PART THREE

Water Wave Theories

Ch"pter r 5
An Introduction to
'Watu-r 'Waves

r97

l5-l A PhysicalClassification
of
Water Wavesand Definitions
l5-1.1 On the Conrplexirt' of Water
Wat,cs
l 5 - l . l . l T h e a i m o f t h i s c h a p t e ri s t o p r e s e n t h e t h e o r i e s
for unsteady free surface flow subjected to gravitational
forces. Such motions are called water waves, although
pressurewaves(such as acousticwaves)in rvater are also
water waves.They are also called gravity waves,although
atmospheric motions are also wavessubjectedto gravity.
From the physicalviewpoint, there exist a great variety
of water waves. Water wave motions range from storm
waves generated by wind in the oceans to ffood waves in
rivers, from seiche or long period oscillations in harbor
basins to tidal bores or moving hydraulic jumps in estuaries,from wavesgeneratedby a moving ship in a channel
to tsunami \\ravesgeneratedb1' earthquakesor to waves
generatedby underwaternuclearexplosions.
From the mathematicalvieu'point,it is evident that a
generalsolution does not exist. Even in the simpler cases,
approximations must be made. One of the important
aspectsof water wave theoriesis the establishmentof the
limits of validity of the various solutions due to the simplifying assumptions. The mathematical approaches for the
study of wave motion are as varied as their physica!aspects.
As a matter of fact, the mathematicaltreatments of the
water wave motions embrace all the resourcesof mathematical physicsdealingwith linear and nonlinear problems
as well. The main difficulty in the study of water wave
motion is that one of the boundaries,namelythe freesurface,
is one of the unknowus.
Water wave motions are so I'aried and complex that any
attempt aFclassificationmay be misleading.Any definition
corresponds to idealized situations which never occur
rigorously but are only approximated. For example, a
pure two-dimensionalmotion neverexists.It is a convenient
mathematical concept which is physically best approached
in a tank with parallel walls. Boundary layer effects and

Part 3: Water Wave Theories

r98

transversecomponents still exist although they are difficult

to detect.

I
15-1.1.2It has to be expected that' due to this inherent
complexity,a simple introduction to the problem of water
waves is a difficult, if not impossible,task. Hence, this
chapter should rather be regarded as a guide for the
following chaptersand for continuing further study beyond
the scope of this book.
The full assimilationof the subjectleadingto a clear-cut
understandingof this chaptercan only comeafter a comprehensivestudy of eachexistingtheory within or beyond the
scope of the presentbook. With this in mind, the following
classificationis proposed. A physical classification is given
first. then the different mathematical approachesand their
limits of validity are introduced.Finally, the traditional-two
great families of water waves are presented.
15-1.2 Oscillatort' Waues

surfaceelevationtravelingalong the OX axis at a velocity C'

The characteristicsof a progressivewave remain identical
foi an observertraveling at the same speedand in the same
direction as the wave (Fig. 15-2).In the casewhere tJ can
be expressedas a function of (x - Ct) instead of (-x,t),a
"steady state" profile is obtained.4(-x- Cr) is the general
expression for a steady progressivewave traveling in the
positive OX direction at a constantvelocity C. In the case
where the progressivewave is moving in the opposite
direction, its mathematicalform is expressedas a function
of (,x + Cr). It is pointed out that the definition of u'ave
velocity C for a nonsteadyprofile is not strictly valid, since
"wave element" travelsat its own speed,resulting in
each
wave delormation.
lrl.2.2 The simplestcascof a progressivewave is the
wave which is definedby a sineor cosinecurve such as

,' : '

From the physicalviewpoint, there exist essentiallytwo

kinds of \\'aterwaves.They are tfre oscillatory waves and
the translatory waves.In an oscillatory wave, the average
transport of fluid, i.e.,the dischargeor mass transport, is
nil. The wave motion is then analogousto the transverse
oscillation of a rope (see Fig. l5-1). A translatory wave
involves by definition a transport of fluid in the direction
in which the rvavetravels.For example,a moving hydraulic
jump, so called tidal bore or simply bore, is a translatory
wave.
l5-1.2.1 An oscillatory wave can be progressive or
standing. Consider a disturbance rl(r,r) such as a free

l t i n l u , -r ' c , r

2 [cosJ

Such a rvave is called a harmonic rvave whcre Hl2 is lhe

a m p l i t u d ea n d H t h e w a v eh e i g h t .
The distancebetweenthe wave crestsis the wavelength
L, and L: CT where T is the wave period. The wavenumber (or number of cyclesper unit distance)m :2nlL
is the number of wavelengthsper cycle. The frequency is
k :2nlT. Hencethe previousequation can be written

r\

' r- :Hl .f os i.nj' ') "^/ x\ L - 7 )

II IL is the l rtt c .sleel),less.

wAvE olREcrloN +

F i g u r e1 5 - l
Oscillatorv\)aL.e.

Chapter l5: An Introduction to Water Waves

r99
Figure l5-2

Pn 4 r c.s.;
i t'c ttut'r'.

l5-1.2.3 A standingor stationary wave is characterized

b-r the fact that it can bc mathemalicallydescribedbr a
product of tu'o independentfunctionsof tirneand tjistancesuch as
(t : Ir rin

2{*

,i,.,2}'

or more generally:

d : (,Jrt-4,,Q)
A standing\\'avecan be consideredas tlie superposition
of two waves of the sante amplitude and same period
traveling in opposite directions. In the case where the
convectiveinertia terms are negligible,the standing wave
motion is obtainedby a merelinearaddition of the solutions
for two progressive waves (see Fig. l5-3). The following
identity holds:
H
2
n
H
2
n
s r n ; ( x - C r ) * I s i nl ( r
z"
L
2
L

r Cr)

: H sin'f * """'] ,

FigureI5-3
Standingwaoe

A standingwave generatedby an incident wind u,aveis

calledclapoti.s.In rclativclr shallou, tvater(dlL < 0.05) ir
r s c a l l e da s e i t l r cA
. s e i c h ei s a s r a n d i n go s c i l l a t i o no f l o n g
period encounteredin lakesand harbor basins.The amoli_
tude at the node is zero, and ar the antinode it is H.
l5-1.2.4Tuo uaves of same period but differentampli_
tudes traveling in opposite directions form a ..partial
clapotis" and can be defined linearly by the sum of l sin
( t - C t ) * B s i n ( r . -+ C r ) . A p a r t i a l c l a p o t i sc a n
also be
considered as the supcrposition of a progressivewave
u ' i t h a s t a n d i n gs a v c . A p a r t i a l c l a p o t i s i s e n c o u n t e r e d
in front of an obstacleivhich causespartial reflection.
l5-1.2.5It u'ill be seenthat the wave velocityis in general
a function of the u'ater depth (seeSection 16_3.2).
Hince, if
the depth remains constant, rvave crests remain parallel.
However, when the depth varies in a direction not parallel
to the wave crest, different parts ol the crest travel at
different speeds.and the direction of propagation of the
crestchanges.This is the phenomenon of refraction which is
encounteredwhen a wave travels from one water depth to
another water depth at an angle with the bottom rcntours.

Part 3: WaterWaveTheories

--r

Figure154

WAVE
__r

l5-1.2.6The phenomenonof diffraction is encountered

at the end ofan obstacle(Fig. 15-4).It can be consideredas
a processof transmissionof energy in a direction parallel
to the wave crest although this definition oversimplifiesa
more complex phenomenon. The phenomenon of wave
diffraction is actually the result of phase differences between the waves radiating from a line source, which is
interrupted by the obstacle.It is an end effect.
l*1.2.7 The breaking phenomenon is encounteredat
seaunder rvindaction (whitecaps),on beaches(surf),andin
tidal estuaries(tidal bores)(seeFig. 15-5)-It is a shock wave
phenomenonwhich is also encounteredin gas dynamicsThe breakingphenomenonis characterizedby a high rat-e
rvith a
of tiee turbulenceand air entrainment associated.
high rate of energy dissipation.Bores generatedby wind
wavesbreaking on beachesor by tides of high amplitude
in estuaries should be regarded as translatory waves
rather than oscillatory waves.
A number of equivalent definitions can be given for the
breaking criterion: Breaking occurs (l) when the particle
velocity at the crest becomeslarger than the wave velocity,

HEIcHT Warcdifliaction.

(2) u'hen the pressureat the free surfacegiven by Bernoulli

e q u a t i o n i s i n c o m p a t i b l ew i t h t h e a t m o s p h e r i cp r e s s u r e .
(3) rvhen the particle accelerationat the crest tends to
separatethe particlesfrom the bulk of the water surface,or
(4) when the freesurfacebecomesvertical.Accordingly, the
following theoreticalformulasare generallyused:
1. In deepwater (Michell limit): HIL < 0.1422. In intermediatewater depth (Miche formula): H/L
< 0.14tanh(2n dlL).
3. In the caseof a solitary wave, the maximum relative
war,eheight: Hld < 0.78,rvherer/ is the u'ater depth'
1 5-1.3 Translatorr Watt's
I n a t r a n s l a t o r y\ \ ' a v et,h e r ei s a t r a n s p o r to f \ \ a t e r i n t h e
directionof the wavetravel.Someexamplesof such phenomena are tidal bores or moving hydraulic jumps; waves
generatedby the breakingof a dam;surges on a dry bed;
undulated moving hydraulic jumps; solitary waves; and
flood waves in rivers. It is pointed out that oscillatory
and translatory waves may sometimes look very much
alike and be treatedmathematicallyby the same method'

Chapter l5: An Introduction to Water Waves

201

WHITE CAPS: LARGE WATER DEPTH

SPII-91116 BREAKER : THE EOTTOM SLOPE I S G I N T L E , S M A L L

WAVE
STEPNESS

Figure l5-5
Diflbrenr kinds o.f v'are breakers

P L U N GI N G A R E A K E R : B O i - 3 ' 7

SLOPE AND WAVE STEEP\'SS ARE

LARGER

SURGING EREAKER: EXTREMELY STEEP

FULLY DEVELOPED EORE

For example,a solitary wave,which is a translatory wave, is

characterized by a unique wave crest accompanied by a
suddenjump ahead by the water particles under the wave
crest. Cnoidal waves (discussedin far greater detail below),
which arE oscillatory waves,presentvery similar characteristics. However, in the case of a cnoidal wave. there is a

IN TIOAL

EOTTOM SLOPE

ESTUARY

gentle slo& rerurn under a long flat trough between wave

crests.A solitar.r'ri'avemotion alwaysinvolres an important
net mass transport. A cnoidal wave has a r.ery small mass
transport becauseof this return flow. From the mathe_
matical viewpoint. these two kinds of motion are of the
same family, i.e..thel' are subiectedto the :ame simplifying

Part 3: Water WaveTheories

OSCILLATORYWAVE

Figurel5-6
an os<'illalorywate
betv'een
Di.fl'erence
and o tronslalort. il.or.e.

TRANSLATORY SOLITARY WAVE

assumptionsand they obey the same basic equations'The

the
solitary wave is a limited caseof the cnoidal rvavewhen
(see
l5-6)'
Fig'
wave period tends to infinity

I5-2 MathematicalClassification
15-2.1 The Si(tnific'QntWQre Petruntelers
l 5 - 2 . 1 . 1I n a n E u l e r i a ns y s t e mo f c o o r d i n a t e sa s u r f a c e
wave problem generally involves three unknowns: the
free surfaceelevation (or total water depth). the pressure
(generally known at the free surface), and the particle
velocity.Sincea generalmethod of solution is impossible,a
numbei of simplifying assurhptionshave been made which
apply to a successionof particular cases with varying
uiiuiu.y. ln general,the method of solution s'hich is used
dependsupon nonlinear effects,i.e.'the relativeimportance
of the convectiveinertia terms with respect to the local
inertia.
l5-2.1.2Horvever,insteadof dealing u'ith theseinertial
terms directly,it is more convenientto relatethem to more
accessibleparameters.Three characteristicparametersare
used.They are:
1. A typical value of the free surface elevation such as
-the wave treight H
2. A typical horizontal length such as the wavelength L
3. The water dePth d

Although the relationshipsbetweenthe inertial terms and

thesethree parametersare not simple,their relatil'el'alues
are of considerablehelp in classifyingthe water rvave
theoriesfrom a mathematicalvieu'point'
For example.it is easilyconceivedthat rvhenthe free suralso'
the particlevelocitydecreases
faceelevationdecreases.
C o n s e q u e n t l tu. ' h e n t h e u ' a v eh e i g h t H t e n d st o z e r o ' t h e
convectiveinertiaterm. u'hich is relatedto the squareof the
particlevelocitv.is an infinitesimalof higher order than the
iocal inertia term, which is related linearly to the velocity'
In sucl.ra case,theconvectiveinertiacan be neglectedand the
equations can be'linearized.
Three characteristicratios can be obtained from H, L'
and d. TheseareH f L, H,ttl,andLld.The relativeimportance
o f t h e c o n r e c t i v ei n e r t i at e r m i n c r e a s eass t h e v a l u eo f t h e s e
three ratios increases.
In deep rvater (small H,'tl, and small L/d), the most
significant parameter is H,'L u'hich is called the rvave
In shallow sater the most significantparameter
steepness.
r s f i l a u h i c h i s c a l l e dt h e r e l a t i r e h e i - s h tI' n i n t e r m e d i a t e
parameter\\'hich
waterdepth.it g ill be seenthat a significal.rt
(H
L\(LIdl'.
is
cases
three
the
I
also covers
15-2.2 The Methods of Solutiort
Depending upon the problem under consideration and
the range of values of the par4meters HlL, Hld, and Lld'
three mathematicalapproachesare used'They are ( I ) linear-

C h a p t e r l 5 : A n I n t r o d u c t i o nt o W a t e r W a v e s

ization; (2) power series: and (3) numerical methods.

Statisticalmeth?dsare also usedto describethe complexity
ofsea statesor rlavesgeneratedbv rvind action.
15-2.2.1The simplestcasesof ri.aterwave theoriesare.
of course.the linear wave trreories.in *'liich the convective
inertia terms are completcll..neglccted.These theoriesare
valid wlren HlL, IId, and Lltl are small, i.e., for waves of
small amplitude and small rvavelen_sth
in deep water. For
t h c f i r s t r e a s o nt h e y a r e c a l l c d t h e - . s m a l la n r p l i t u d cw a v e
theorics.T
" h i s i s t h e i n f i r r i t c s i n t asl. a v ea p p r o x i r n a t i o n .
The linearizedequationsare so ameuableto mathemari_
cal solutions that the linear wai,e theoriesare used for an
extreme variety of water u'ate motions. For cxample,
some phenomena which are studied by this method are
wave diffraction, waves generatedby a moving ship, and
waves generatcd by explosions,even though they may
h a v el a r g ea m p l i t u d e s .
15-2.2.2Solutionscan also be founclas a po\\,ersenesrn
t e r m so f a p a r a m e t e rs m a l l c o n t p u r t - .rlo o t l i c r s .T h i s s m a l l
quantity is HIL in deep \\,atcror H,,,tlin shallou,water.In
the first case (developmentin terms of IIIL, or Stokes
rvaves)the first term of the power seriesis a solution of thc
linearizedequations.In the secondcase,the first term ofthe
seriesis already a solution of nonlinear equations; thesc
are the cnoidal waves.
The calculation of the successive
terms of the seriesis
rather cumbersomeso that these methods are used in a
very small number of cases.The most typical caseis the two_
dimensional progressiveperiodic wave. In this case, the
solution is assumedto be c priori that of a steady_state
profile, i.e.,a function such as F : f(r - Cr) where C is a
constantequalto the wavevelocity.C is alsocalledthe phase
velocity.
The simplification introduced by such an assumption
is due to the fact that
AF

AF

a*: at,- ctl

and

203

. F ^ C F
= t
,t,
.t r - crr
so that
.F

i'l:

-t ^iI:
.i

A s a r e s u l t .t h e t i n t e d e r i v a l i v e sc a n b e e l i m i n a t e da n d
r e p l a c c db _ rs p a c cd e r i v a t i v e sp. o n ' c r s c r j e ss o l u t i o n sa r e
a l s of o u n d i u r h ec a s co f p e r i o d i cs t a n d i n gw , a v easn d i r r e g u lar waves.
l5-2.2.3 Ir ma1,Irappenthat a steadv_state
profile does
n o t e x i s ta s a s o l u t i o n .i n w h i c h c a s ea n u m e r i c a ls o l u t i o n
where the differentialsare replacedby finite diffcrences.is
often used. This occurs for large valucs of Hlrt and L/d.
u h c n l h e n o n l i n c a rt e r r - n s u c h a s p l ( i r r , r r , r a
) rc rL-luti\elv
l i r r g cb ' c o m p a r i s . r .*r i t h t h c l o c a ri n e r t i as u c ha s p ( i t t i t r .
This is tlrc caseof long u,avesin vcr1,shallorvwater.
Of c.ursc. rr'umcric:rl u.rctho<i
of calculationcan b.. usecl
f o r s o l v i n ga l i n e a r i z c ds y s t e r no f e q u a t i o n sF
. or exarnplc,
t h e r e l a x a t i o nm e t h o d i s u s e d f o r s t u d y i n g s m a l l * a v e
a-eitationin a basin.Also, an analyticalsolution of a non_
linear systemof equationscan be found in some particular
cases.Hence it must be borne in mind that these three
m e t h o d sa n d t h e r a n g eo f a p p l i c a t i o nu , h i c hh a s b e e ns i v e n
indicatemore of a trend than a generalrule.
15-2.2.4Aside from the three previous methods rrhich
aim at a fully deterministic solution of the water wave
problem, the descriptionof seastategenerallyinvohes the
use of random lunctions. The mathematical operarions
which are used in this case (such as harmonic analvsis)
geneially'iniply that the water waves obey linear laws,
which are the necessaryrequirementsfor assumingthat the
principle of superposition is valid. Consequently, such an
approach loses its validity for describin_ethe sea stare in
very shallow water (large valuesof Hld and L/d) and in the
surf zone.

Part 3: Water Wave Theories

When (4,/L)(Lld)'( l, the linear small amplitude wave

theory applies. In principle more and more terms of the
power serieswould be required in order to keep the same
relative accuracy as the Ursell parameter increases.

204

15-2.3 An Irtlroduction to the Ursell

Parameter
15-2.3.1 The potential function for a Stokes wave or
irrotational periodic gravity wave traveling over a constant
finite depth at a secondorder of approximation is found to
be Equation15-1.
The series is convergent in relatively deep water, and
the term in H is the solutionobtainedby taking into account
the local inertia only, while the term in H2 is the most
significant correction due to convective inertia. Therefore,
the relative importanceof the convpctiveinertia term can
be describedby the ratio of the amplitudes of these two
terms. Even though this solution losesits validity in very
shallow water,it is seenafter some simple calculationsthat
the ratio of the amplitude o[ the second-orderterm to the
amplitude of the first-orderterm is:

1t2.3.2 Also, in the caseof very long waves in shallow

water such as flood waves, bore, and nearshore tsunami
waves, the Ursell parameter is difficult to use since the
interpretation of L is not clear. The relative amplitude il/d
is then a more significantparameterto assessthe importance of the nonlinear terms. In this case, the vertical
component of inertia force is negligible and the only
significant term for convectiveinertia is pu(1ul0x).Then it is
possibleto calculatethe ratio of amplitude of convective
inertia to the amplitude of local inertia, pu()ul)x)lp(6rr ir),
directly. Since in very shallow water df L is very small,
one has simply, using only the linear term,

eo

Hk

u:__:-7-.nt(n_x_/<r)
1
-3
. Y(L\
t 6 ( 2 n t 2L \ d )

nur:2''t -o
L

ivhen A:

and it is found that

6rl
(-xl-"' -

pu ^-|

s i n c e c o s h , 4 - I a n d s i n h z 1- / . W h e n ( H t L ) ( L l d ) 3 i s
very small, the small amplitude wave theory is valid.
Il, instead of H, one uses the maximum elevation 46
above the still water level (rJois equal to H 12 in the linear
theory),the so-calledUrsell parameterinitially introduced
by Korteweg and de Vries is obtained:
II

'el^^,

,to /L\'

T \ a)

H K coshnr(d-f z\
-sin(kr-nx)
l m

slnn ,?1d

-t
-d

which demonstratesthe relative importance of the ratio

H/d. Despite thesedifficultiesof interpretation,the Ursell
parameteris a useful simple guide, but is not necessarily
sufficientfor judging the relative importance of the nonlinear effects-

Linear.Ju'st-order t ernr
proportional to II

Q : - ; -

cu|

Second-orderternt
proportional to H2

cosh2m(d+ z)

;(f)',.

sinha nrd

sin 2(kt - nrr)

(15-r)

Chapter 15: An Introductionto Water Waves

DEEP WATER WAVE

205
STOKES(4th

?
ol,

STOKES(2nd

INTRMD
WATER

SHALLOW
N

WATER WAVE

DTPTH

LIMIT

Figure l5-7
Limits of talidilyfor rarious xtttc tlteoric.s.

DEEP
-{warER
WAVE

rF!
-tF

'*=tV
AIRY
THEORY
(LINEAR)

o.oot L
o.ol
d
T.

112.3.3 Figure 15-7 indicates approximately the range

of validity of the various theories. This graph has been
established for two-dimensional periodic waves such as
illustrated on Fig. 15-8, but it gives an indication for any
kind of water waves. Three corresponding values of the
Ursell parameter have been shown. The graph is limited by
a breaking criteria which implies that there is a maximum
value for the wave steepnesswhich is a function of the
relative depth (see Section 15-1.2.7).A comprehensive
quantitative investigation of the error which is made by

(f t /sec2)

using various theories in various domains has not been

<lone so [ar; hence, such a graph is somewhat arbitrary
;rr,d rnerelyqualitative.
15-2.4
'14/aies The Tv,o Great Families of Water
In hydrodynamics the water wave theoriesare generally
classified in two great families. They are the "small amplitude wave theories" and the "long wave theories." The
srnall amplitude wave theories embrace the linearized

Part 3: Water Wave Theories

zo6
(o)

ArRy wave

(b)

S T O K E SW A V E : o E E P W A T E R .L A R G E W A V E S T E E P N E S S

D E E P W A T E R , S M A L Lw a v E s r E E p N E s s

Figure l5-8
A pht'sical illustration o.f
rar iou.sware profi Ies.

(c)

cNoroaLwAvE: sHALLow wATER

(d) soLrraRY
**t'
l'Sloot'1r'"Jr*r:":i"ii,i:"''

wHEN
rHE

theory for infinitesimal amplitudc rvervcsand the firsr

categoriesof power series.i.e.,the power scriesin terms of
H lL tor finite amplitude rvaves.
The long wave theoriesembracethe numericalmethod
of solution mostly used for the nonlinear long rrat'e
equations.
Thesetwo great familiesinclude a number of variations
and someintermediatecasespresentingsomeof the charact e r i s t i c so f b o t h f a m i l i e sF. o r e x a m p l et,h e c n o i d a lw a v e .t h e
solitary wave, and the monoclinal wave are consideredas
being particular cases (steady-statcprofrle) of the lon_e
wave theories,becausethey are nonlinear shallow rvater
waves.
I t c a n b e c o n s i d e r e dt h a t t h e r ce x i s t ss o m ea r b i t r a r i n e s s
i n s u c h c l a s s i f i c a t i o nT.h i s a r b i t r a r i n e s si s t h e h c r i t a g eo f
tradition, sincethe wave theories,as any theorl. have been
developedin a haphazardmanner.But it is mosr importanr
to understand the relative position of these theories with
respectto eachother, and their limits of validity.The small
amplitude wave. theories and the long wave theories are
now consideredseparately.

l 5 - 3 T h e S m a l lA r n n l i t u d eW a v e
Theory
I5-3.1 Tlta Basic Assuntlttiorto./'the
Sntall Antplitttde Wace Tlteort,
It has been mentioned in the previous section that the
small amplitude wave theory is essentiallya linear theory,
i.e.,the nonlinear convectiveinertia terms are considered
s m a l l .I t i s c a l l e dt h e s m a l l a m p l i t u d ew a v et h e o r y b e c a u s e
the equations are theoretically exact when the motion
tends to zero even if the convectiveinertia terms are taken
into account. Indeed,in that casethe nonlinear terms are
infinitesimalsof higher order than the linear terms.
This assumption is extremelt convenient becausethe
free surfaceelevation can a priori be neglected;i.e., the
motion.takesplacewithin known boundaries.This assumption is used in order to determine the zero wave motion
and such solution is assumed to be valid even if the wave
motion is different from zero.
Aside from this assumption,the motion is also most
often considered as irrotational. This assumDtion is

Chapter l5: An Introduction to Water Waves

compatible with the neglect of the quadratic convective

term pV x curl V (seeSection4-4.3).Then the solution of
the problem cor{sistsof determining the velocity potential
funciion d(r,-r',;,r)satisfying the boundary conditions at
the free surfaceand at the limit of the container.
This approachhasbeenproven to be extremelvsuccessful
even for u,ave motion of significant ma-snitudeand in
shallow u'ater. Moreover, the assumption ol linearitl,
permits the determinationof a complex motion by superp o s i t i o no f c l e m e n t a r vw a v e m o l i o n s .

201

FUNDAMNTiL

/-5--1.2 Tltc Vurious Kinr{.r of'Lineur

Srrrull Arnplitude Waues
l5-3.2.1 Progressiveperiodic two-dimensional linear
wave motion is the basic motion which leadsto the understanding of many other more complex motions. Such a
solution is found by assumingthat the motion is of the form
A sin(2nlL)(x - Cr) where C is a constanr.A generalsolution is obtainedas a function of water depth. In deepwater.
a n a s v m p t o t i cs o l u t i o n i s o b t a i n e da s a l i m i t i n g c a s e .I t i s
valid u hen the relative u'atcr depth : dlL is larser than 1,r2.
The deep water wave theory can also be obtained
independently.In very shallow water (dlL < l/20) the
solution is the linear shallow water wave theory. which is a
special case (a limiting case)of the nonlinear long wave
theory. As for the nonlinear long wave theory, the vertical
acceleration is negligible and the pressure distribution
tendsto becomehydrostatic,i.e.,the pressureis equal to the
product of the specificweight of the fluid pg by the distance
from the free surface. Also, the velocity distribution is
unilorm along a vertical.
Two periodic progressive waves of slightly different
period traveling in the same direction form a successionof
wavetrains that give rise to a beat phenomenon.It has been
seenthat two progressiveperiodic wavesof the same period
and amplitude traveling in opposite directions form a
standing wave or clapotis, and in the casewheredlL < 1120,
a seiche(Fig. 15-9).A periodic wave reflected by a vertical
wall at an angle forms a system of "short-crested" waves
which appear as a grid of peaks of water moving parallel
to the wall.

HARMONIC

Figurc I5-9

Stitlu,trtotion

in a tv.o-dinrcnsionu! hasin.

A great number of three-dimensionalperiodic motions

w i t h i n c o n t p l c xb o r r n d a r i ecsa n b e d e t e r m i n e db y t h e s m a l l
a m p l i t u d c r r , a r ct h e o n , . T h e ) ' a r e t h c t h r e e - d i m e n s i o n a l
wave motions u,ithin tanks of various slrapes(rectangular.
circular.etc.)with constantor varying depth.The processof
wave diffraction by a vertical wall or through a breach is
also thoroughll, analyzed by the small amplitude wave
theory.
Finally, this theory for progressivewaves is essentiall-r,
destinedto be the foundation of the study of wind waves.
although this phenomenon is random and not periodic.
Hencethe study of wind waveswill require further analysis
as describedin Appendix A on wave spectra.
15-3.2.2The small amplitude wave theory is also particularly successfulin determining the wave motion created
by a suddendisturbanceor impulse at the free surface,or
at the boltom (seeFig. l5-10).For example,tsunami waves
generated by earthquakescan be treated in deep water by
mathematical methods of the small amplitude wave
theory. Likewise, waves generated by an underwater
explosion or by the drop of a stone on the free surfaceof a
body of water receive a similar theoretical treatment. In

Part 3: Water WaveTheories

zo8
Figure l5-10
Wauegeneratedby a
.free sarface local disturbance.

general, these waves have a cylindrical symmetry but are

nonperiodic.One may considerthat they have a..pseudo"
wave period defined by the time which elapsesbetweentwo
wave crests. This period decreaseswith time at a given
location. Also, in general, this "pseudo" wave period
tends to increasewith the distance from the disturbance.
Waves generatedby disturbancesoften appear as a succession of wave trains, the number of waves within each wave
train increasing as the distance from the disturbance
increases.
The average wave height also tends to decreasewith
distancedue to the double effectsof the increaseof wave
length with distanceand radial dispersion.
l5-3.2.3 Finally, the wave motion createdby a moving
disturbance (ship or atmospheric ciisturbances)can aiso
be analyzed by application of the small amplitude wave

theory. The theoretical wave patterns created by a moving

ship are presentedin Fig. l5-ll. These are called Kelvin
waves.
I5-3.3 The Finite Amplitude Waue
Theories
15-3.3.1The solution for a progressiveharmonic linear
wave over a horizontal bottom is a sine function of (x - Ct),
so the free surface is perfectly defined by a sine curve. In
shallow water, the crest has a tendency to become steeper
and the trough flatter,as shown in Fig. l5-8c. In this case,
the linear small amplitude wave theory is no longer valid.
15-3.3.2In the simple case of periodic waves, either
progressiveor standing,the small amplitude wave theory
can be refinedby taking into accountthe convectiveinertia
forces to some extent. It has been indicated in a previous

Figure 15-I I
Wauegeneratedby a mouing ship.

Chapter l5: An Introduction to Water Waves

section(Section 15-2.2.2)
rhat rhis is done by assumingthe
It has been mentionedthat in shallow water the impor_
solution for the motion is given by a power seriesin terms
tant parameter becomesH/d insteadol HIL for deep water.
of a quantity which is small comparedto the other dimenA power seriesin terms of ,FI/dis most convenient and, in
sions.For examqle,in the simplecaseof a periodicprogres- principle, would require fewer terms for
a better accuracy.
sive or standin! two-dimensionalwave. it is assumed Such power seriesappear in the cnoidal
and solitary wave
t h a t t h e s o l u t i o nf o r t h e m o t i o n i s g i v e n a s a p o w e r s e r i e s theories which will be discussedin the followin-eparain terms of the u,ave height H (or of the $'ave steepness graphs(Section15-4.2.1).
HlL. defined as rhe ratio of the wave height to the wavelength L). For example,the potential function qt(-x,z,r)
will
15-3.3.3 Once all the equations of motion and the
be,written:
boundary conditionsat the free surfaceand at the bottom
have beenspecified,an infinite number of solutionsmay be
4 t ( x , z , t:) I l 6 t + 1 1 2 0 2+ I I 3 0 3 * H o , o
found. These equationsare not sufficientfor determinins
The first-order term H@, is found from the linear small
the wave motion.
amplitude theory by neglectingthe nonlinear terms. The
Two other conditions are required.One is on rotationother terms are correction lerms due to the nonlinear
ality and mass transport and is consideredin Chapter 17.
convective inertia. These terms of the seriesare obtained
It is also necessaryto specify whether lhe wave motion
successivelyby recurrence formulas. A third-order wave
should be a progressivewave, a standing wave, or a wave
theory, known as a third-order approximation, is a theory
train. For example, in the first case,a solution for steadyin which the calculation has been performed up to the
state profile has to be found such that the solution appears
third power of the small quantity.In this case,a third-order
as a function of (x - Cr) u,hereC is the constant wa\/e
approximation is
velocity.In the secondcase.a merc addition of two periodic
gravity wavestraveling in oppositedirectionscan be used
Q:U0,*H,6r+II3O3
in the linear caseand for the first term of the power series.
In the case of a harmonic wave, $, and (t, are sinusoidal
However, higher-order terms must be found independently
functions of n(x - Cr) where n is an integer equal to the
by recurrenceformulas, establishedfor the specific type of
order of the considered term. The @" are functions of the
motion (progressive
or standing).
relative depth dlL. In practice the complexity of the terms
so much as the order of approximation
Qr, Qt,. . . increases
increases that calculation can rarely be performed at a
l5-4 The Long Wave Theory
high order of approximation. The formulas for the high
15-4.1 TheBasicAssumptions
of the
order of approxirnation are so complicated that for their
Long WaueTheory:TheLong lltaue
application a set of tables obtained from a high-speed
Paradox
computer is required.
In engineering practice, the first-order wave theory is
l5-4.1.1 The long wave theory applieswhen the relative
most often sufficient. Hou'ever, higher-order wave theory
depth is very small. Thus, the vertical accelerationcan be
indicates some interesting trends for waves of large steepneglectedand the path curvature is small. Consequently,
ness (large HIL) in deep water. In very shallow water the
the vertical component of the motion does not influencethe
convective inertia terms are relatively high and the conpressure distribution, which is assumedto be hydrostatic.
vergenceof the seriesbecomesvery slow. The seriesare not
However, contrary to the small amplitude wave theory, the
even necessarilyuniformly convergentand the function of
free surface is now unknown even during the first step of
relativelepth d/L.losesits meaning.
the calculations. Also, the velocity distribution along a

2og

Part 3: Water Wave Theories

2ro

vertical is assumedto be uniform, or the particle velocity is

averaged over q vertical. (As in the caseof the generalized
Bernoulli equafion, a correction coefficient close to unity
should be included where quadratic terms appear. This
refinement is neglected.)Because the equations are nonlinear, the number of analytical solutions is limited to a few
particular cases.
While the small amplitude wave theory consists of
finding potential function by analytical means, the long
wave theory is most often treated by numerical methods or
graphical methods and by the useof a high-speedcomputer.
154J.2 An error, inherent in the simplifying assumptions, is encountered systematicallyin the treatment of the
"wave
nonlinear long wave theory. The velocity of the
element" is an increasin-qfunction of the water depth such
as (gh)tt2.Therefore,according to the theory, the wave
elementscarryingthe most energyshouldhavea tendencyto
catch up with the first wave elements ahead of the wave
(seeFig. l5-12).A vertical wall of water should soon result.
forming a tidal bore. Horvever,although this phenomenon
may actually occur physically, when it does occur, it
happensmuch later than predictedby the long wavetheory.
In particular, in the case of a wave which contains high
spacederivativesfor 1rylAxand 0ul0x,the long wave theory

Figure l5-12 A ph1'sicalillustation of the long *'ate

.
paradot.
t

t . tr

I_

may no longer be valid. Similarly, the breaking of a long

wave on a beach will be predicted sooner than if it were
due to the changeof bottom depth only.
Finally, it is realized that the long wave theory and the
steady-state profile are two concepts theoretically incompatible, although steady-state profiles have been
observed.This inherent deficiencyin the long wave theory
is the long wave paradox and is also encountered in gas
dynamicsand nonlinearacoustics.
The two stabilizingfactorswhich explain the existenceof
steady-stateprofile are the vertical accelerationand the
bottom friction.They are now consideredsuccessively.
15-4.2 Steady State Solutions
1,4.2.1 If one takes vertical accelerationinto account,
the pressure distribution is no longer hydrostatic- In
particular, due to the centrifugal lorce of water particles
under a wave crest,the pressureat the bottom decreases
significantly(seeSectionl4-5.2).
Although nonnegligible,the vertical accelerationcan
still be linearizedby assuming tlx'ftlt = in'/it. Since the
vertical componentof the motion is small, the convective
remain small. If this correction
and u(6ru/d-x)
terms rv(iru/d-x)
effect is taken into account in the long wave theory, the
motion becomesnonlinear horizontally and linear vertically. Even if the nonlinear vertical componentsare taken
into account in a solution obtained as a power seriesin
terms of H/r/,they haveto be introducedin high-orderterms
in the approximations.If it is
only for thesakeof consistency
assumedthat the solutionof the equationof long waveswith
a correction term for flow curvature is that of steady state,
this solution has to be defined as a function of (x - Ct)Such solutionsdo exist.They are the solutionsfor solitary
rvavesand cnoidal waves (although in the latter case the
pressri'reis found to be hydrostatic at a first order of
approximation). In these cases, the value of the Ursell
parameterdoesnot needto be small (seeSection15-2.3.1).
In the caseofvery long waveswhere the vertical acceleration and path of curvature are effectively negligible, the
choice of the significant length is quite arbitrary. This

WATER !V,A.VES

Relative wave height

a , ( i ).' r c

l(,t)'='

Ursell paranreter

Relalive depth

lI\ dro.t.rrr.
(lrr\l o.(l.r I

P r e s s u r ed i s t r i b u t i o n

Rotationalirl,

Frictiou

for<:es

Type of wave
S\IAI T
A\lf't n I 'i)l
\\A\ I I tii:ottY

TROCIIOIDAL
\{AYl llltroRY

Nanre of
theory
Mass transporl

Solution
D u b r e i lJ a c o t i n

t a! , __ql ,_,.1" _ 9::) _o,

p d\O

arl ;\0

t d p
P 4zo
dr d:
oto d:O

\''

61?,1 itzg

Korlcwc!

Equations

ind

di' Vrics

dr

S 'o r t t ( u \ \ ( l l

0r'

d t i r ^
6t c,d:0 d\U

o\
l/)_+lrxd.=-gr:rrll
an
ot

8nr
dtl" = ^

- : i

:----.-.:::::T.J:r'b lor \

ll(){)l)\{\1,v

t\Jo\(x I t\ \i
\\AVI .ilti(luli .

S t t a d l . = r e t ep r o f r i l I
[: r act

Boussinesq
Ricnrann llassu,sroker

flro;nt.

aq.alukl+otl

- r + = n
o/
dt

du
6u
dn ,l Zln
;*';*8;-+r^:;=o

'

ot

Atu:)c)= -sS

a:

- b t , t r - t t . J L -- "^
d;
.
t d,

alon9

, !

il=ux,

!= -.1

. r , . , . 1 1 . _ * 1. . l l
, l

"'

l . / r - = l r ( / , - _- t t t ) +
| t|)
pi,. i l/r. _ht. ) . phtrl.-_ I.tlrtt
_ r
tr

l,

'

itt

Chapter l5: An Introduction to Water Waves

kind of motion corresponds,however, to a value of the

Ursell parametermuch larger than unity.
154.2.2 A quddratic, or more generalll, a nonlinear,
iriction from the bottom slopehas a stabilizingeffectrvhich
m a y b a l a n c et h e h o r i z o n t a l c o m p o n e n t st o s l o u , d o u , n
nrost of the wave elements havin_qthe highest particle
velocitv.i.e..carrl,ins the most energv.
Under certain conditions inherentto the characteristics
of the bottom slope,the friction factor,and the water depths
aheadand after the transientu,ave.it mav happen that a
s t e a d ) , - s t a t rea n s l a t o r yu ' a v ea l s o e x i s t s .l t i s t h e m o n o _
clinal ffood rvave q,hich is an exact solution of the lone
u,aveequationwith bottom friction.

l5-5 A Synthesisof Water Wave

Theories
15-5.1A Floy' Cltartfor Watar l4/ates
The florv chart just prccedinetliis page summarizesthe
p r e v i o u sc o n s i d c r a t i o n sI .t d e s c r i b c st h c n t a i n c h a r a c t e r isticsof \\,aterwaves.The tu,o categoriesof motion are thc
linear and nonlinear motions, dependin,uupon u,hether
the convectiveinertia is taken into account or not. Each
of thesemotions may also be subdividedinto motion where
the pressureis assumed to be hydrostatic or motion with
nonnegligible flow curvature. Finally, the motion may or
may not be irrotational and the bottom friction may or
may not be taken into account.
Only the main theorieshavebeenindicated. Variations of
thesemain theoriesexist in the literature.The details of the
mathematics involved in these differencesare beyond the
scopeof this book. An aspectof theseis presentedin Chapter
17. Due to the limitation of mathematical methods, the
most complex casescannot be analyzed.For example, a
theory for nonlinear rotational waves in shallow water
with nonnegligible vertical acceleration and quadratic
bottom friction does not exist yet.
The flow chart can be used as a guide throughout the
following-chapters.However, all the theories given in the
flow chart will not be studied in detail in this book.

15-5.2 A Plan.fttr tlta Study of Water

Wures
The plan irr this book for the study of $,arer waves
follou,s tradition. i.e.,thc two familiesof rvarerwaves are
s e p a r a t e du n d c r t h e t i t l e s" s m a l l a m p l i t u d eu . a r . ,teh e o r y "
a n d " l o n g u , a v et h c o r r , . "
Chapter l6 is entirely devoted to the linear small
amplitude u,avetheory.The caseol irrotational frictionless
h a r n r o n i cn t o t i o no n l - ri's c o r r s 1 6 l s 1Tquc ,l .o - d i n r e n s i o n a n
l d
t h r e c - d i n r e n s i o nnatlo t i o n sa r c s t u d i e c l .
C h a p t c rl 7 d e a l su i t h l i n i t ea r n p l i t u d ew a v c sa n d C h a p t e r
18 is devoted to the long wavc theory. The theories of
solitary wavesand monoclinal wa\,esare also presented.
Appendix A is devotedto the conceptof u'ave spectrum
as an applicationof linear theory to phenomenaof random
characteristics.
Appendix B is on similitudeand scalemodel
technology, with particular emphasis on engineering
problemsassociatcdu,ith ri'atcrwaves.