Water desalination

Methods
Desalination

This article is about removing salt from water. For

soil desalination, see Soil salinity control.

Desalination, desalinization, and desalinisation refer to

any of several processes that remove some amount of salt
and other minerals from saline water. More generally,
desalination may also refer to the removal of salts and
minerals,[1] as in soil desalination, which also happens to
be a major issue for agricultural production.[2]
Salt water is desalinated to produce fresh water suitable for
human consumption or irrigation. One potential byproduct
of desalination is salt. Desalination is used on many
seagoing ships and submarines. Most of the modern
interest in desalination is focused on developing costeffective ways of providing fresh water for human use.
Along with recycled wastewater, this is one of the few
rainfall-independent water sources.[3]
Due to relatively high energy consumption, the costs of
desalinating sea water are generally higher than the
alternatives (fresh water from rivers or groundwater, water
recycling and water conservation), but alternatives are not
always available and rapid overdraw and depletion of
reserves is a critical problem worldwide. Quoting
Christopher Gasson of Global Water Intelligence, At the
moment, around 1% of the worlds population are
dependent on desalinated water to meet their daily needs,
but by 2025, the UN expects 14% of the worlds population
to be encountering water scarcity. Unless people get
radically better at water conservation, the desalination
industry has a very strong future indeed.[4]
Desalination is particularly relevant to dry countries such
as Australia, which traditionally have relied on collecting
rainfall behind dams to provide their drinking water
supplies. According to the International Desalination
Association, in June 2011, 15,988 desalination plants
operated worldwide, producing 66.5 million cubic meters
per day, providing water for 300 million people.[5] This
number has been updated to 78.4 million cubic meters by
2013.,[4] or 57% greater than just 5 years prior. The single

Distillation
o

Multi-stage
flash
distillation
(MSF)

Multiple-effect
distillation
(MED|ME)

Vaporcompression
(VC)

Ion exchange

Membrane processes
o

Electrodialysis
reversal (EDR)

Reverse
osmosis (RO)

Nanofiltration
(NF)

Membrane
distillation
(MD)

Forward
osmosis (FO)

Freezing desalination

Geothermal
desalination

Solar desalination

Solar
humidification
Dehumidificati
on (HDH)

Multiple-effect
humidification
(MEH)

Methane hydrate
crystallization

largest desalination project is Ras Al Khair in Saudi Arabia, which produces 1,025,000 cubic
meters per day in 2014[4] The largest percent of desalinated water used in any country is in Israel,
which produces 40% of its domestic water use from seawater desalination.[6]

Schematic of a multistage flash desalinator

A steam in
B seawater in
C potable water out
D waste out
E steam out
F heat exchange
G condensation collection
H brine heater

Plan of a typical reverse osmosis desalination plant

Contents

1 Methods

2 Considerations and criticism

o

2.1 Energy consumption

2.2 Cogeneration

2.3 Economics

2.4 Environmental

3 Experimental techniques and other developments

o

3.1 Desalination powered by waste heat

3.2 Low-temperature thermal desalination

3.3 Thermoionic process

3.4 Desalination through evaporation and condensation for crops

3.5 Other approaches

4 Existing facilities and facilities under construction

o

4.1 Algeria

4.2 Aruba

4.3 Australia

4.4 Bahrain

4.5 Chile

4.6 China

4.7 Cyprus

4.8 Egypt

4.9 Germany

4.10 Gibraltar

4.11 Grand Cayman

4.12 Hong Kong

4.13 India

4.14 Iran

4.15 Israel

4.16 Malta

4.17 Maldives

4.18 Oman

4.19 Saudi Arabia

4.20 Spain

4.21 South Africa

4.22 United Arab Emirates

4.23 United Kingdom

4.24 United States

4.25 Trinidad and Tobago

5 In nature

6 See also

7 References

7.1 Further reading

7.2 Articles

8 External links

Methods
The traditional process used in these operations is vacuum distillationessentially the boiling of
water at less than atmospheric pressure and thus a much lower temperature than normal. This is
because the boiling of a liquid occurs when the vapor pressure equals the ambient pressure and
vapor pressure increases with temperature. Thus, because of the reduced temperature, lowtemperature "waste" heat from electrical power generation or industrial processes can be used.

Reverse osmosis desalination plant in Barcelona, Spain

The principal competing processes use membranes to desalinate, principally applying reverse
osmosis technology.[7] Membrane processes use semipermeable membranes and pressure to
separate salts from water. Reverse osmosis plant membrane systems typically use less energy
than thermal distillation, which has led to a reduction in overall desalination costs over the past
decade. Desalination remains energy intensive, however, and future costs will continue to depend
on the price of both energy and desalination technology.

Considerations and criticism

Energy consumption

Energy consumption of sea water desalination can be as low as 3 kWh/m3,[8] including prefiltering and ancillaries, similar to the energy consumption of existing fresh water supplies
transported over large distances,[9] but much higher than local fresh water supplies which use 0.2
kWh/m3 or less.[10]
The laws of physics determine a minimum energy consumption for sea water desalination around
1 kWh/m3,[11][12] excluding pre-filtering and intake/outfall pumping. Under 2 kWh/m3[13] has been
achieved with existing reverse osmosis membrane technology, leaving limited scope for further
energy reductions.
Supplying all domestic water by sea water desalination would increase the United States' energy
consumption by around 10%, about the amount of energy used by domestic refrigerators.[14]
Energy Consumption of Sea Water Desalination Methods...[15]
Desalination Method
>>

Multistage

Multi-Effect Mechanical Vapor Reverse

Distillation
Compression
Osmosis

Flash
MSF

MED

MVC

RO

Electrical energy
(kWh/m3)

46

1.52.5

712

35.5

Thermal energy
(kWh/m3)

50110

60110

None

None

58.5

None

None

712

35.5

Electrical equivalent of
thermal energy
9.519.5
(kWh/m3)
Total equivalent
electrical energy
(kWh/m3)

13.525.5 6.511

Note: "Electrical equivalent" refers to the amount of electrical energy which could be generated
using a given quantity of thermal energy and appropriate turbine generator.
Cogeneration

Cogeneration is the process of using excess heat from electricity generation for another task: in
this case the production of potable water from seawater or brackish groundwater in an integrated,
or "dual-purpose", facility where a power plant provides the energy for desalination.
Alternatively, the facility's energy production may be dedicated to the production of potable
water (a stand-alone facility), or excess energy may be produced and incorporated into the
energy grid (a true cogeneration facility). Cogeneration takes various forms, and theoretically
any form of energy production could be used. However, the majority of current and planned
cogeneration desalination plants use either fossil fuels or nuclear power as their source of energy.
Most plants are located in the Middle East or North Africa, which use their petroleum resources
to offset limited water resources. The advantage of dual-purpose facilities is they can be more
efficient in energy consumption, thus making desalination a more viable option for drinking
water.[16][17]

The Shevchenko BN350, a nuclear-heated desalination unit

In a December 26, 2007, opinion column in The Atlanta Journal-Constitution, Nolan Hertel, a
professor of nuclear and radiological engineering at Georgia Tech, wrote, "... nuclear reactors can
be used ... to produce large amounts of potable water. The process is already in use in a number
of places around the world, from India to Japan and Russia. Eight nuclear reactors coupled to
desalination plants are operating in Japan alone, nuclear desalination plants could be a source of
large amounts of potable water transported by pipelines hundreds of miles inland..."[18]
Additionally, the current trend in dual-purpose facilities is hybrid configurations, in which the
permeate from a reverse osmosis desalination component is mixed with distillate from thermal
desalination. Basically, two or more desalination processes are combined along with power
production. Such facilities have already been implemented in Saudi Arabia at Jeddah and Yanbu.
[19]

A typical aircraft carrier in the US military uses nuclear power to desalinate 400,000 US gallons
(1,500,000 l; 330,000 imp gal) of water per day.[20]
Economics

Costs of desalinating sea water (infrastructure, energy and maintenance) are generally higher
than the alternatives (fresh water from rivers or groundwater, water recycling and water
conservation), but alternatives are not always available. Achievable costs in 2013 range from
0.45 to 1 US$/cubic metre (2 to 4 US$/kgal). (1 cubic meter is about 264 gallons.)
The cost of untreated fresh water in the developing world can reach 5 US$/cubic metre.[21]
Average water consumption and cost of supply by sea water desalination (50%)
Area

Consumption
USgal/person/day

Consumption
Desalinated Water
litre/person/day Cost US$/person/day

USA

100

378

0.29

Europe

50

189

0.14

Africa

15

57

0.05

UN recommended
13
minimum

49

0.04

Factors that determine the costs for desalination include capacity and type of facility, location,
feed water, labor, energy, financing, and concentrate disposal. Desalination stills now control
pressure, temperature and brine concentrations to optimize efficiency. Nuclear-powered
desalination might be economical on a large scale.[22][23]
While noting costs are falling, and generally positive about the technology for affluent areas in
proximity to oceans, a 2004 study argued, "Desalinated water may be a solution for some waterstress regions, but not for places that are poor, deep in the interior of a continent, or at high

elevation. Unfortunately, that includes some of the places with biggest water problems.", and,
"Indeed, one needs to lift the water by 2,000 metres (6,600 ft), or transport it over more than
1,600 kilometres (990 mi) to get transport costs equal to the desalination costs. Thus, it may be
more economical to transport fresh water from somewhere else than to desalinate it. In places far
from the sea, like New Delhi, or in high places, like Mexico City, high transport costs would add
to the high desalination costs. Desalinated water is also expensive in places that are both
somewhat far from the sea and somewhat high, such as Riyadh and Harare. In many places, the
dominant cost is desalination, not transport; the process would therefore be relatively less
expensive in places like Beijing, Bangkok, Zaragoza, Phoenix, and, of course, coastal cities like
Tripoli."[24] After being desalinated at Jubail, Saudi Arabia, water is pumped 200 miles (320 km)
inland through a pipeline to the capital city of Riyadh.[25] For coastal cities, desalination is
increasingly viewed as an untapped and unlimited water source.
In 2014, the Israeli cities of Hadera, Palmahim, Ashkelon, and Sorek were desalinizing water for
less than 40 U.S. cents per cubic meter.[26] As of 2006, Singapore was desalinating water for
US$0.49 per cubic meter.[27] The city of Perth began operating a reverse osmosis seawater
desalination plant in 2006, and the Western Australian government announced a second plant will
be built to serve the city's needs.[28] A desalination plant is now operating in Australia's largest
city, Sydney,[29] and the Wonthaggi desalination plant was under construction in Wonthaggi,
Victoria.
The Perth desalination plant is powered partially by renewable energy from the Emu Downs
Wind Farm.[30] A wind farm at Bungendore in New South Wales was purpose-built to generate
enough renewable energy to offset the Sydney plant's energy use,[31] mitigating concerns about
harmful greenhouse gas emissions, a common argument used against seawater desalination.
In December 2007, the South Australian government announced it would build a seawater
desalination plant for the city of Adelaide, Australia, located at Port Stanvac. The desalination
plant was to be funded by raising water rates to achieve full cost recovery.[32][33] An online,
unscientific poll showed nearly 60% of votes cast were in favor of raising water rates to pay for
desalination.[34]
A January 17, 2008, article in the Wall Street Journal stated, "In November, Connecticut-based
Poseidon Resources Corp. won a key regulatory approval to build the $300 million waterdesalination plant in Carlsbad, north of San Diego. The facility would produce 50,000,000 US
gallons (190,000,000 l; 42,000,000 imp gal) of drinking water per day, enough to supply about
100,000 homes ... Improved technology has cut the cost of desalination in half in the past decade,
making it more competitive ... Poseidon plans to sell the water for about $950 per acre-foot
[1,200 cubic meters (42,000 cu ft)]. That compares with an average [of] $700 an acre-foot [1200
m] that local agencies now pay for water."[35] In June 2012, new estimates were released that
showed the cost to the water authority had risen to $2,329 per acre-foot.[36] Each $1,000 per acrefoot works out to $3.06 for 1,000 gallons, or $.81 per cubic meter.[37]

While this regulatory hurdle was met, Poseidon Resources is not able to break ground until the
final approval of a mitigation project for the damage done to marine life through the intake pipe
is received, as required by California law. Poseidon Resources has made progress in Carlsbad,
despite an unsuccessful attempt to complete construction of Tampa Bay Desal, a desalination
plant in Tampa Bay, FL, in 2001. The Board of Directors of Tampa Bay Water was forced to buy
Tampa Bay Desal from Poseidon Resources in 2001 to prevent a third failure of the project.
Tampa Bay Water faced five years of engineering problems and operation at 20% capacity to
protect marine life, so stuck to reverse osmosis filters prior to fully using this facility in 2007.[38]
In 2008, a San Leandro, California company (Energy Recovery Inc.) was desalinating water for
$0.46 per cubic meter.[39]
While desalinating 1,000 US gallons (3,800 l; 830 imp gal) of water can cost as much as $3, the
same amount of bottled water costs $7,945.[40]
Environmental
Intake

In the United States, cooling water intake structures are regulated by the Environmental
Protection Agency under Section 316(b) of the Clean Water Act. These intake structures can have
the same impacts to the environment as desalination facility intakes. According to the EPA, water
intake structures cause adverse environmental impact by pulling large numbers of fish and
shellfish or their eggs into an industrial system. There, the organisms may be killed or injured by
heat, physical stress, or chemicals. Larger organisms may be killed or injured when they are
trapped against screens at the front of an intake structure.[41] Alternative intake types which avoid
this environmental impact include beach wells, but these require more energy and higher costs,
while limiting output.[42]
The Kwinana Desalination Plant opened in Perth in 2007. Water there and at Queensland's Gold
Coast Desalination Plant and Sydney's Kurnell Desalination Plant is withdrawn at only 0.1
meters per second (0.33 ft/s), which is slow enough to let fish escape. The plant provides nearly
140,000 cubic meters (4,900,000 cu ft) of clean water per day.[43]
Outflow
This section needs additional citations for verification. Please help
improve this article by adding citations to reliable sources. Unsourced
material may be challenged and removed. (January 2012)

All desalination processes produce large quantities of a concentrate, which may be increased in
temperature, and contain residues of pretreatment and cleaning chemicals, their reaction
byproducts, and heavy metals due to corrosion.[44] Chemical pretreatment and cleaning are a
necessity in most desalination plants, which typically includes the treatment against biofouling,
scaling, foaming and corrosion in thermal plants, and against biofouling, suspended solids and
scale deposits in membrane plants.[45]

To limit the environmental impact of returning the brine to the ocean, it can be diluted with
another stream of water entering the ocean, such as the outfall of a wastewater treatment or
power plant. While seawater power plant cooling water outfalls are not as fresh as wastewater
treatment plant outfalls, salinity is reduced. With medium to large power plant and desalination
plant, the power plant's cooling water flow is likely to be at least several times larger than that of
the desalination plant. Another method to reduce the increase in salinity is to mix the brine via a
diffuser in a mixing zone. For example, once the pipeline containing the brine reaches the sea
floor, it can split into many branches, each releasing brine gradually through small holes along its
length. Mixing can be combined with power plant or wastewater plant dilution.
Brine is denser than seawater due to higher solute concentration. The ocean bottom is most at
risk because the brine sinks and remains there long enough to damage the ecosystem. Careful
reintroduction can minimize this problem. For example, for the desalination plant and ocean
outlet structures to be built in Sydney from late 2007, the water authority stated the ocean outlets
would be placed in locations at the seabed that will maximize the dispersal of the concentrated
seawater, such that it will be indistinguishable beyond between 50 and 75 meters (164 and
246 ft) from the outlets. Typical oceanographic conditions off the coast allow for rapid dilution
of the concentrated byproduct, thereby minimizing harm to the environment.
Alternatives without pollution

ernative

Hydrological principles of strip cropping to control the depth of the water table and
the soil salinity

In irrigated lands with scarce water resources suffering from drainage (high water table) and soil
salinity problems, strip cropping is sometimes practiced with strips of land where every other
strip is irrigated while the strips in between are left permanently fallow.[14]
Owing to the water application in the irrigated strips they have a higher watertable which induces
flow of groundwater to the unirrigated strips. This flow functions as subsurface drainage for the
irrigated strips, whereby the water table is maintained at a not-too-shallow depth, leaching of the
soil is possible, and the soil salinity can be controlled at an acceptably low level.
In the unirrigated (sacrificial) strips the soil is dry and the groundwater comes up by capillary
rise and evaporates leaving the salts behind, so that here the soil salinizes. Nevertheless, they can
have some use for livestock, sowing salinity resistant grasses or weeds. Moreover, useful salt

resistant trees can be planted like Casuarina, Eucalyptus or Atriplex, keeping in mind that the
trees have deep rooting systems and the salinity of the wet subsoil is less than of the topsoil. In
these ways wind erosion can be controlled. The unirrigated strips can also be used for salt
harvesting.

Soil salinity models

This section requires expansion. (October 2007)

SaltMod components

The majority of the computer models available for water and solute transport in the soil (e.g.
SWAP,[15] DrainMod-S,[16] UnSatChem,[17] and Hydrus [18] ) are based on Richard's differential
equation for the movement of water in unsaturated soil in combination with Fick's differential
convectiondiffusion equation for advection and dispersion of salts.
The models require input of soil characteristics like the relations between variable unsaturated
soil moisture content, water tension, water retention curve, unsaturated hydraulic conductivity,
dispersivity and diffusivity. These relations vary to a great extent from place to place and from
time to time and are not easy to measure. Further, the models are difficult to calibrate under
farmer's field conditions because the soil salinity here is spatially very variable. The models use
short time steps and need at least a daily, if not an hourly, data base of hydrological phenomena.
Altogether this makes model application to a fairly large project the job of a team of specialists
with ample facilities.
Simpler models, like SaltMod,[5] based on monthly or seasonal water and soil balances and an
empirical capillary rise function, are also available. They are useful for long-term salinity
predictions in relation to irrigation and drainage practices.
LeachMod,[19] using the SaltMod principles, he

where: [ ] stands for concentration in milliequivalents/liter (briefly meq/l), and { } stands for
concentration in mg/l.
It is seen that Mg (Magnesium) is thought to play a similar role as Ca (Calcium).
The SAR should not be much higher than 20 and preferably less than 10;
When the soil has been exposed to water with a certain SAR value for some time, the ESP value
tends to become about equal to the SAR value.
2) The residual sodium carbonate (RSC, meq/l,[6]):
The formula for calculating residual sodium carbonate is:
RSC = [HCO3 + CO3=] [Ca+++ Mg++]

= {HCO3/61 + CO3=/30} {Ca++/20 + Mg++/12}

which must not be much higher than 1 and preferably less than 0.5.
The above expression recognizes the presence of bicarbonates (HCO3), the form in which most
carbonates are dissolved.
While calculating SAR and RSC, the water quality present at the root zone of the crop should be
considered which would take into account the leaching factor in the field.[8] The partial pressure
of dissolved CO2 at the plants root zone also decides the Calcium present in dissolved form in the
field water. USDA follows the adjusted SAR[9] for calculating water sodicity.

Solutions
Alkaline soils with solid CaCO3 can be reclaimed with grass cultures, organic compost, waste
hair / feathers, organic garbage, waste paper, etc. ensuring the incorporation of much acidifying
material (inorganic or organic material) into the soil, and enhancing dissolved Ca in the field
water by releasing CO2 gas.[10] Deep plowing and incorporating the calcareous subsoil into the
top soil also helps.
Many times salts' migration to the top soil takes place from the underground water sources rather
than surface sources.[11] Where the underground water table is high and the land is subjected to
high solar radiation, ground water oozes to the land surface due to capillary action and gets
evaporated leaving the dissolved salts in the top layer of the soil. Where the underground water
contains high salts, it leads to acute salinity problem. This problem can be reduced by applying
mulch to the land. Using poly-houses during summer for cultivating vegetables/crops is also
advised to mitigate soil salinity and conserve water / soil moisture. Poly-houses filter the intense
summer solar radiation in tropical countries to save the plants from water stress and leaf burns.

Where the ground water quality is not alkaline / saline and ground water table is high, salts build
up in the soil can be averted by using the land throughout the year for growing plantation trees /
permanent crops with the help of lift irrigation. When the ground water is used at required
leaching factor, the salts in the soil would not build up.
Plowing the field soon after cutting the crop is also advised to prevent salt migration to the top
soil and conserve the soil moisture during the intense summer months. This is done to break the
capillary pores in the soil to prevent water reaching the surface of the soil.
Clay soils in high annual rain fall (more than 100 cm) areas do not generally suffer from high
alkalinity as the rain water runoff is able to reduce/leach the soil salts to comfortable levels if
proper rain water harvesting methods are followed. In some agricultural areas, the use of
subsurface "tile lines" are used to facilitate drainage and leach salts. Continuous Drip irrigation
would lead to alkali soils formation in the absence of leaching / drainage water from the field.
It is also possible to reclaim alkaline soils by adding acidifying minerals like pyrite or cheaper
alum or Aluminium sulfate.
Alternatively, gypsum (calcium sulfate, CaSO4. 2H2O) can also be applied as a source of Ca++
ions to replace the sodium at the exchange complex.[10] Gypsum also reacts with sodium
carbonate to convert into sodium sulphate which is a neutral salt and does not contribute to high
pH. There must be enough natural drainage to the underground, or else an artificial subsurface
drainage system must be present, to permit leaching of the excess sodium by percolation of rain
and/or irrigation water through the soil profile.
Calcium Chloride is also used to reclaim alkali soils. CaCl2 converts Na2CO3 into NaCl
precipitating CaCO3. NaCl is drained off by leaching water. Spent acids (HCl, H2SO4, etc.) can
also be used to reduce the excess Na2CO3 in the soil.
Where urea is made available cheaply to farmers, it is also used to reduce the soil alkalinity /
salinity primarily.[12] The NH4 (Ammonium) present in urea which is a weak cation releases the
strong cation Na from the soil structure into water. Thus alkali soils absorb / consume more urea
compared to other soils.
To reclaim the soils completely one needs prohibitively high doses of amendments. Most efforts
are therefore directed to improving the top layer only (say the first 10 cm of the soils), as the top
layer is most sensitive to deterioration of the soil structure.[10] The treatments, however, need to
be repeated in a few (say 5) years time.Trees / plants follow gravitropism. It is difficult to survive
in alkali soils for the trees with deeper rooting system which can be more than 60 meters deep in
good non-alkali soils.
It will be important to refrain from irrigation (ground water or surface water) with poor quality
water.

One way of reducing sodium carbonate is to cultivate glasswort or saltwort or barilla plants.[13]
These plants sequester the sodium carbonate they absorb from alkali soil into their tissues. The
ash of these plants contains good quantity of sodium carbonate which can be commercially
extracted and used in place of sodium carbonate derived from common salt which is highly
energy intensive process. Thus alkali lands deterioration can be checked by cultivating barilla
plants which can serve as food source, biomass fuel and raw material for soda ash and potash,
etc.
Phosphorus soil components in relation to soil pH

Water Availability in relation to Soil pH

Further information: Water content and Water potential

Determining pH
Methods of determining pH include:

Observation of soil profile: Certain profile characteristics can be indicators of

either acid, saline, or sodic conditions. Strongly acidic soils often have poor
incorporation of the organic surface layer with the underlying mineral layer.
The mineral horizons are distinctively layered in many cases, with a pale
eluvial (E) horizon beneath the organic surface; this E is underlain by a darker
B horizon in a classic podzol horizon sequence. This is a very rough gauge of
acidity as there is no correlation between thickness of the E and soil pH. E
horizons a few feet thick in Florida usually have pH just above 5 (merely
"strongly acid") while E horizons a few inches thick in New England are
"extremely acid" with pH readings of 4.5 or below.[1][2] [3] In the southern
Blue Ridge Mountains there are "ultra acid" soils, pH below 3.5, which have
no E horizon.[4] Presence of a caliche layer indicates the presence of calcium
carbonates, which are present in alkaline conditions. Also, columnar structure
can be an indicator of sodic condition. [10]

Observation of predominant flora. Calcifuge plants (those that prefer an

acidic soil) include Erica, Rhododendron and nearly all other Ericaceae
species, many birch (Betula), foxglove (Digitalis), gorse (Ulex spp.), and Scots
Pine (Pinus sylvestris). Calcicole (lime loving) plants include ash trees
(Fraxinus spp.), honeysuckle (Lonicera), Buddleja, dogwoods (Cornus spp.),
lilac (Syringa) and Clematis species.

Use of an inexpensive pH testing kit, where in a small sample of soil is mixed

with indicator solution which changes colour according to the
acidity/alkalinity.

Use of litmus paper. A small sample of soil is mixed with distilled water, into
which a strip of litmus paper is inserted. If the soil is acidic the paper turns
red, if alkaline, blue.

Use of a commercially available electronic pH meter, in which a rod is

inserted into moistened soil and measures the concentration of hydrogen
ions.

Examples of plant pH preferences

This section possibly contains original research. Please improve it by
verifying the claims made and adding inline citations. Statements consisting
only of original research should be removed. (November 2010)

pH 4.55.0: Ericaceae (Azalea, Bilberry, Blueberry, Cranberry,

Heather[disambiguation needed]), Hydrangea for blue, (less acidic for pink),
Liquidambar or Sweet Gum, Orchid, Pin Oak,[citation needed],

pH 5.05.5: Boronia, Daphne, Ericaceae: (Camellia, Heather[disambiguation needed],

Rhododendron), Ferns, Iris, Orchids, Parsley, Conifers (e.g., Pine), Poaceae:
(Maize, Millet, Rye, Oat), Radish, Solanales: (Potato, Sweet potato)
Bromeliaceae (Pineapple).[11]

pH 5.56.0: Asteraceae: (Aster, Endive), Brassicaceae: (Brussels sprout,

Kohlrabi), Carrot, Cucurbitales: (Begonia, Chayote or Choko), Fabaceae:
(Bean, Crimson Clover, Peanut, Soybean), Petunia, Rhubarb, Violet, most
bulbs (Canna, Daffodil, Jonquil), Larkspur[disambiguation needed], Primrose[disambiguation
needed]

pH 6.06.5 Antirrhinum or Snapdragon, Brassicaceae: (Broccoli, Cabbage,

Candytuft, Cauliflower, Turnip, Wallflower), Cucurbitaceae: (Cucumber,
Pumpkin, Squash), Fabaceae: (Pea, Red Clover, White Clover), Gladiolus,
Iceland Poppy, Rosales: (Cannabis, Rose, Strawberry), Solanaceae: (Eggplant
or Aubergine, Tomato), Sweet corn, Violaceae: (Pansy, Viola), Zinnia or Zinnea

pH 6.57.0: Amaranthaceae: (Beet, Spinach), Apiaceae: (Celery, Parsnip),

Asparagales: (Asparagus, Onion), Asteraceae: (Chrysanthemum, Dahlia,
Lettuce), Carnation, Fabaceae: (Alfalfa, Sweet pea), Melon, Stock[disambiguation
needed]
, Tulip

pH 7.18.0 Lilac

Changing soil pH
Increasing pH of acidic soil

The most common amendment to increase soil pH is lime (CaCO3 or MgCO3), usually in the
form of finely ground agricultural lime. The amount of lime needed to change pH is determined
by the mesh size of the lime (how finely it is ground)and the buffering capacity of the soil. A
high mesh size (60100) indicates a finely ground lime, that will react quickly with soil acidity.
Buffering capacity of soils is a function of a soils cation exchange capacity, which is in turn
determined by the clay content of the soil, the type of clay and the amount of organic matter
present. Soils with high clay content, particularly shrinkswell clay, will have a higher buffering

capacity than soils with little clay. Soils with high organic matter will also have a higher
buffering capacity than those with low organic matter. Soils with high buffering capacity require
a greater amount of lime to be added than a soil with a lower buffering capacity for the same
incremental change in pH.
Other amendments that can be used to increase the pH of soil include wood ash, industrial CaO
(burnt lime), and oyster shells. White firewood ash includes metal salts which are important for
processes requiring ions such as Na+ (sodium), K+ (potassium), Ca2+ (calcium), which may or
may not be good for the select flora, but decreases the acidic quality of soil.
These products increase the pH of soils through the reaction of CO32 with H+ to produce CO2
and H2O. Calcium silicate neutralizes active acidity in the soil by removing free hydrogen ions,
thereby increasing pH. As its silicate anion captures H+ ions (raising the pH), it forms
monosilicic acid (H4SiO4), a neutral solute.
Decreasing pH of alkaline soil

Iron sulphates or aluminium sulphate as well as elemental sulfur (S) reduce

pH through the formation of sulfuric acid.

Urea, urea phosphate, ammonium nitrate, ammonium phosphates,

ammonium sulphate and monopotassium phosphate fertilizers.

organic matter in the form of plant litter, compost, and manure will decrease
soil pH through the decomposition process. Certain acid organic matter such
as pine needles, pine sawdust and acid peat are effective at reducing pH. [12]

See also

Alkali soils

Cation-exchange capacity

Fertilizer

Liming (soil)

Organic gardening

Soil conservation

Acid mine drainage

Acid sulfate soil

Soil type

References
1.
Perry, Leonard. "pH for the Garden". Retrieved 11 December 2012.
Soil Survey Division Staff. "Soil survey manual.1993. Chapter 3, selected
chemical properties.". Soil Conservation Service. U.S. Department of Agriculture
Handbook 18. Retrieved 2011-03-12.
Sparks, Donald; Environmental Soil Chemistry. 2003, Academic Press, London,
UK
http://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ch086
Finck, Arnold (1976). Pflanzenernhrung in Stichworten. Kiel: Hirt. p. 80.
ISBN 3-554-80197-6.
Brady, N. and Weil, R. The Nature and Properties of Soils. 13th ed. 2002
Hansson et al (2011) Differences in soil properties in adjacent stands of Scots
pine, Norway spruce and silver birch in SW Sweden. Forest Ecology and
Management 262 522530
Rout, GR; Samantaray, S; Das, P (2001). "Aluminium toxicity in plants: a
review". Agronomie 21 (1): 45. doi:10.1051/agro:2001105. Retrieved 11 June 2014.
http://www.extension.org/pages/9875/soil-ph-and-nutrient-availability
Buol, S. W., R. J. Southard, R.C. Graham and P.A. McDaniel. Soil Genesis and
Classification. (5th) Edition, Ia. State Press p. 494. 2002
http://www2.hawaii.edu/~nv