ARTICLE IN PRESS

Journal of Bodywork and Movement Therapies (2006) 10, 276286

Journal of
Bodywork and
Movement Therapies
www.intl.elsevierhealth.com/journals/jbmt

PILOT STUDY

Yoga and distractibility

Lee N. Burkett, Ph.D.a,, Megan A. Todd, M.S.a, Troy Adams, Ph.D.b
a

Department of Exercise and Wellness, Arizona State University, 7001 E. Williams Field Road, Mesa,
AZ 85212-0180, USA
b
Rocky Mountain University of Health Professions, Provo, UT, USA
Received 11 May 2005; received in revised form 20 August 2005; accepted 24 August 2005

KEYWORDS
Yoga;
Distractibility;
Stress;
Arousal

Summary Performers have used many approaches to regulate arousal levels. Yoga
claims to regulate arousal; however the claim has not been evaluated. This study
investigated non-directive somatic arousal, utilizing heart-rate data, of trained and
novice yoga practitioners before, during and following an auditory distraction in
savasana. No difference was noted between trained and novice yoga practitioners.
& 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.

Introduction
Whether in sports, the performing arts, or other
performance-related tasks, the ability to focus is
critically important and can often delineate elite
from average performers. After sound mechanical
skills are learned in any discipline, the mental
ability to focus on a performance related task
without becoming distracted is paramount. Performers have used many approaches to cultivate the
ability to focus and regulate their arousal levels.
Yoga is a practice that purportedly enhances focus;
however, this claim has not been scientifically
evaluated. The purpose of this paper is to evaluate
the use of yoga as a means for regulating
physiological arousal. The paper is organized as
follows. First, important definitions are provided
from the literature, where available, or operationCorresponding author.

E-mail address: lee.burkett@asu.edu (L.N. Burkett).

1360-8592/$ - see front matter & 2005 Published by Elsevier Ltd.
doi:10.1016/j.jbmt.2005.08.007

ally defined by the researcher. Second, a discussion

of key concepts is presented. Third, theoretical
constructs pertinent to arousal and performance
are discussed. Fourth, research literature specific
to the physiological aspects of the arousalperformance relationship are reviewed. Fifth, a review of
pertinent yoga research is discussed. Finally, the
yoga and distractibility study will be presented.

Definitions
Arousalnondirective generalized bodily activationyconsidered an energizing function responsible for harnessing the bodys resources for intense
and vigorous activity (Arent and Landers, 2003,
p. 437).
Anxietyan emotional state or reaction often
characterized by unpleasant feelings of intensity,
preoccupation, disturbance, and apprehension
(Arent and Landers, 2003, p. 437).

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Yoga and distractibility
Focusone pointed attention of the bodys
resources on a singular task.
Distractibilitythe ability to be aroused either
physiologically or cognitively by an auditory, visual,
or kinesthetic stimulus, while performing a task,
usually with negative consequence to the performance task.
Yogathe practice of physical postures (asana)
and controlled breathing techniques (pranyama).

Key concepts
Arousal
In exploring the arousalperformance relationship
two important terms to define clearly are the terms
arousal and anxiety, which are often used interchangeably within the research, but as Arent and
Landers (2003) state, they are conceptually and
operationally different. Behavior can best be
described in terms of two dimensions, intensity
and direction (Neiss, 1988). Arousal is a nondirective generalized bodily activationyconsidered
an energizing function responsible for harnessing
the bodys resources for intense and vigorous
activity (Arent and Landers, 2003, p. 437). It
refers to intensity level, existing along a continuum
from a coma like state to a state of extreme
excitation (Landers, 1980). It is also referred to as
activation. Anxiety, however, is an emotional
state or reaction often characterized by unpleasant
feelings of intensity, preoccupation, disturbance,
and apprehension (Arent and Landers, 2003, p.
437). Anxiety, or stress, occurs when intensity or
arousal levels are high and perceived as negative
(Landers, 1980). It deals with the direction of the
intensity, whereas arousal refers only to intensity.
Although different, these two constructs of anxiety
and arousal are often related, particularly at times
of elevated intensity, as in performance situations.
Arousal itself is considered a multifaceted construct comprised of both cognitive and physiological aspects and as such Gould and Udry contend
that it is important to utilize both physiological and
cognitive methods of arousal measurement (1994).
Physiological arousal can be measured in various
ways. Brain functioning can be monitored utilizing
an Electroencephalograph (EEG). Blood pressure,
skin conductance, heart rate, and muscular activity
can all be used as a means of monitoring physiological arousal. Epinephrine, nor epinephrine, and
cortisol, measured via blood and urine, can all be
used to detect changes in physiological arousal at
the biochemical level. Research has shown that not

277
all people manifest physiological arousal in the
same way (Gould and Udry, 1994). Some experience
elevated heart rate, with no increase in blood
pressure or skin resistance while others may show
an increase in skin resistance and no increase in
heart rate or blood pressure (Gould and Udry,
1994). Since people manifest physiological arousal
in various ways it may be important to use various
means of physiological measurement to develop a
more accurate assessment of the physiological
arousal state. Accounting for the cognitive component of arousal utilizing self-report measures is also
important. Thayers Activation-Deactivation Adjective Checklist (AD-ACL, Thayer, 1967) and the
Somatic Perception Questionnaire (SPQ, Landy
and Stern, 1971) are the only self-report questionnaires that separate arousal from anxiety
(Ciambrone and Landers, 2003). Accounting for
both the cognitive and physiological components of
arousal is imperative to develop a more complete
understanding of arousal. However, in this study we
limited our parameters to the evaluation of a single
measurement of physiological arousal.

Anxiety
Anxiety is also considered a multifaceted construct
comprised of both cognitive and somatic elements.
Cognitive anxiety in a performance setting involves
negative concerns about performance, an inability
to concentrate, and disrupted attention before and
during performance evaluation (Arent and Landers,
2003, p. 437). Somatic anxiety involves the perception of bodily symptoms of autonomic reactivity,
often characterized by feelings of butterflies in the
stomach, racing heart, and shakiness (Arent and
Landers, 2003, p. 437). For this study, anxiety was
not a primary concern and as such the theoretical
constructs of the arousalperformance relationship
that rely on the concept of anxiety as a mediating
factor will be discussed briefly but not utilized as
guiding theoretical constructs for the literature
review or the study design.

Focus
Focus is defined by Websters Encyclopedia Dictionary as the central point, as of attraction,
attention, or activityyto concentrateyto be
adjusted to a clear image (Kellerman, 1977,
p. 378). In the performance setting, focus can be
defined as the ability to direct ones attention
solely to the activity at hand. Focus can be internal
or external and operationally defined in multiple
ways. Internal focus can be operationally defined as

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directing ones attention to ones own breath and
heart rate (Fillingim and Fine, 1986) or to the
action itself (Wulf et al., 1999). Two means of
operationally defining external focus are: listening
to a target word throughout performance (Fillingim
and Fine, 1986) or directing ones attention to the
outcome of the action (Wulf et al., 1999). Research
has shown different performance related outcomes
between internal and external focus techniques
(Clingman and Hilliard, 1990; Gill and Strom, 1985;
Fillingim and Fine, 1987; Radlo et al., 2002; Shea
and Wulf, 1999; Wulf et al., 1999, 2003).

Distractibility
Distraction is defined by Websters Encyclopedia
Dictionary as confusion from the multiplicity of
objects crowding on the mind and calling the
attention different ways (Kellerman, 1977, p.
291). Hence, the term distractibility then refers to
the ability of a person to be distracted. It is a term
generally used in psychology literature dealing with
mental difficulties of attention. In performance it is
of paramount importance to be able to devote the
mind singularly to the performance act. Thus, the
concept of distractibility within the performance
setting relates to the ability to be aroused either
physiologically or cognitively with negative consequence to performance.

Theoretical constructs
There are many theoretical constructs that
attempt to explain and describe the arousal

L.N. Burkett et al.

performance relationship. The catastrophe cup
model (Fazey and Hardy, 1987), Hanins optimal
zones of functioning hypothesis (1978), and multidimensional anxiety theory are all theories predicated on the impact of anxiety levels on
performance (Ciambrone and Landers, 2003). However, as the scope of this study attempted to look at
only non-directive somatic arousal, the three
theories predicated on anxiety levels will not be
part of the guiding framework for discussion in the
subsequent study. The drive theory (Hull, 1943;
Spence, 1951), and the inverted U hypothesis
(Yerkes and Dodson, 1908) are then discussed to
explore differing explanations of the role of
physiological arousal and its impact on performance (Ciambrone and Landers, 2003). Ultimately,
the inverted U hypothesis provides the strongest
theoretical rationale for this study. See Fig. 1.

Catastrophe theory
The catastrophe theory asserts that cognitive
anxiety levels interact with and mediate arousal
in performance (Gould and Udry, 1994). In states of
low cognitive anxiety and worry, the catastrophe
theory functions as an inverted U. However, when
cognitive anxiety is high there are increases in
performance to a point after which a catastrophe,
or rapid deterioration in performance occurs
(Gould and Udry, 1994). Central to the catastrophe
theory is that the performers physiological arousal
and performance are mediated by their level of
cognitive anxiety (Gould and Udry, 1994). For this
analysis, cognitive anxiety is not being evaluated

Figure 1 The inverted U hypothesis suggests that physiological arousal and performance are mediated by the level
of cognitive anxiety. Modified from: Williams, J.M., Landers, D.M., Boutcher, S.H. (1993). Arousalperformance
relationships, Applied Sport Psychology; personal growth to peak performance.

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Yoga and distractibility
and thus this theory is not the most appropriate
framework.

Individual zone of optimal functioning

Hanins individual zone of optimal functioning
(IZOF) is another theory that explains performance
as dependent on anxiety levels. IZOF is founded on
the concept of an individual optimal range of
anxiety level necessary for optimal performance
(Davis and Cox, 2002). The term optimal, referring
to performance, is defined as the most favorable or
successful outcome possible. Optimal arousal or
anxiety is defined as the best level for eliciting the
most successful outcome possible. According to
the IZOF, the best performance will occur when the
performer perceives their anxiety level as facilitating performance (Davis and Cox, 2002). Again
for this study no attempt was made to account for
anxiety levels, only for physiological arousal and
therefore this theory was not applied.

Multi-dimensional anxiety theory

Multi-dimensional anxiety theory is based on the
difference between cognitive and somatic anxiety.
It predicts a negative linear association between
cognitive anxiety and performance and an inverted
U relationship between somatic anxiety and performance (Swain and Jones, 1996). The multidimensional anxiety theory also predicts a decline
in somatic anxiety at the onset of performance with
cognitive anxiety levels continuing to be mediated
by self-confidence levels in an inverse relationship.
If self-confidence is low cognitive anxiety remains
high during performance, and if confidence is high
cognitive anxiety levels will tend to decline in
performance. Again this theory did not influence
the current study as anxiety was not the dependent
variable under investigation.

Drive theory
The drive theory describes the arousalperformance relationship in linear terms, as the result
of habit and drive. Habit is defined as the
hierarchical order or dominance of correct or
incorrect responses while drive is used almost
interchangeably with physiological arousal (Landers,
1980, p. 78). The relationship can be described as
P H  D. In performance, as drive or physiological
arousal increases if the habit is correct, performance will be enhanced; if the habit is incorrect
performance will deteriorate (Landers, 1980). This
theory may function well in explaining situations

279
where high arousal is important for performance
such as for a football player, but may be too simple
in attempting to explain performance involving fine
motor skills, such as golf putting.

Inverted U hypothesis
Unlike the drive theory, the inverted U hypothesis
posits a curvilinear relationship between arousal
and performance, with increases in arousal improving performance up to an optimal level after which
further increases in arousal lead to deterioration in
performance (Neiss, 1988). The optimal range for
arousal is variable according to the task as well as
the person. The inverted U is a correlational and
not causal hypothesis that states there is a curvilinear relationship, but does not explain the
internal states or processes that underlie and
produce it (Landers, 1980). Although, as Neiss
states, there has not been a single study that has
fully supported the inverted U hypothesis, it can
be said to be supported by the totality of evidence
(1988, p. 355). The foundational concept of this
study, yoga as a possible means to regulate arousal,
was evaluated within the framework of the
inverted U hypothesis. The inverted U hypothesis
was the best theoretical framework to evaluate and
describe yoga as a possible arousal regulation
technique and not an anxiety mediation technique.
See Fig. 1.

Physiological arousal and performance

The correlational relationship between physiological arousal and performance, as hypothesized by
the inverted U hypothesis, will be used to guide the
review of studies on arousalperformance and
yoga. The inverted U hypothesis, although regarded
by some as overly simplistic, does provide a useful
model to explore the arousalperformance relationship, as generally the concept of an optimal
arousal level for performance is well accepted
(Kerr, 1985).
The relevant literature was located through
computerized searchers on Medline and PsychInfo,
as well as in an unpublished pilot study on the acute
affects of yoga on physiological arousal and performance (Ciambrone and Landers, 2003). Studies
involving various physiological arousal assessments
will be reviewed as research has shown that people
manifest physiological arousal in different ways
(Gould and Udry, 1994). The scope of the yoga and
distractibility study was limited to physiological
arousal assessment through heart-rate monitoring.

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This limitation was due to available equipment and
as such, although various physiological arousal
literatures will be reviewed, the focus will be on
studies that utilized heart rate as a measurement
of physiological arousal.
Crews and Landers (1993) reviewed brain activity
in highly skilled golfers to determine patterns of
attentional focus and physiological arousal during
golf putting performance. They found that during
the last second prior to the putt there was an
increase in the right-HS alpha activity and this both
correlated and predicted better performance
(Crews and Landers, 1993). According to the
inverted U hypothesis, a fine motor skill like golf
putting would require relatively low physiological
arousal for successful performance. This optimal
physiological performance state, of increased
alpha activity, indicates an increased ability to
concentrate.
The shift from theta to alpha dominance preceding performance is also reflected in another
physiological arousal measurement, heart rate.
Hatfield et al. (1987) examined the patterning of
EEG alpha states and heart-rate activity in the
baseline and performance conditions of 15 adult
rifle marksmen. They found an increase in the right
hemisphere of the brain to be associated with heart
rate and EEG during the final preparation phase
prior to performance. This pattern is corroborated
by the research of Crews and Landers (1993) and
also affirms the physiological relationship and
patterning of brain activity and heart rate in
performance with highly skilled performers of
different sports.
Robazza et al. (1998), in a study of elite female
archers, found that a deceleration in heart rate
occurred during shooting and that it was associated
with optimal performance outcomes. Researchers
indicated that heart-rate deceleration, a physiological marker, could be used to evaluate modifications made through mental rehearsal and skill
simulation (Robazza et al., 1998). These studies
lend credence to the use of heart-rate measurement as a means to assess physiological arousal
states, and the ability to draw implications from it
regarding the ability to focus.
Two studies involving firefighters heart-rate
response to an alarm indicated that due to
individual differences, baseline measures may be
quite different and therefore it is appropriate to
measure the increase of each individual over their
own baseline (Barnard and Duncan, 1975; Blimkie
et al., 1977). Therefore, this study reviewed the
heart-rate rise of an individual over their own
baseline. According to a study of firefighters during
a real alarm, 82.9% of their heart-rate rise was

L.N. Burkett et al.

accounted for by the intense physical activity
necessary to respond the alarm; however, 17.1%
was suggested to be from emotional factors, such
as anxiety (Blimkie et al., 1977). Since participants
in the yoga and distractibility study were lying
supine on the floor, the necessity to separate
physical or psychological factors was not necessary.
The concept of external versus internal focus has
been evaluated in performance situations. Wulf et
al. (1999) explored skill acquisition and retention in
golf performance of novice players utilizing two
strategies of external and internal focus. The
internal focus group was directed to bring their
attention to their arm motion and body movement
and the external group was directed to bring their
attention toward the movement of the golf club.
The rest of the instructions and tasks were the
same. The external focus group performed and
retained their improvement better than the internal focus group. Similar results have been shown in
other studies (Clingman and Hilliard, 1990; Gill and
Strom, 1985; Fillingim and Fine, 1986; Radlo et al.,
2002; Shea and Wulf, 1999; Wulf et al., 2003).
Fillingim and Fine (1986) reported that externally focused individuals experienced less symptomalogy than internally focused individuals or
controls in an exercise setting. Participants in this
study were assigned to three groups; an internal
focus group, an external focus group, and a control
group. All participants ran 1 mile, utilizing their
assigned technique. The externally focused group
listened to headphones for a target word to be
repeated. The internal group focused on their own
breathing and heart rate and the control group
received no special instructions. This finding supports the concept of an external focus of control
benefiting performance. One possible explanation
for the success of the external focus conditions is
that external focus may help to facilitate the
mediation of physiological arousal levels, by reducing the attention one pays to extraneous details of
feeling, such as pain, muscle fatigue, or nervousness when in a performance situation.

Yoga review
Yoga, a Sanskrit word meaning to join or to bring
together is a system that comes to the United
States of America from India and claims to be
effective at cultivating focus (Iyengar, 1966). It is
through this joining of the mind and body, that
hatha yoga seeks to create dynamic equilibrium
(Gharote, 1999). Within the eight limbs (practices)
of yoga, two that assist in creating this equilibrium
are the practice of asana (physical postures) and

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Yoga and distractibility
pranayama (controlled breathing techniques).
Working with breath and movement, to alternately
stimulate and relax, yoga aims to calm the chaos
of conflicting impulses in both the mind and body,
thus presumably assisting in arousal regulation and
enhancing focus (Telles et al., 2000; Iyengar, 2001,
p. 15).
In the United States the word yoga commonly
refers to the practices of physical postures, breathing techniques, and sometimes includes meditation. However, it is important to note that yoga, in
the traditional sense, is comprised of all eight limbs
and not only breathing and movement practices as
commonly construed in the United States of
America. Traditionally the eight yoga practices
are separated into three aspects; the ethical and
physical disciplines, the emotional or mental
disciplines, and finally attainment of success
toward enlightenment (Iyengar, 2001). The initial
ethical discipline includes the practice of the
yamas and the niyamas, ethical and self-restraints,
and the physical practices of asana and pranyama,
postural and breathing practices (Iyengar, 1966).
The mental discipline of pratyahara, withdrawl of
the senses or mental non-attachment is assisted by
the practice of pranyama (Iyengar, 1966). However,
the pranyama practice at this point becomes only
the tool to access the state of pratyahara. The final
area of discipline includes dharana, the focus of
attention on one point, dhyana, sustained concentration, and samadhi, complete absorption with
god (Iyengar, 1966). It is out of this holistic practice
that many of the beneficial claims of yoga are
made. However, there may be a distinct difference
in the efficacy of a yoga practice to produce the
purported benefits dependent on the integration or
delineation of these various practices.
Also, important to note is the wide array of styles
within yoga practices in the United States of
America. Most yoga styles exported to this country
emerged from the lineage of one man, Krishnamacharya. His students developed various approaches
and integrations of the system of yoga from his
teachings. Pattabi Jois developed Ashtanga yoga, a
particularly vigorous style of yoga, where the focus
is on regulating the breath through challenging
postural sequences. B.K.S. Iyengar developed Iyengar yoga with a focus on alignment and therapeutic
practices. Indra Devi, the first person to open a
yoga studio in the United States of America
developed a comparatively gentle approach. Today
many practices have cross-pollinated and it has
become much more difficult to identify particular
lineages of yoga. However, styles can be grouped
relative to their major approaches to the system.
For purposes of this study we operationally defined

281
yoga as the practice of asana and pranyama and
followed an Ashtanga-based approach.
The concept of yoga as a possible system for
mediating physiological arousal levels has its
grounding in research literature and popular
culture. Utilizing the physical practices of asana
and pranyama, the aim of practicing yoga is to
cultivate awareness of and the ability to transcend
the fluctuations of the physical body and the
monkey mind. The development of non-attachment
to the fluctuations of the mind and body allows a
person to act freely and clearly with attention to
what must be done, without being distracted. From
a yogic perspective the favorability of an external
versus an internal focus during performance makes
sense. A golfer ought to focus on what is making
contact with the golf ball, by extending their focus
from the center out. This is the same with yoga
postures. A posture has a center point from which
to extend out to the extremities of the body. Also,
different than Fillingim and Fines experiment of
focusing on the breath (1987), is that yoga utilizes
the awareness and regulation of the breath, while
maintaining focus on the activity. The breath may
bring more awareness to symptomology, however in
yoga the practice is to not be distracted by those
awarenesses.
One challenge faced in studying yoga is that by
nature, it is a multidisciplinary practice. Many yoga
studies have various methodological shortcomings
and as such, it is important to review some results
with caution. For example, one common aspect of
yoga interventions is the use of multiple treatments
such as asana, pranyama, prayer, devotional lectures, and meditation, among others, occurring
simultaneously (Santha Joseph, et al., 1981; Telles
et al., 1993a, b; Vempati and Telles, 2002). This
multiple treatment approach makes it difficult to
determine what is affecting the outcome(s) being
measured. Also, in other studies participants did
not receive the same test batteries, making it
difficult to compare results (Vempati and Telles,
2002; Ray et al., 2001). Control groups and baseline
measures also tend to be inconsistently utilized.
(Birkel and Edgren, 2000; Raghuaj and Telles,
1997).
Another limitation of the literature on yoga is
that much of it involves people with illnesses such
as hypertension (Sim and Ratnam, 1982), epilepsy
(Yardi, 2001), asthma (Vedanthan, et al., 1998),
osteoarthritis (Garfinkel et al., 1994) and is not
measured on people who are well. However, many
of these studies do suggest effective applications
for the practice of hatha yoga on well populations.
For example, a study by Sim and Ratnam found that
by combining mental and physical approaches

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through visualization, breath work, and hatha yoga,
participants were able to effectively manage their
hypertension without pharmacological help (1982).
However, they did note that this type of treatment
would only be most effective for people who are
highly motivated and would take the time to do
the exercises (Sim and Ratnam, 1982). As such,
performers and athletes, particularly at elite
levels, may be uniquely situated to benefit from a
practice of yoga.
Even with the many limitations that exist in this
small body of literature, there are trends that
suggest possibilities for future research. For example, there have been promising trends that suggest
various physiological benefits such as decreases
in heart rate and blood pressure (Cusmano
and Robinson, 1992), positive mood enhancement
(Szabo et al., 1998), better hand coordination
(Telles et al., 1993a), and improved flexibility
(Gharote and Ganguly, 1979).
Various studies have been designed to look at
yoga trainings affect on increasing vital capacity,
with mixed results. One study by Vedanthan et al. is
a randomly assigned study designed to look at the
affect of a 16-week hatha yoga practice on
asthmatic participants (1998). They found that
yoga decreased the participants use of inhalers
but did not produce significant differences in their
peak flow volume (Vedanthan, et al., 1998). In a 15week study designed to review the effects of yoga
postures and breathing techniques on vital capacity, Birkel and Edgren found a statistically significant improvement in vital capacity, although
there was no control group used to compare results
(2000). Three others studies also reported positive
increases in performance of respiratory tasks,
however the experiments were questionably performed and should be viewed with caution (Mandanmohan et al., 1992; Nayar et al., 1975; Telles
et al., 1993b).
Telles et al. found that hatha yoga interspersed
with relaxation, called cyclic meditation (CM),
reduced arousal more than relaxation techniques
alone (2000). When compared, both techniques
reduced oxygen consumption and breath rate and
increased breath volume; however, the magnitude
of change was greater in the hatha yoga (CM) group
and did not vary with participants length of
experience (Telles et al., 2000). Although this
study did not utilize a control group, it does
provide a useful starting point by suggesting that
hatha yoga positively affects the ability to reduce
or possibly regulate physiological arousal.
Bera et al. (1998) studied savasana, lying supine,
and sitting in a chair as different modes of recovery
from exercise. Heart-rate results showed that at

L.N. Burkett et al.

1012 min participants in savasana had recovered
to 99100% of their baseline, while the chair sitting
group was only 4247% recovered, and the lying
supine group was 4558% recovered. The savasana
group was the only group to recover to below
baseline levels, at minute 14. It is not surprising
that there was a large difference between people
lying down and sitting up, however the difference
between the group lying supine and in savasana
was. A major portion of the difference could likely
be accounted for by the fact that those lying supine
and chair sitting were instructed to keep their eyes
open. However, the practice of conscious relaxation may also be instrumental at eliciting increased
heart-rate recovery benefits.
This following study, yoga and distractibility, was
designed to evaluate whether yoga training alters
physiological arousal, as measured by heart-rate
response, to a distracting stimulus, while performing savasana. By identifying the operating theoretical framework and relevant literature the
rationale for this study also provides a platform
from which to review the results.

Participants
Twelve adult participants were recruited from At
One Yoga studios in Phoenix, by word of mouth and
flyers. Participants were asked to volunteer for one
free, one and a half hour yoga session, conducted
at At One Yoga, by a certified yoga instructor.
Participants were told that the study would
evaluate heart-rate data during a single yoga
session, through the utilization of heart-rate
monitors. Twelve people were recruited, six with
little or no yoga training and six intermediate to
advanced level practitioners. All participants provided informed consent to participate in this study.
This study protocol was approved by the Arizona
State University Institutional Review Board prior to
initiation of any study procedures. Participants
were read the debriefing script, regarding the
distraction aspect of the study, after completing
the session.
For this study, yoga was operationally defined as
the practice of asana and pranayama. Beginners or
novice practitioners were operationally defined as
people who had never practiced yoga, taken class
on occasion (but were not regular weekly practitioners), or had participated in weekly training for
less than two months. Intermediate yoga practitioners were operationally defined as those with
between three to 5 years of consistent weekly
practice. Advanced yoga practitioners were operationally defined as those with over 5 years of

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Yoga and distractibility
regular weekly practice. The term trained yoga
practitioners encompassed both intermediate and
advanced practitioners.

Procedures
Upon recruitment, participants were screened
using the PAR-Q and were not eligible to participate
if they took medications which affected heart rate.
They were also instructed not to use caffeine
within four hours prior to the yoga session on the
day of testing. All participants were given informed
consent documents and issued Polar heart-rate
monitors and given instructions on how to use
them. During the entire yoga session, participants
remained at least 3 feet away from each other to
avoid interference with the heart-rate monitors.
The yoga class consisted of a one and a half hour
yoga sequence. The yoga session was an Ashtanga
inspired class. This style of yoga was selected
because of its attention to breath regulation, while
moving through challenging postural sequences.
Breath regulation is thought to be an important
aspect in the ability to regulate arousal (Telles
et al., 1997).
During savasana, the relaxation posture, a preplanned auditory disruption occurred. The distraction consisted of a song suddenly playing from the
studio sound system for approximately 3 s. Audio
levels were controlled so that the sound was no
louder than during a typical class and so that it
would not cause pain or hearing damage. Heartrate data was collected and analyzed to identify
differences in heart-rate response and heart
recovery between groups.
Savasana lasted for a total of ten minutes but
data were not collected during the first three
minutes. Minutes 34 were averaged to yield a
baseline heart-rate score. The distraction occurred
between minutes 45. A 15 s heart-rate average
was taken, during and immediately following the
noise, to assess acute heart-rate response. Exactly,
3 min from the acute distraction, a long-term
recovery heart rate was assessed using a one
minute heart rate.

Design
A repeated measures analysis was used to examine
the mean heart rate during savasana prior to the
time of distraction (baseline) compared to the
heart rate immediately at the time of distraction
(acute response) and the heart rate at 34 min

283
after distraction (long-term recovery). It was
hypothesized that trained yoga practitioners would
show a significantly smaller change in heart rate
during the distraction compared to novice practitioners. The null hypothesis stated that there
would be no difference in the heart-rate response
of beginner versus trained practitioners.
The design was a 2  3 mixed model repeated
measures. Many experimental designs include an
arbitrary alpha level of .05 to minimize Type I error.
This essentially results in falsely concluding that
there are group differences when in reality none
exist. Minimizing Type I error is important when
testing drugs and products that could potentially
harm participants; however, because the yoga class
posed no threat of harm, it was more important to
minimize the Type II error. This would reduce the
chance of falsely concluding there were no differences when in reality there were. Thus, results
were reviewed with relevance to effect size first,
followed by power, then significance. If a significant
overall F was found, Bonferonni tests were proposed for post hoc analysis.

Results
Owing to late arrival of a few participants and time
constraints of the studio, the class was shortened
from one and a half hours to an hour and 15 min.
Data from two of the twelve participants, one
experienced and one beginner were eliminated
from analysis due to technical difficulties with the
heart-rate monitors. The test of within subject
effects showed that there were clear differences in
the three heart-rate conditions, with a power of
1.00, an effect size of .90, and a significance level
of less than .0001. This was substantiated by using a
Bonferonni post hoc analysis to review pairwise
comparisons of the three heart-rate conditions.
Baseline versus acute were different with a
significance of .001, baseline versus recovery
with a significance of .0001, and acute versus
recovery with a significance of .0001. However,
there were no differences on any of the heartrate measures between trained versus beginning
participants.
Although no significance was found, it is interesting to note that the mean heart rates for the
trained versus novice yoga participants in the three
separate conditions of baseline, acute, and recovery show a trend with the novice participants
mean heart rate consistently higher: 90.37 versus
98.91, 97.31 versus 106.09, and 80.72 versus 85.08.
The standard deviations for all conditions were

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284
between 16.85 and 17.72. This drop in heart rate
from baseline to recovery in both groups from 90.37
to 80.72 in the trained group and 98.91 to 85.08 in
the novice group indicates that after the distraction all participants were more relaxed than at
baseline. The reasons for this are not clear but
warrant future consideration and study.

Discussion
The results suggest that the auditory distraction
during savasana was physiologically arousing for
trained and novice yoga participants alike. It is
important to note that although not statistically
significant, there was a trend for the trained yoga
participants to be less physiologically aroused than
the novice participants. The reasons for this trend
suggest more research needs to be done to identify
the variable(s) responsible for creating the difference. In this study, all participants were more
relaxed the longer the time spent in savasana even
with an auditory distraction. Since no control group
was used it is impossible to tell if the magnitude of
relaxation was less than, equal to, or greater than
what might have occurred with no auditory
distraction. As such, further research is suggested
to elucidate the impact of time in savasana on
arousal regulation and distractibility.
In savasana yogis and yoginis are practicing one
of the foundational/fundamental aspects of yoga
which is the withdrawal of the senses. We
practice closing our eyes to block out visual stimuli,
use our attention to block out smells, tastes, and
sounds, as well as utilize different techniques such
as different types of imagery, floating, or complete
clearing of the mind to withdraw from the sense of
touch. In a practiced/experienced yogi/yogini we
would expect to see an ability to consciously relax
and maintain a state of low arousal regardless of
the setting, i.e. regardless of distractions.
One strength of this study is that it is the first
known attempt to evaluate the effect of yoga
practice on distractibility. There was good power,
indicating that the test results were trustworthy,
and the effect size indicated that 90% of the
variance was attributable to the three treatment
conditions. This interpretation of effect size as
partial Z2 is calculated using the total sum of
squares divided by the between sum of squares to
interpret the amount of variance that can be
accounted for by the treatment, thus indicating
the efficacy of the treatment.
The major limitation of this study was that only
one aspect of arousal was measured. One method
of measuring the multifaceted construct of arousal
is through the physiological measurement of heart

L.N. Burkett et al.

rate. A rise in heart rate, as a marker of
physiological arousal indicates a fracturing of
resources from the singular task of (conscious
relaxation) savasana, which requires a low state
of physiological arousal, thus indicating the ability
to be distracted. We do not have scores for
cognitive arousal.
Even without that data this question is wholly
dependent on how distractibility is defined. If
distractibility is the ability to be aroused either
physiologically or psychologically then a rise in
heart rate appears to indicate a distraction.
Because no cognitive measure was included it is
not known whether a yoga practice may alter
cognitive levels of arousal. Also, a technical
difficulty did not allow data to be collected on all
participants. Baseline measures of fitness were also
not taken and therefore it was not possible to know
the mediating role of fitness in the results. Finally,
because there was no attempt to control for style
of yoga practiced, it is impossible to know if one
specific style may be more influential than another
in affecting arousal regulation and the ability to
focus during distraction.
The necessity to include a control group in future
studies is paramount as it would allow for a more
succinct evaluation of the doseresponse relationship of yoga and arousal regulation. In this study,
we evaluated the impact of a minimal amount of
yoga experience in novice practitioners of less than
two months, versus four or more years of experience in trained practitioners. It is possible that
there is a greater difference in people who have
never practiced yoga versus those with some
experience, but not a great difference between
those with some versus more experience, suggesting that after a certain point there are diminishing
returns in the effort to benefit ratio. Utilizing a
control group could account for this doseresponse
relationship. Fitness measures should also be
included to account for any differences in fitness
levels which could impact the results.
Going back to the data sets to see whether there
was a difference anywhere between the two
groups, even though their means were not significant, would be possible but not academically
honest. We chose to use statistical analysis, not
case study for this project, thus reexamination of
the data as case studies did not seem ethical.
It is recommended that future studies be
designed to take into account both physiological
and cognitive aspects of arousal. This would allow
for a more complete understanding of the impact of
yoga practice on the multidimensional arousal
relationship. It may also be important to include
measurements of cognitive and somatic based

ARTICLE IN PRESS
Yoga and distractibility
anxiety levels, as various arousalperformance
theories have been advanced that are predicated
on individual anxiety traits and performance
anxiety states as mediating factors in attaining
optimal arousal states. Since there has been some
evidence that a yoga practice can be physiologically arousing, the benefits claimed in yoga
literature may originate more from the ability to
mediate the direction of intensity rather than form
the intensity level itself. This idea would lend
credence to assessing the impact of yoga within
theoretical contexts predicated on the mediating
role of anxiety states in performance. Within these
frameworks assessing individual anxiety traits
would also be important.
More research is indicated to determine whether
a certain style of yoga or practice within it, may be
effective at mediating physiological or cognitive
arousal, and/or cognitive and somatic anxiety.
Since the current study was observational and did
not attempt to control for the styles of yoga
practiced it is not known if the efficacy of yoga to
cultivate focus may vary with style. The approaches
of various schools of yoga as they are taught in the
United States of America differ greatly and as such
comparing them, or controlling for them might
yield more informative results. Also, yoga is a
system encompassing eight different limbs of
practice, controlling for the practice of these
various limbs may be important in delineating
relevant practices affecting arousal and/ or anxiety
regulation and the ability to focus.

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