot
477
be degrees of truth.
reality, although there may
the
latter case I think
phrase is unhappily chosen.
are
clearly
two
different points
Even
in the
Still
there
separately.
think that
all
whom
have
predicated of
adequate, hence more or less true, and in this sense, and in this
In fact, every judgment
sense only, truth can have degrees.
that
it is to
It is
get the
"
truest
"
statements, and
we
to
same form
"
Thus, Professor Bosanquet says, importance and reality are sides
characteristics."
same
of the
Principle of Individuality and Value, p. 5.
" existence " needs
to be carefully
t I am aware that the meaning of
if this statement is to be clear.
Provisionally, I should accept
explained
Mr. Russell's distinction between "existent" and" subsistent." The
point is, that the nature of the being which truth has is quite different
from that of ''minds," and from that of "reality" as a whole. I hope to
478
L.
of
express judgments
STEBBING.
S.
different
value.
Thus,
if
make
reservation
or
is
how much
of
more
judgment may be
true.
Moreover,
if
truth
is
if
reality is a
which
is
unknowable.
But,
if
reality is
unknowable,
it
cannot interest
us, and neither the philosopher nor the scientist could, in that
Hence we may assume
case, treat it as other than unreal.
that reality
a systematic or connected
the
undoubtedly
assumption upon which the
"
"
"
scientist works
if the
facts
will not
fit in," then new
whole.
This
is
coherent, that
is, it is
is
physical universe
"
can be applied.
me
to fail to
" If I
confident
affirm, with a
that
my knowledge,'
Bishop Stubbs used to wear
if a monistic
episcopal gaiters, that is an error
philosopher, remembering that all finite truth is only partially true, affirms that Bishop Stubbs
*
'
p. 155.
was hanged
that
if
we were
We
unconditionally.
t See Lowell Lectures, p. 218,
and
cf.
With
479
(2) This
is
such that
knowledge
is
it
can be known.
what
of reality is
is
meant by
truth.
it
exist.
The
(4)
is
of truth.
is
truth or
It
truth
but
"
is
last of these
This
what
is
the
is
"
is
propositions that
no
test of truth
"
;
of these labels is
a term
Nor
if
indeed
which atomistic
"
"
jostle
entities
is
of concrete unity,
which seems
to
me
idle, for
the conception
fundamental,
is
rejected
480
conception
is
of thought,
seriously
taken and
throughout, then
many
theory disappear.
In particular, the
knowing
of
the difficulties of
from the
know
Another
like."
false
may
coherence
assuming that
known
assumption that
difficulty that
the
difficulty of
for it arises
maintained
consistently
is
overcome,
"
of
reflection
opens
unification of existing
knowledge a unity
know
of individuals
On
would remain.
that
differentiation
of
elements
which
is
surely
In spite, therefore, of
necessary for a significant whole.
Mr. Eussell's ridicule, the conception of concrete unity does
seem to me to be one valid for thought and pregnant for
preserve
philosophy, for
system.
481
November
6th, 1916.
Resolved
"
:
sympathy
of Recognition."
who opened
the
delivered
Problem
Prof. Hicks,
Inaugural
Dr. Brough, Mr. Worsley, Mr. Lynch, Dr. Tudor Jones, Dr.
Armstrong-Jones, and Dr. Thomas. The President replied.
December
4th, 1916.
December
18th, 1916.
Prof. A.
Prof.
Whitehead
replied.
482
January
8th, 1917.
part
Douglas
Mr. Mead.
Mr. Broad
replied.
replied.
had been
made.
Prof.
March
Prof. C.
Lloyd Morgan
replied.
part,
and Prof.
483
Dr. H. Wildon Carr, President, in the Chair.
" Our
paper was read by Mr. W. A. Pickard-Cambridge on
Knowledge of Value." In the discussion which followed, the
J.
Cambridge
replied.
May
made.
May
paper.
Mr. Mead, Mr. lonides, Prof. D'Arcy Thompson, Prof. Whitehead, Mr. Worsley, Mr. Joad, Miss Oakeley, and Dr. Nunn.
Dean Inge
replied.
484
Dr. H. Wildon Carr, President, in the Chair.
The Treasurer's Financial Statement was read and adopted.
The following nominations of Officers for the next Session by
the Council were approved
President, Dr. H. Wildon Carr ;
Miss Stebbing
485
June
9th, 1917.
Twenty-seven members of the Joint Societies
dined together, after the meeting of the Mind Association
James Ward, at Trinity
(held, under the presidency of Prof.
the Chair.
About 50 members
and visitors
Mackenzie on " The
of the Societies
Prof. J. S.
were present.
paper by
Conception of a Cosmos," was taken as read, and Prof.
Mackenzie introduced the subject by explaining the argument
of his paper.
Dr.
The
June
Ward
took part in
it
and
Prof.
Mind ? "
papers replied.
486
Notwithstanding the difficulties occasioned by the unusual conby the continuance of the war, the thirty-eighth
ditions created
is
alive
and
keen.
the University,
present.
Principles
assembly.
In common with
added
to our
The
room
viz.,
Prof. Emile
Boutroux,
Dr. Benedetto
Croce, Prof.
list
487
The
philosophical periodicals, both English and Foreign.
for
at
both
of
members
will
at
the
be
any time,
disposal
Library
this
takes
The
Committee
the
of
books.
for
loan
and
reading
chief
especially
from members
Society,
of
copies
of
152 Ordi-
488
e
O5
O CO
O
rH
00 (M f- CO
rH
rH
J--
rH
SO CO <N
l-H
rH
O CO
2,
O
QJ
be
_C
<
3
o
stat
and
tage
ard
.5
in
tax
SESSION,
co
ed
38TH
Advertisem
Income
Gratuities
Treasurer's
Balance
CO
gn
NAME.
This Society shall be called " THE ARISTOTELIAN SOCIETY
FOE THE SYSTEMATIC STUDY OF PHILOSOPHY," or, for a short title,
I.
"THE
ARISTOTELIAN SOCIETY."
OBJECTS.
II.
The
Philosophy
SUBSCRIPTION.
IV.
first
ADMISSION OF MEMBERS.
think
490
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
VI.
Foreigners
the Society.
They
may
shall
nomination
shall
ELECTION OF OFFICERS.
VII. The Committee shall nominate the President, the
Treasurer, and the Secretary for the ensuing session, and shall, at
the Annual Meeting, submit the nominations for the approval of
the Society.
ELECTION OF COMMITTEE.
VIII.
with the
ballot.
officers
the Society, must reach the Secretary fourteen days before the
meeting, and a ballotting paper shall be sent to all members.
Members may return their ballotting papers by post before the
may
of
BUSINESS OF SESSIONS.
491
BUSINESS OP MEETINGS.
XI.
Except
at the first
meeting in each
session,
when the
work
of the Society.
PROCEEDINGS.
XII.
BUSINESS RESOLUTIONS.
XV
five
members be
present.
VISITORS.
XIV.
Visitors
may
be
introduced
to
the
meetings
by
members.
AMENDMENTS.
XV.
Notices to
amend
when they
LIST OF OFFICERS
THIRTY-NINTH SESSION,
1917-1918.
THE COUNCIL.
PRESIDE MX.
H.
W1LDON CARR,
D.Litt.
VICE-PRESIDENTS.
BERNARD BOSANQUET,
HALDANE
WES
RIGHT HON.
ARTHUR
J.
BALFOUR,
1914-1915).
TREASURER.
PBOF. T.
PERCY NUNN,
M.A., D.Sc.
LIBRARIAN.
Miss L.
S.
STEBBING.
HONORARY SECRETARY.
PROF. G.
DAWES
HICKS, M.A.,
PH.D., LiTT.D.
EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE.
DR.
J.
MR.
C.
BROUGH.
DELISLE BURNS.
DR. A. CALDECOTT.
MRS. N. A. DUDDINGTON.
Miss BEATRICE EDGELL.
Miss L. S. STEBBING.
HONOEARY MEMBERS.
F. H.
Prof.
Prof.
Glasgow.
Prof. A. SBNIER, M.D., Ph.D., 28, Herbert Park, Donnybrook, Dublin.
Prof. JAMES WARD, M.A., LL.D., F.B.A., 6, Selwyn Gardens, Cambridge.
493
CORRESPONDING MEMBERS.
Prof. J.
New
MASK BALDWIN,
c/o Harris
Forbes
&
Co., 56,
William
Street,
York.
Senatore
Prof.
Prof.
Prof. E. B.
Prof.
WM.
States.
MEMBERS.
Elected.
1885.
1915.
1899.
1913.
ALEXANDEB, M.A., LL.D., F.B.A., Vice- President, 24, Brunswick Road, Withington, Manchester.
DOUGLAS AINSLIE, B.A., Athenaeum Club, S.W.
Sir ROBEET ABHSTBONG-JONES, M.D., 8, Bramham Gardens, S.W.
Rev. FBANCIS AVELING, D.D., Ph.D., University College, Gower
Prof. S.
Street,
1916.
1908.
1908.
1912.
W.
Christianin,
Norway.
1915.
1915.
1907.
1913.
1886.
Prof.
1893.
1913.
1888.
BEENABD BOSANQUET,
M.A.,
rice-
1917.
1913.
Soar, Leicestershire.
C. DELISLE BUBNS, M.A., 26, Springfield Road, St. John's
President,
1890.
1914.
1889.
1908.
Wood.
494
Elected.
1916.
1881.
H.
1906.
1916.
1908.
1912.
1907.
Street, Chelsea,
E. C. CHILDS, M.A.,
ALBEBT A. COCK. B.A., King's College, Strand, W.C.
J. F. O. CODDINGTON, M.A., LL.M., 28, Endcliffe Terrace Road,
Sheffield.
1913.
1911.
1917.
1912.
Prof.
1895.
Craigavad, Co.
WILLIAM
Down, Ireland.
DAVIDSON, M.A., LL.D.,
L.
8,
W.
Queen's Gardens,
Aberdeen.
1916.
1896.
1912.
1899.
1911.
1910.
1916.
1915.
1893.
1914.
1914.
1914.
1916.
1897.
1911.
1913.
N.W.
N.W.
University, Leeds.
Prisoner of War Section,
Le Havre,
France.
1915.
1912.
Prof.
1912.
J. C.
1883.
1900.
1917.
FEANK GEANGEE,
D.Litt.,
Lucknow
Drive, Nottingham.
College,
Southampton Row,
1913.
1915.
H.
1915.
J.
W. HETHEBINGTON,
W.
1.
nr. Cardiff.
495
Elected.
1912.
1916.
EOT.
1890.
Prof. G.
S.W.
Wimbledon,
19.
1916.
1913.
ALEXANDER
1911.
1904.
Principal
1915.
Durham.
C. E. M. JOAD, M.A., 34, Well Walk, Hampstead, N.W. 3.
Miss E. E. CONSTANCE JONES, D.Litt., Meldon House, Weston-super-
St. Paul's,
W.
E.G.
2.
Oxford.
1892.
P. B.
JEVONS, M.A.,
D.Litt.,
Bishop
Hatfield's
1912.
Mare, Somerset.
Rev. TUDOR JONES, Ph.D., 14, Clifton Park, Bristol.
Miss E. F. JOURDAIN, D. es L., St. Hugh's College, Oxford.
1912.
J.
1916.
Prof. J.
1911.
1881.
1911.
1898.
1915.
N. KEYNES, D.Sc.,
6,
Hall,
Prof.
Russell
1909.
1911.
WM. MACDOUGALL,
1908.
1897.
1912.
N.W.
1916.
1916.
1910.
C. A.
burgh.
1916.
1899.
J.
1917.
1912.
1914.
1915.
1915.
1889.
1896.
1915.
1912.
College, W.C. 2.
LEWIS MclNTYRE, D.Sc., Abbotsville, Cults, N.B.
R. M. MclvBB, M.A., The University, Toronto.
G. R. S. MEAD, B.A., 47, Campden Hill Road, W.
F. V. MERRIMAN, B.A.
P. CHALMERS MITCHELL, M.A., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S., Zoological
Society, Regent's Park, N.W.
R. E. MITCHESON, M.A., 46, Ladbroke Square, W.
G. E. MOORE, Sc.D., 17, Magdalene Street, Cambridge.
496
Elected.
1910.
Prof. C.
F.R.S.,
5,
Bristol.
1913.
Eev. CAVENDISH
1913.
J.
1912.
C. S.
1904.
Prof. T.
1908.
1903.
1916.
1917.
1913.
1916.
Yorks.
Miss
W.C.
1914.
ADAM RANKINK,
Essex.
1889.
1895.
1908.
1912.
Vice-
Punjab,
India.
1896.
1905.
1912.
1892.
1917.
1901.
Gordon
S.
W.
Street,
W.C.
1911.
H.
S.
SHELTON,
B.Sc.,
Laburnum
Villa,
Berks.
1910.
1907.
1908.
1916.
1886.
1908.
1908.
1911.
1912.
1910.
1887.
497
Elected.
1915.
1912.
1915.
OLIVER STRACHEY,
Bristol.
1910.
W.
1908.
Prof. A.
1915.
1916.
1900.
Prof. C. B.
1917.
W.
1902.
1917.
J. T.
St.
Andrews, N.B.
F.
S.W.
E.
1912.
1890.
CLEMENT
1896.
Prof.
1912.
H.
1908.
Bearsden, Glasgow.
'
509,
A.
E.
M.
1907.
Eichmond.
Mrs. JESSIE WHITE, D.Sc., 49, Gordon Mansions, W.C.
1915.
Prof. A. N.
1900.
A.
1917.
1916.
1910.
Sir
1911.
FRANCIS YOUNGHUSBAND,
5.
Litt.D., 3,
THE PROCEEDINGS OF
THE ARISTOTELIAN SOCIETY.
New
In Annual Volumes,
Volumes
I,
II, III,
Series.
Bound
in
Buckram, 10/6
VOLUME
V.
1904-1905.
VOLUME
Containing papers by R.
Caldecott, Shadworth
G. Dawes Hicks.
net.
B.
VIII.
W.
R.
Boyce
J.
Webb, H.
E.
Moore, A.
1907-1908.
Haldane, R. Latta,
G.
VOLUME
IX.
1908-1909.
CONTENTS.
Mental Activity in Willing and in Ideas. By S. Alexander.
By H. Wildon Carr.
Bergson's Theory of Knowledge.
The Place of Experts in Democracy. A Symposium. By Bernard Bosanquet,
Mrs. Sophie Bryant, and G. R. T. Ross.
The Rationalistic Conception of Truth. By F. C. S. Schiller.
The Mutual Symbolism of Intelligence and Activity. By Hubert Foston.
The Satisfaction of Thinking. By G. R. T. Ross.
Natural Realism and Present Tendencies in Philosophy.
By A. Wolf.
Why Pluralism ? A Symposium. By J. H. Muirhead, F. C. S. Schiller,
and A. E. Taylor.
Are Presentations Mental or Physical?
By G. F. Stout.
Reply
to Professor Alexander.
VOLUME
X.
1909-1910.
CONTENTS.
On
Mathematics. By S. Waterlow.
Mr. S. Waterlow's Paper. By Shadworth H. Hodgson.
Are Secondary Qualities Independent of Perception ? I. By T. Percy Nunn.
On
II.
F. C. S. Schiller.
By
Mr. G. E. Moore on
Hicks.
"The
By G. Dawes
Subject-Matter of Psychology."
VOLUME
XI. 1910-1911.
CONTENTS.
By Bernard Bosanquet.
The Standpoint of Psychology. By Benjamin Dumville.
By H. D. Oakeley.
Reality and Value.
Knowledge by Acquaintance and Knowledge by Description.
By Bertrand
Russell.
Parallelism
Carr.
as
Working Hypothesis
in
F. C. S. Schiller.
of Thought.
By E. E. Constance Jones.
The Object of Thought and Real Being. By G. F. Stout.
By Alfred Caldecott.
Emotionality : A Method of its Unification.
Error.
By
A New Law
VOLUME
XII.
1911-1912.
CONTENTS.
On
Theory of Material
By W. R. Boyce Gibson.
By H. S. Shelton.
Fallacies.
Symposium
H. W.
By W. E. Tanner.
Significance and Validity in Logic.
A Modern Materialist :
Study of the Philosophy of George Santayana.
By D.
L. Murray.
VOLUME
XIII.
1912-1913.
CONTENTS.
On
A New
By Bertrand Russell.
By G. Dawes Hicks.
By Arthur Lynch.
E. E. Constance Jones.
By Frank Granger.
What Bergson Means by " Interpenetration." By Miss Karin Costelloe.
The Analysis of Volition : Treated as a Study of Psychological Principles and
Methods. By R. F. A. Hoernle.
Does Consciousness Evolve ? By L. P. Jacks.
Kant's Transcendental ^Esthetic, with some of its Ulterior Bearings.
By
Logic.
By
Intuitional Thinking.
William
W.
Carlile.
in
By Miss
L. S.
Stebbing.
n Mental State
VOLUME
XIV.
1913-1914.
CONTENTS.
and
Existence.
Real
By G. Dawes Hicks.
Appear.ince
On
A. Smith.
on Universals.
By C. Delisle Burns.
Philosophy as the Co-ordination of Science. By H. S. Shelton.
Intuitionalism.
By N. O. Lossky.
Some New Encyclopaedists on Logic. By J. Brough.
The Value of Logic. By A. Wolff and F. C. S. Schiller.
Discussion
By J.
Ockham
Feeling.
William of
VOLUME
XV.
1914-1915.
CONTENTS.
Science and Philosophy.
Instinct
F. Stout.
Symposium
and G.
By Bernard
and Emotion.
Bosanquet.
By William McDougall, A.
F. Shand,
By
Arthur Robinson.
a Comparison
Complexity and Synthesis
Methods of Mr. Russell and M. Bergson.
of the
(Karin Costelloe).
Some Theories
of Knowledge.
By Dr. F. Aveling.
Mr. Russell's Theory of Judgment. By G. F. Stout.
Symposium Import of Propositions. By E. E. Constance Jones, Bernard
Bosanquet, and F. C. S. Schiller.
VOLUME
XVI.
1915-1916.
CONTENTS.
The Moment
On
Progress
of Experience.
By H. Wildon Carr.
in Philosophical Research.
By the Right
Hon. Viscount
Haldane.
On
the
Common
By
J.
W.
Scott.
By A. N. Whitehead.
New Year Tale. By Sir Joseph Larmor.
Relativity
On the Relation of the Theoretic to the' Practical Activity.
By Hilda D.
Oakeley.
By T. Percy Nunn.
By Beatrice Edgell, F. C.
Implications of Recognition.
Bartlett, G. E. Moore, and H. Wildon Carr.
Parmenides, Zeno, and Socrates. By A. E. Taylor.
Symposium The Nature of the State in View of its Excernal Relations.
By C. Delisle Burns, Hon. Bertrand Russell, and G. D. H. Cole.
The Nature of Judgment. By E. H. Strange.
Sense-Data and Physical Objects.
Symposium
The
Controversy on Import.
By
J.
Brough.
OLD SERIES
still
The
remain.
following
VOLUME
No.
Stout,
is
list
18881891.
I.
H. Hodgson, D. G. Ritchie, G. F.
Containing papers by
Alexander, A. Bain, W. R. Sorley, J. S, Mann, and E. P.
S.
I.
S.
Scrymgour.
2S.
6d.
No.
2.
VOLUME
Containing papers by
VOLUME
S.
II.
No.
i.
6d.
is.
1892.
No.
II.
2.
Part
1893.
Ritchie.
is. 6d.
I.
2s.
II.
VOLUME
R.
W.
II.
No.
1894.
3.
Part
I.
2s.
II.
2s.
J.
VOLUME
III.
No.
i.
1895.
2s. 6d.
VOLUME
IV.
No.
2.
1896.
2s.
W.
The Making
of the Future
A POPULAR LIBRARY OF
Human
Regional,
and
their Application to
Current
Issues.
in the
Prof.
By
FLEURE
J.
Crown
The Coming
8vo.
Polity
By
the
55. net.
A Study in Reconstruction
EDITORS.
"An
Crown
By
Prof.
Svo.
55. net.
Ideas at War
GEDDES and Dr. GILBERT SLATER
'
Chronicle.
A New
Volume in
the Press
Crown
Svo.
53. net.
the
Changing
in Christianity
By
Prof.
PERCY GARDNER,
Litt.D.,
F.B.A.
WILLIAMS 8 NORGATF,
L.
P.
JACKS, M.A.
ASSISTANT EDITOR
G.
DAWES
HICKS. M.A..
BRITISH EDITORIAL
Ph.D.,
Litt.D.
BOARD
Oxford.
The Rev.
EDWARD
Professor
Oxford.
RUSSELL, Liverpool.
PRINCIPAL CONTENTS-JANUARY.
THE REIGN OF NONSENSE IN THE
WORLD, IN THE STATE, AND IN
HUMAN LIFE
THE SOUL AS IT IS, AND HOW TO DEAL
WITH IT
THE STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE, AND
MUTUAL AID
THE RESTORATION OF PALESTINE
THE OLD TESTAMENT AND ITS
ETHICAL TEACHING
MORALITY AND CONVENTION
PAUL AND PLATO
CHRISTIAN PRINCIPLES AND THE WAR
..
SETTLEMENT
By
By
By
By
...
By
From
WILLIAMS
MA.
SUBSCRIPTIONS:
By
London
C. G. Montefiore.
Professor H. L. Stewart.
Professor E. J. Price.
By
DISCUSSIONS. SURVEY
By Professor J. Macleod.
By M. J. Landa.
all
10s. per
Stalls
annum, post
free.
and Bookshops.
& NORGATE,
14,
2.
Henrietta
Street,
8vo.
Demv
8vo.
new work by
The
the Rev.
TUDOR
Demy
The
God
JONES, Ph.D."
of Rudolf Eucken's
8vo.
net.
W. TUDOR JONES.
Reality of
By the Rev. W.
Author of " An Interpretation
'
Philosophy,'
etc.
6s. net.
Organisation of
Thought
WHITEHEAD,
A. N.
By
Sc.D.,
F.R.S.
"An
Introduction to
Mathematics."
" Whether
discoursing upon his own special subject, moving in the larger atmosphere
of a general philosophy of science, or treating some topic of the business of education,
Scotsman.
this writer is always encouraging, suggestive, and instructive."
Crown
Tort,
8vo.
6s. net.
in
Mediaeval
Britain
Review
of
By
J.
Of Lincoln's Inn, Barrister-at-Law Author of " The First Twelve Centuries of British
The
Manufacture of Historical Material," and other works.
Story,"
Some shrewd comparisons are made between the customary law of early times and
the law of our own day.
;
'
With
Maps.
Crown
8vo.
Study
in
By
War
R. W. S ETON-WATSON.
WILLIAMS g NORGATE,
Home
106
University Library
Volumes now
Leather,
2s. 6d.
Specially
The French
7.
Modern Geography.
Revolution.
(Maps.)
Introduction to Mathematics.
A. N. WHITEHEAD, Sc.D., F.R S.
of
Our
Time, 1885-1913. G. P. GOOCH, M.A.
23. History
Prof. J. A. THOMSON.
to
Science.
Introduction
32.
18.
The History
33.
of
England.
Study
Prof. A.
Evolution.
Principles of Physiology.
Prof. J. G.
45.
L.
51.
Warfare
57.
44.
in
England.
MACKENDRICK.
(Maps.)
GISBERT KAPP.
Prof. S. J.
Economy.
62.
The
66.
67.
70.
The
73.
Victorian
Age
BENJAMIN MOORE.
D. HANNAY.
D.Sc.,
LL. D.
in Literature.
G. K. CHESTERTON.
Germany of To-day.
The Writing of English.
Prof.
Belgium. (Maps.)
(Maps.)
105. Poland.
W. ALISON
PHILLIPS.
F.
WARING.
L.
107. Serbia.
(Maps.)
other Volumes on Subjects to
CHARLES TOWER.
W. T. BREWSTER.
R. C. K. ENSOR.
101.
Ask
CHAPMAN.
71.
Political
POLLARD.
58. Electricity.
59. Political
in
every Taste.
Many
your Bookseller for Full Prospectus or write to the Publishers.
WILLIAMS g NORGATE,
suit
W.C.2.
.s
B
11
A72
n.s.
v.17
PLEASE
CARDS OR
DO NOT REMOVE
SLIPS
UNIVERSITY
FROM
THIS
OF TORONTO
LIBRARY