Kotowicz Michalak Rec. Strzyz

A
STATUS OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA

A
A R C H A E O L O G I C A
C A R P A T H
TOM XLIIXLIII, 20072008
337
PL ISSN 0001-5229
PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK

STATUS
OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL
ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA.
REMARKS REGARDING THE MONOGRAPH STUDY
BY P. STRZY (2006)
ABSTRACT
P. N. Kotowicz, A. Michalak, Status of Research on Early-Medieval Armament in Maopolska.

Remarks Regarding the Monograph Study by P. Strzy (2006), AAC 4243 (20072009): 337382.
The article constitutes a critical review of the monograph by P. Strzy devoted to early-Medieval
armament in the area of Maopolska. The work of P. Strzy is the first such comprehensive
approach to the issue since the publication of A. Nadolskis book (1954). The authors rectify some
of the determinations made by P. Strzy and complement catalogue data. They also draw
attention to the necessity of introducing a clear division between specimens discovered in the
part of south-eastern Poland which in the Middle Ages belonged to the Piast monarchy and those
which derive from the western peripheries of Kievan Ruthenia.
K e y w o r d s: Early Middle Ages; Maopolska; Piast Poland; Kievan Ruthenia; armament
Received: 00.00.2000.; Revised: 00.00.2000; Accepted: 00.00.2000
A monograph written by P. Strzy on early-Medieval armament in Maopolska

(2006) was received with great interest. This is the second study devoted to earlyMedieval armament from a specific region of Poland which has been recently
prepared in the d centre of knowledge on weapons1.
The author undertook a task that has not been at the centre of attention
of Polish researchers since the publication of the classical monograph of
A. N a d o l s k i (1954). It is true that paragraphs regarding early-Medieval
armament in Maopolska appear in all important synthetic studies regarding the
region that have been written in the last fifty years (Z o l l - A d a m i k o w a 1971;
a k i 1974; P o l e s k i 1992); however, the armament has always been one of
the many elements used to formulate more general conclusions2.
The monograph of 272 pages comprises six main thematic chapters divided
into sub-sections. The study is accompanied by a summary in English, a bibliog1
A work devoted to armament in Western Pomerania was published in the past, cf.
w i t k i e w i c z 2002.
2
A certain researcher has even attempted to create local typical and chronological systems,
cf. proposals of A. a k i (1974, 274285, Fig. 217, 221) regarding arrowheads and spurs.
338
raphy and a catalogue comprising twenty tables, twelve maps and forty drawings.
A comprehensive review of the publication would be pointless; therefore, we
decided to focus on sections that raised our doubts or that require specification.
We believe that the author was fully successful with respect to all other
determinations.
The discussion is opened with the Introduction (p. 713) describing the
research issues to the readers, discussing the chronological and territorial range
of the study and determining the range of sources on which the author relied
and the status of research on early-Medieval armament in Maopolska.
The reading of this part of the study raises several critical remarks and
questions with respect to the use of all possible sources regarding the group
of finds that is of interest to us.
The title of the discussed monograph does not seem to be too fortunate.
It suggests to the reader that the author will deal with armament from the area
of Maopolska within its early-Medieval borders. However, the territorial range
accepted by the author corresponds to the present-day (quite liberal) understanding of the term Maopolska. Certain justifications for this solution are provided
by references which P. Strzy makes to the monumental works of H. ZollAdamikowa, A. aki and J. Poleski, where the issue of Maopolskas borders was
solved in a similar manner (Z o l l - A d a m i k o w a 1966, 11; 1971, maps No. I
III; a k i 1974, 1415, Fig. 1:a; P o l e s k i 1992, 9). Even though the author
discusses in detail the western and the northern part of the area, its eastern
range is quite neglected: the author devotes one sentence to it, where he
mentions laconically that the border was designated by the San River with its
tributaries. This simplification has a substantial impact on the subsequent
conclusions drawn by the researcher. The eastern borders of the territory
discussed in the study formed a part of the Ruthenian duchies (mainly the Halych
and Vladimir Duchy) for most of the discussed period. Determinations of
historians and linguists leave no doubts with respect to this fact (S e m k o w i c z
1925, 302; N a t a n s o n - L e s k i 1964, map after p. 40, 64 and 88; Makarski
1996, 133, map No. 5; cf. also articles in volume Pocztki ssiedztwa, P a r c z e w s k i ed. 1996; also see W y r o z u m s k i 1999, Fig. ; L b k e 2003); what
is even more important, archaeological research conducted in the last decades
unanimously confirms the Ruthenian character of the eastern periphery of the
present-day south-eastern Poland (cf. P a r c z e w s k i 1991; 1998; Z o l l - A d a m i k o w a 1996; W o o s z y n 2006; 2007; with respect to the specific character
of this region exemplified by selected militaria, cf. K o t o w i c z 2006).
In such a case, it is doubtful whether the selection of sources from this area
should be combined with armament from the area of western Maopolska and
whether on this basis the transformations in military science within the
highlighted area should be discussed in a comprehensive manner3 . In Maopolska,
In a monograph on early-Medieval strongholds in Maopolska which has been recently
published, the author clearly distinguishes Polish and Piast strongholds and strongholds belonging to the Rurikovich dynasty (cf. P o l e s k i 2004, cf. inter alia Table No. 9 and p. 189193).
3
339
we are dealing with Ruthenian armament, which should be discussed within the
context of transformations taking place with our eastern neighbours. Adopting
the standpoint presented by the author carries far-reaching consequences;
therefore, we will return to this issue in subsequent parts of this article4 .
With respect to the characterisation of sources, the author lists museums
whose collections he used in the course of compiling the corpus of sources. The
absence of a number of important scientific institutions which store earlyMedieval militaria is quite puzzling5.
Despite the above, the author of the monograph presents an impressive
collection of seven hundred and fifty-seven finds, where six hundred and fiftytwo items derive from systematic archaeological research. The overwhelming
majority (four hundred and eleven finds) was discovered in strongholds. A much
smaller, but equally impressive, percentage of militaria (one hundred and
twenty-nine) derives from burial grounds. One hundred and twelve specimens
were discovered in the course of open settlement examination. It is symptomatic
that as many as one hundred and five specimens are stray finds, deprived of
any settlement context and sometimes without exact location. As it was justly
noted by the author, the number of such finds is constantly growing as a result
of predatory searches conducted at archaeological sites with the use of metal
detectors.
One of the supplementary sources used during discussions on Maopolska
armament are chronicles and iconography. In the case of Maopolska, the second
type of sources is particularly important. P. Strzy uses all available images of
armed forces presented mainly on the seals and coins of Maopolska rulers.
However, it has to be noted that this strategy lacks certain consistency. If the
author decided to incorporate finds from the early-Medieval western Ruthenian
areas into the corpus of archaeological sources, then it would be advisable to
discuss iconographic sources regarding rulers who owned such strongholds as
Czerwie, Przemyl or Volhynia. An example may be provided by a leaden seal
from the end of the 11th century, belonging to David Igorevich, Prince of
Vladimir, which was found in Przemyl ( a k i 1974, Fig. 226:a; K o p e r s k i
1998, 84, catalogue No. X.5), and depicting a holy warrior equipped with a spear
and an almond-shaped shield (with respect to the worship and presentation of
warriors in Halych and Vladimir Ruthenia cf. M y k h a j l o v a 2003).
4
In this context, it is necessary to consider whether there are sufficient premises to include
the finds from the burial ground in Koskie, powiat loco into the scope of the Maopolska
monograph; clear relations of the burial ground with Masovia do not seem to be debatable.
5
Naming just the most important ones: the State Archaeological Museum in Warsaw, the
Archaeological Museum in Krakw (only the Nowa Huta branch of the Museum is listed), the
District Museum in Tarnw, the Diocese Museum in Sandomierz, the Janusz Peter Museum in
Tomaszw Lubelski, the Museum in Kranik, the State Museum in Kielce, the Museum in
Wilica, the Borderland Museum in Lubaczw, the Nadwilaskie Museum in Kazimierz Dolny,
the Salt Mine Museum in Wieliczka.
340
The next chapter, Weapons of Offense, presents a detailed analysis of the

material and is divided into four smaller sections, which discuss side arms
(p. 1538), blunt weapons (p. 3964), staff weapons (p. 6575) and mortar-weapons
(p. 7794).
Making use of the division of A. B r u h n - H o f f m e y e r (1954, 1820), P.
Strzy divided swords from Maopolska into pre-Roman and Roman6. The issue
of the sword from Machw, powiat Opole Lubelskie, requires a separate discussion. By presenting the course of a typological and chronological discussion
devoted to it, the author assigns it to the H type according to Petersen. P.
Strzy believes that this assigning is determined by the shape of the cap: an
isosceles triangle. A closer look at the specimen makes one disagree with this
opinion. The caps sides are clearly convex. A side projection of the head, which
is clearly thickened in comparison with much slimmer cross-sections of H type
sword heads, combined with its clear division into three parts, indicates that
the sword from Machw is related to the special 2 type (Srtype 2). The
significance of these features with respect to assigning the swords to this type
was emphasised by J. P e t e r s e n (1919, 8586; cf. also J a n k u h n 1939, 164;
S a l m o 1938, 116117). He also drew attention to characteristic ornaments on
the head of the sword from Rimstadt (Hedrum), where silver plates were
hammered into previously prepared rows. With respect to the form and ornaments, Dutch specimens from Maarhuizen, the Groningen province and the
museum in Wijk near Duurstede (Yp e y 19601961, 378382, Abb. 1215) seem
to be the closest to the Machw specimen. The relations of the Machw weapon
with special type 2 were previously indicated by W. M e n g h i n (1980, 271, Abb.
16), J. P o l e s k i (2004, 451, No. 12) and L. M a r e k (2004, 28, Table No. 8:B).
Among the images presented on the sword from Machw, the sign of omega
is particularly interesting; the same sign appears on swords from Gnezdovo,
Smolenska (K a i n o v 1998, 206207), Lepno-Taaravainu, LneVirumaamaakond and Kaerso Harju maakond in Estonia (S e l i r a n d 1982, Abb. 2, 3;
M a n d e l 1991, 104, 106), and also on a Carolingian spatha (inter alia W e s t p h a l 2002, 4142, Abb. I.1.27). It is necessary to add that the sign has been
mentioned in numerous Arabian sources (not only Al Kindi; Z e k i V a l i d i
1936).
Unfortunately, P. Strzy is not familiar with the article of T. Borodziej and
A. Kokowski on votive finds (?) from the Lublin area, where the authors
6
The first group includes nine specimens, which are assigned to the H type (Machw), I
type (Strzegocice, powiat Dbica), Z type (Koskie), X type (Grodziec, powiat ???????????; Koskie;
, Radymno, powiat Jarosaw; vicinity of Zawichost, powiat Sandomierz), T type (vicinity of
Krakw, powiat Krakw), S type (vicinity of Hrubieszw, powiat Hrubieszw), according to J.
P e t e r s e n (1919). The author decided that the specimens from Bochotnica, powiat Puawy (X,
A, 1), Chrustowice, powiat Kazimierza Wielka (XII, H, 1), Gry witokrzyskie (XII, H, 1),
Grdek, powiat Hrubieszw, nad Bugiem (XI, A, 1a), Krosno, powiat loco (XII, B, 6?), Radymno
(XII, B, 1) and Ssiadkai, powiat Zamojski (X, E, 1) are Roman swords, according to the
classification of O a k e s h o t t (1994, 24).
341
determine the alleged early-Medieval chronology7 of a sword head which was

extracted from the Siniucha River in the vicinity of the stronghold in Czermno,
powiat Tomaszw Lubelski (B o r o d z i e j, K o k o w s k i 19861990, 223, Fig. 1:c).
The hypothesis was confirmed by the recent research of M. Biborski, J. S t p i s k i and G. a b i s k i (2006, Fig. 2, 4), which disclosed the appearance
of the letter ? on the blade; this letter may be, according to the authors, a part
of the inscription VLFBERHT, where the first letters were clustered together,
or an inscription made in the Cyrillic alphabet. The head probably represents
an intermediate type between X and Xa types, according to Oakeshott.
Whilst discussing a sword from an inhumation grave in Grdek, powiat
Hrubieszw, the author does not discuss the secluded opinion of A. Motsia, which
has nevertheless been repeated a number of times in literature; A. Motsia
considers the sword as belonging to X type, according to R. E. Oakeshott, and
dates it from the 10th11th century8 (M o t s i a 1990, 76; 1996, 9394). What is
more, the author does not take a stance with respect to the proposal of
L. Marek, who considers the specimen as type, dating it from the 12th century
(M a r e k 2004, catalogue No. 160).
On the basis of the use of the Damascene technique with respect to types
H, I and T of sword blades, the researcher from d connects them to swordmaking workshops located by the Rheine. However, it has to be clearly
emphasised that single-edged swords executed in this technique are known from
the area of Norway (five swords in the University Museum in Oslo and five in
the Museum of Science in Trondheim). They are unanimously considered
Norwegian products and constitute approx. 20% of all swords from the area of
Scandinavia. This is related with the fact that there are individual specimens
outside of Norway, and the range of their occurrence in the last one hundred
years has not significantly changed. Therefore, it is possible that some of the
damascened heads were not manufactured in the Rheine workshops (cf. Michalak, Pudo in print).
Determinations made with respect to the sword from Radymno, powiat
Jarosaw (Fig. 1:1) seem to be disputable. The sword has previously posed
interpretation problems (cf. N o w a k o w s k i 1998, 11, Table No.1:3). The author
reverted to earlier ideas of A. G r u s z c z y s k a (1979, 149) and classified the
weapon as type X according to Petersen. This allocation does not seem to be
correct, which is testified by the shape of the head (it is clearly not the reversed
letter D). Whilst noting the atypical form of the Radymno sword, it is necessary
to note that in spite of its solid form, the base and the head cap are clearly
marked and the cap is divided into three sections. On the other hand, the guard
is short and quite thick, boat-shaped when viewed from above. These features
indicate that the sword prototype should be looked for in type E or type V, which
In a later work, A. K o k o w s k i (2001, 51, Fig. 13:c) determines it as a specimen from
the period of the migrations of peoples.
8
Other researchers of this specimen do not disagree with this idea (W o o s z y n 2005;
K u n i e r z 2006).
7
342
are genetically related to it (P e t e r s e n 1919, 7677, 154156, Fig. 6566). It

is true that we know of early examples of type X, where the division of the
cap and the head base were marked by engraving in the solid head; these
specimens are also decorated by the characteristic pit ornament (e.g. a specimen
from Skateby farm in Norway, collections of the University Museum in Oslo,
inventory No. C26494); however, these specimens present a clearly different
form (especially with respect to the guard) than our find (P e i r c e 2004, 116
117). The framing form of swords type V, e.g. from Vanaja-Katinen, Hme
makond in Finland, in spite of being relatively close, does not seem to be fully
analogous (K i v i k o v s k i 1973, p. 113, Abb. 836). The key to the final solution
of the riddle of this sword seem to be point ornaments on the guard and the
head. Most ornaments of this type occur on swords type T1 and E, as well as
U and H. Searching for a close analogy to the sword from Radymno, it is
necessary to draw attention to a specimen from a town called Donbass in
Ukraine, where the triple division is only slightly marked (D e d o v, S h v e t s o v
1987, 262, Fig. 1). It is typologically dated at the 9th/ beginning of the 10th
century9.
5 cm
Fig. 1. Side arms. 1 Radymno, powiat Jarosaw (after K o t o w i c z 2004, Photo 27);
2 Bachrz, powiat Dynw (after P a r c z e w s k i 1996, Fig. 1:C)
9
More information on the sword from Radymno is presented in an article under preparation (J a n o w s k i, K o t o w i c z, M i c h a l a k in print).
343
It is also surprising that the author did not make any references, even in
the form of a footnote, to the information about finding of an old iron sword
in 1937 in an early-Medieval burial mound in Szczekarkow, powiat Lubartw;
the sword was located by a skeleton (G a j e w s k i 1964, 183; a k i 1974, 261)10.
With respect to the area of Maopolska, the author mentions three specimens of sabre scabbard drags. Doubts with respect to the correctness of the
interpretation do not refer to: one of twelve/ thirteen specimens of this type
from Europe, made of silver; one specimen from Trzcinica, Jaso poviat (J a n o w s k i 2006, 3334) and a drag from Zawada Lanckroska, powiat Tarnw.
However, one cannot agree with dating of the last specimen at the 2nd half of
the 10th/11th century. The recent research has revealed that the stronghold in
Zawada Lanckoroska did not exist in the 11th century (P o l e s k i 2004, 372).
The chronology of this drag was convincingly determined at the 10th century
(J a n o w s k i 2006, 33). The author is also wrong in stating that similar
specimens were manufactured in the Baltic area (cf. J a n o w s k i 2006, Fig. 8).
On the other hand, it seems to be a misunderstanding to qualify an iron
item found in the stronghold in Tuligowy, powiat Jarosaw, as a drag11 . Analogies
evoked by the author are quite distant and this is primarily due to the fact that
we are probably dealing with a small horse-shoe like item (heel protector). Such
specimens are relatively numerous and we know them mainly from Medieval
and modern stands (D u k, S o l o v j o v 2004, Fig. 3:1113); however, individual
items could have appeared at the end of the early Middle Ages (cf. Fedyk,
K o t o w i c z 2006, 1819). Pipe-like shaped drags, appearing already in the early
Middle Ages, however more common in the late Middle Ages, present a slightly
different form (Corpus.. 1973, 5/7:4; N a w r o l s c y 1985, Fig. 14:7; K r a b a t h
2001, 63, Abb. 11:3). The set of drags from Maopolska may be increased by an
item mentioned in the literature (G u r b a, G a j e w s k i 1980, 154; recently
J a n o w s k i 2006, 3739, catalogue No. 1), and known to P. Strzy only from
oral information, i.e. a bronze drag from Czermno-Kolonia, powiat Tomaszw
Lubelski. This specimen was found in a layer dated at the 1st half of the 11th
century and it belongs to type Va according to V. K a z a k e v i i u s (1998, 308).
These drags are richly ornamented and, as it is indicated by the geography of
finds, they were probably created in the Prussian environment (J a n o w s k i
2006, Fig. 13).
10
The author also did not take a stance with respect to the hypothesis of J. Piaskowski
who determined that one of the items from the stronghold in Chodlik, powiat Opole Lubelskie
poviat, site No. 1, previously described as a piece of metal, may in reality be a remnant of a
large knife or a sword head (?), forged in steel with very low content of phosphorus and
subjected to heat treatment. J. Piaskowski assumed that the item was of local origin (P i a s k o w s k i 1990, 256, 270, Fig. 1:7).
11
This is how this specimen was previously described by M. C a b a l s k a, the site researcher
(1984, 143), and M. Parczewski, who considered the find as similar to group VIII according to
G. F. Korzuhina (P a r c z e w s k i 1986, 195).
344
Undoubtedly, one of the most unique and most prominent Maopolska finds
are sabres, whose appearance here is unanimously attributed to the agency or
the presence of nomadic Hungarians. The author lists two finds of sabres
(Czechowice, powiat Bielsko-Biaa12 and Radymno) and a sabre-belt handle
(Przemyl, powiat loco). Nevertheless, whilst describing the Radymno find the
author did not manage to avoid a mistake, which was probably caused by reliance
on the available literature. According to P. Strzy, remnants of a wooden
scabbard were preserved by the arbor of the sabre from Radymno13. In reality,
this is a fitting made of iron sheet wrapped around the head with a tongue
pulled along the blade and cut in a decorative manner (Kotowicz 2004, photo
No. 29). Similar elements, usually not exceeding 45 cm in length, occur in
sabres dated at the 8th century and continue to be used until the 16th century
(K i r p i c h n i k o v, K o v a l e n k o 1993; A r m a r c h u k, M a l y s h e v 1997, Fig.
18:2-7; 19; K a m i n s k i j, K a m i n s k a j a - T s o k u r 1997, 62, Fig. 2:5; Gorelik
2002, pl. XI-7:11, XI-15:2-4; Jotov 2004, district 30:456, 31:457, 459-460; R v s z
2006, Fig. 5). However, the function of the fitting is problematic. The literature
on the subject presents two main hypotheses which attempt to explain it14.
The literature on the subject features two pieces of information about
specimens unknown to the author. The first of them refers to an apparent sabre
find which was discovered in an inhumation grave in Przemyl-Kazanw, powiat
Przemyl, site No. 84, very close to the famous Old-Magyar burial ground
The author considers the war hammer from Czechowice as missing, even though
according to the available literature (F o l t y n 1998, 94) and archives (stored in the Upper Silesia
Museum in Bytom and the State Archives in Wrocaw), it is clear that the specimens were
included in the pre-war collections of the Museum fr Vorgeschichte in Berlin (which has
already been noted by A. Nadolski). The issue of their present location is completely different.
P. Strzy also did not include the dimensions of the find in the catalogue, even though the length
of the sabre is provided by E. Foltyn (85.3 cm F o l t y n 1998, 95). It is incorrectly determined
by W. witosawski (over 70 cm w i t o s a w s k i 2006, 101, footnote No. 142). Another
problem that requires solving is the territorial affiliation of the Czechowice complex. P. Strzy,
contrary to K. Wachowski who considered it a Silesian find (W a c h o w s k i 1997, 61, Fig. 39),
connects it with Maopolska.
13
With respect to the analysis of the Radymno find, it is also worth mentioning the
territorially closest finds of this type from the Western Ukraine. This is a find of a sabre guard
from Sudova Vishnia, oblast Lviv (R a t y c h 1962, Table No. III:11; F o d o r 1996, 437; S z y m a s k i 1996, 108), a sabre guard from Halych (F i g o l 1997, 108, No. 55-56 in the photograph), or depiction of an Old-Hungarian sabre on a famous statue of the Zbruch Idol
(Svantevit) (S z y m a s k i 1996, 82; w i t o s a w s k i 2007).
14
The first one assumes that we are dealing with an element meant to secure protection
for the sabre scabbard edge in the course of pulling the sabre out (I z m a j l o v 1997, 2021;
K n e v 2000, 119; J o t o v 2004, 65, 67). According to the second, placement of the fitting in
this place was related with multi-functionality of the sabre in this period, which served both for
making cuts and thrusts. Fencing with a sabre constructed in this manner was not an easy skill.
Thanks to the fitting, which may have had a function similar to a later finger-stall, the warrior
would be able to transfer the index finger or the thumb through the guard easily, not exposing
himself to wounds and also increase the power of thrust (K a m i n s k i j, K a m i n s k a j a T s o k u r 1997, 62).
12
345
(K o p e r s k i 2004, 86, 108). The second, which has been omitted in more recent
studies (inter alia w i t o s a w s k i 1997), tells us about unearthing of a human
skeleton next to the Municipal Slaughterhouse in Lublin, powiat Lublin; next
to the skeleton, a curved Eastern-type sabre was found. It is interesting that
the skeleton had Mongoloid features (G a j e w s k i 1951, 67). It cannot be ruled
out that we are dealing with a find related to the 13th century Tatar invasions.
The Maopolska militaria also include seven specimens of combat knives,
with respect to which the author adopts the determinations made by A. Nadolski
and M. Lewandowski which were approved in the literature on the subject.
Nevertheless, this list is not complete. The specimen from the Bachrz, powiat
Dynw, is missing (Fig. 1:2); it was discovered in the roof of the subsoil layer
at the depth of 3550 cm; the item, apart from prehistoric ceramics, was also
accompanied by sparse fragments of vessels from the 8th10th century (P a r cz e w s k i 1996, 280, Fig. 1:C, 16:1).
An outstanding group of finds are specimens of blunt weapons compiled by
the author, in particular iron heads of war hammers and axes. The author
registered as many as ninety-one specimens of this type and, as he justly notices,
it is a definite step forward in comparison to the number of finds provided by
A. Nadolski (twenty items), A. aki and J. Poleski (forty items). Unfortunately,
over 30% of the collection (thirty-two items) constitutes stray finds, deprived of
context and therefore having limited interpretation potential. It is necessary to
state that the author quotes all basic studies regarding blunt weapons from the
area of Europe. However, the comparative background is lacking the recently
published studies discussing Lithuanian materials (M a l o n a i t i s 1997; 2002;
2005) and Latvian materials (A t g z i s 1997). However, it seems justified to
apply the typology developed by A. N a d o l s k i (1954) with respect to Polish
materials, mainly due to greater transparency of the premises for distinguishing
individual types applied in it.
War hammers were discussed first; this group features multiple forms. The
author included specimens from Igoomia, powiat Krakw in sub-type Ia. Unfortunately, as a result of omission, the author connected this specimen with
materials discovered in facility No. 53, which, in the light of the source
publication, is not true. The war hammer was discovered 50 cm south from
burrows No. 53 and 52, in a humus layer at the depth of 35 cm (M a c h n i k
1961, 33; K o t o w i c z in print a). Therefore, all the divagations of P. Strzy
regarding the necessity of renewed analysis of the facility materials as chronologically inconsistent with other inventory items are not convincing. Moreover,
there are no grounds (in the form of good analogies and context) to determine
the war hammer from the Lipowiec castle as early-Medieval and include it in
the Ic sub-type. Among war hammers of this type, three specimens are
characteristic (Igoomia, Radymno, Zawada Lanckoroska); their specific features
include narrow blades and quadrilateral martles, not separated from the hafting
in an overhead and lateral projection. It seems that in the future another type
should be distinguished on this basis.
346
Three war hammers from a treasure of iron items found in KrakwKurdwanw, powiat Krakw (p. 4142) constitute quite a specific form. In our
opinion, the analogies provided by the author are quite distant with respect to
the form details. On the other hand, three specimens of war hammers found
in a uniform treasure of iron items in a place called Vyn Kubn, okres Doln
Kubn in Slovakia are almost identical. The discoverers date the treasure at the
period of migrations of peoples (P i e t a, H a n u l i a k 1988, 109, district No. 32;
P i e t a 1991, Fig. 6:1). However, the stand also bears signs of settlements from
the 8th and the 9th century. Maybe the treasure should be connected with this
chronological period?
The monograph discusses seven finds from Piotrawin, powiat Opole Lubelskie, even though M. Suowska in one of her publications emphasises clearly
that initially there were twelve finds (S u o w s k a 1977). The author acknowledges that the hypothesis connecting them to axe-like items has failed due to
the fact that the Piotrawin specimens are executed in a very diligent manner.
However, it is worth mentioning the weight measurements of these finds, which
oscillate around 1.52.0 kg15. With a narrow blade constructed in this manner,
it is hard to imagine effective use of the axe during carpentry work or in
a battle. Maybe this riddle could be solved by metal science research. The
research would probably explain whether the structure of mysterious specimens
is closer to axes or to axe-like items. It is unknown why the author included
them in sub-type IVb according to Nadolski, simultaneously emphasising that
the specimens have a marked chape and a low guard. In no manner does this
adhere to the description of axes of this sub-type, whose hafting was equipped
with a clear chape only (N a d o l s k i 1954, 44).
One also cannot agree with inclusion of one of the axes from Radymno and
specimens from Jurw and the vicinity of Przemyl in sub-type IVc according
to A. Nadolski. All these specimens have a clearly distinguished guard, which
suggests the necessity of classifying them in a different manner. The axes are
close to specimens grouped in type VIIIA according to A. N. Kirpichnikov, dated
at the 12th13th century (K i r p i c h n i k o v 1966, 40, Table No. XVI:12), as well
as numerous Baltic specimens known from the works of A. M a l o n a i t i s (1997,
4 il.). Their dating is very varied. They appear already in the 3rd century and
last until the 10th century (M a l o n a i t i s 2002, 169, Abb. 3). The same type
is represented by an axe (Fig. 2:1) discovered in the course of field works outside
the range of a cremation burial ground in Lipsko, powiat Zamo (D r e w k o
1957, 167), which has not been taken into account in the breakdown. Therefore,
we do not know whether it was originally related to one of the burial mounds16 .
15
Information obtained from the Lublin Museum in Lublin through the agency of Ms.
M. Polaska, whom we would like to thank heartily.
16
The specimen is stored in the National Archaeological Museum in Warsaw (inventory No.
PMA/V/7029). According to the inventory sheet of the specimen, it was found together with an
adze/ iron hoe in the vicinity of burial mound No. 1. The author would like to heartily thank
347

0
5 cm
"
Fig. 2. Blunt weapons. 1 Lipsko, powiat Zamo (after K o t o w i c z in print a);

2 Pode, powiat Wieliczka (after R e g u a 1994, Fig. 5:j); 34 Trzepieciny, powiat
Zamo (after B a l c e r, M a c h n i k, S i t e k 2002, Fig. 54:12); 5 Przemyl, powiat loco
(after K i t a, K o k o w s k i 2003, Fig. 1)
The recently presented chronological analysis of the find induces us to adopt

the thesis about its potential north-eastern (Baltic) origin and the possibility of
connecting it with a burial ground dated at the 2nd half of the 7th9th century
(K o t o w i c z, in print a).
the Management of the National Archaeological Museum in Warsaw and the employees of the
Early Medieval Department and Modern Times Archaeology for the opportunity of using this
find in this study.
348
Certain doubts are raised with respect to the proposal of dating type Vb
specimens by the author. In the designated area, they were supposed to occur
from the 10th to the 13th century. The bottom border of the division, based on
a stray find from Przemyl, seems to be little probable. However, it is worthwhile
noting that almost all specimens of this type resurfaced in the former Western
Ruthenian territories, where their dating would have to be correlated with
eastern materials in the first place. As the author notes, they are dated here
at the 12th13th century, which is confirmed by finds from the Podlasie burial
grounds (M a c i u k i e w i c z - C z a r n e c k a 1992).
Doubts are also related with Vd sub-type specimens. It has been shown
elsewhere (K o t o w i c z, w i t e k 2006, 130134; cf. also a s z k i e w i c z,
M i c h a l a k 2007, 109110) that this group of axes includes specimens of various
forms. It was also suggested that specimens with a hafting separated unilaterally
from the bottom and a pointed beard should be excluded and included into type
IX according to M. G o s k a (1996). There are no well-documented earlyMedieval specimens among them. This is also the case with respect to the
Maopolska finds specimens from Lipowiec, powiat Chrzanw or Krakw.
Inclusion of a miniature specimen from Zota, powiat Piczw is also highly
disputable. The opinion of M. Wooszyn on northern-European, Scandinavian
connections of this axe seems to be more probable (P a n a s i e w i c z, W o o s z y n
2002, 248, 269, footnote Nos. 10 and 51; cf. also W o o s z y n 2006, 596). It is
additionally supported by the presence of a triangular hafting, characteristic for
axe group type II according to A. Nadolski.
Apart from the Lipsk specimen mentioned above, several more specimens
of this category of armament are not included in the monograph. The breakdown
lacks an axe with a narrow blade found in the treasure of iron items (crudesickle, axe, pickaxe) in Pode, powiat Wieliczka, site No. 4 (Fig. 2:2), which
was accompanied by vessel fragments from the 11th/middle of the 13th century
(R e g u a 1997, 212213, Fig. 5:j). Recently, J. Poleski has allowed a possibility
for dating the treasure at the tribal phase of the early Middle Ages, and agrees
that the discussed axe may represent a form of an axe-like item (P o l e s k i 2004,
170). Whilst quoting information about axes in collective finds, it was also
necessary to mention a discovery of two non-preserved items along with an adze
and potentially an axe-like item in 1845 in Salwator in Krakw (Z a i t z 1990,
162; P o l e s k i 2004, 170). The axe from a settlement in Dbrowa Grniczaosie, powiat Dbrowa, site No. 8, is also missing; the axe was discovered in
a kiln funnel (R o z m u s, B o d n a r 2004, 48, photo No. 25); another missing
specimen is an axe discovered in an inhumation grave in a burial ground from
the 2nd half of the 11th/beginning of the 12th century in Lublin-Sawinek, powiat
Lublin, along with a knife, a belt buckle, a metal weight and a bronze ring
(R u s z k o w s k a 2004). A fragment of an axe head from a burial mound in
Husynne, powiat Hrubieszw ( u r o w s k i, M i k o a j c z y k 1955, 255, Fig. 7:e)
is also missing, similarly to a reference about a small axe (hatchet), discovered
in the course of examination of an early-Medieval stronghold in Majdan Nowy,
349
powiat Chem17 (R u s z k o w s k a 1978, 180), and a find from Ojcw, powiat

Olkusz (N a d o l s k i 1954, 168169, Table No. B:96).
To complete the discussion on this group of finds, it is necessary to note
the absence of one quite specific axe type. This is a group of finds which have
wide, fan-like blades and an arbor for mounting on a handle (Fig. 2:35). Such
specimens were discovered in Bezowa, powiat Staszw, in Przemyl and
Trzepieciny, powiat Zamo (D b r o w s k a 1965, Fig. 1:1; B a l c e r, M a c h n i k,
S i t e k 2002, 88, Fig. 54:12; K i t a, K o k o w s k i 2003). One of the hypotheses
determines them as Eastern products, which found their way to the discussed
area as a result of 13th century Mongol invasions (B a l c e r, M a c h n i k, S i t e k
2002, 138; cf. also K o t o w i c z 2006, 3537; K o t o w i c z, M i c h a l a k 2006, 86
89; 2007).
Among maces deriving from Maopolska, one specimen represents type I
(Czermno), two maces represent type II (Krakw, Czermno), two maces represent type III (Grdy, powiat Dbrowa, Stopie, powiat Chem), whereas three
others type IV (Czermno, Radymno, collection of the District Museum in
Rzeszw) according to A. N. K i r p i c h n i k o v (1966, 130131) and L. K o v c s
(1971, 168178). It is necessary to note a constant inflow of this category of finds,
not only within the borders of Maopolska (recently, inter alia, Lubartw, powiat
Lubartw), but the entire country (Skierniewice, powiat Skierniewice, the
Krakw and Czstochowa Jura).
Leaden mace type I from Czermno seems to be an exceptional find.
Researchers are familiar with examples of this category of armament made of
lead (e.g. Modzikowo, powiat roda; Putusk, powiat Putusk), yet there are no
type I specimens. Early chronology of the find is confirmed by newest discoveries
in the area of Ruthenia (K o v a l e n k o, S i t i j 2004, 135, Fig. 7:8), but also,
interestingly enough, by the research on Scandinavian burials from the 11th
century in Gotland (T r o t z i g 1991, 238, Pl. 21e; T h u n m a r k - N y l n 1995,
Abb. 58: 3; 1998, Table No. 264:2; R u n d k w i s t 2003, 182; 2003a. 6567).
The unique character of the mace from Krakw, emphasised by the author,
was finally appropriately appreciated in publication entitled Krakw in Christian
Europe 10th13th Century (Krakw w chrzecijaskiej Europie XXIII w.;
Z a i t z 2006, 268)18.
Iron mace type II from Czermno could have also had inlaid side walls. Closer
examination of the find reveals symmetrically placed circular openings/ cavities,
In the course of recent (07-09.04.2008) scientific conference entitled Status, Needs and
Perspectives of Archaeological Research on Early Middle Ages in the Lublin Province, it turned
out that the specimen cannot be connected to the group of militaria that is of interest to us.
18
E. Z a i t z (2006, 268) believes that the specimen is a product of a Krakw craftsman.
However, no evidence is presented to justify this statement; the form and the character of
ornaments do not confirm it. Certain controversies are also posed by its dating. According to
E. Z a i t z (2006, 268), the specimen was obtained from a layer dated at the 2nd half of the 11th/
1st half of the 12th century; therefore, its chronology is slightly earlier than the chronology of
type II heads from Ruthenia (M i c h a l a k 2005, 190; 2007a, 105).
17
350
which appeared as a result of corrosion in places where metal was not completely
uniform (M i c h a l a k 2006, 107, Fig. 4; 2007a, 53, Fig. 5:1). This form of
ornament has its analogies in the specimen from Olszynka Grochowska, powiat
Warszawa (N o w a k i e w i c z 2000, 165166).
Whilst discussing a mace stored in the District Museum in Rzeszw, the
lack of any information about its discovery should have been clearly stated; close
analogies with the area of Ruthenia (K i r p i c h n i k o v 1966, Table No. XXVIII:4,
XXVII:2, N i k o l s k a j a 1974, Fig. 13:5) result in the fact that it could be
surmised that the specimen was found in Ukraine.
One cannot agree with the author who claims that the richly decorated mace
from Wrocaw is an imitation of Ruthenian finds. This specimen with a different
form (long sleeve, all spikes of equal length) and details of ornamentation (spiral
ornament and a pseudo-rope on the sleeve) clearly refer to analogous specimens from Western Europe with a relatively early chronology (cf. M i c h a l a k
2007b).
It seems that it is necessary to abandon the inflexible, typological dating
of types III and IV presented by A. N. K i r p i c h n i k o v (1966, 4757). The
remarks of R. L i w o c h (2006, 68) made with respect to Western Ukraine seem
to be justified. He noted that it is possible to adopt their terminus ante quem
at the year 1240/1241 with a possibility of anachronic occurrence slightly later.
It seems that within the analysed area, six flail specimens were also
discovered. Four of them are metal specimens (three bronze ones and one iron);
two are specimens made of horn. This group also features an iron specimen
from Szarajwka, powiat Bigoraj, which did not have any close analogies until
now. However, information has been recently published about a very similar iron
flail discovered in a burial mound from the 2nd half of the 10th/1st half of the
11th century in a place called Blinie Elbany, topihinskij rajon in the forest and
steppe area of the Altai (G o r b u n o v 2006, 8687, Fig. 69:7; K o t o w i c z, in
print b). It is slightly smaller from the analysed items and it also lacks
ornaments. The chronology of this territorially distant item does not have to
be binding for the flail from Szarajwka; however, it indicates the presence of
this type of specimens in the early-Medieval Eastern Europe. The group of flails
from the discussed area may be extended onto a leaden specimen unknown to
the author and deriving from a research site in the stronghold in Grdek,
Hrubieszw poviat, dated at the 11th13th century19 (K o t o w i c z 2006a, 58;
K u n i e r z 2006, 88, Table No. V:16). It is also worth to pay attention to the
fact that specimens of this type could have also been produced in the local
workshops. It may be indicated by a find of an unfinished flail made of horn
which was recently discovered in the vicinity of a horn workshop in an
19
We have recently received information about discovery of another bronze flail weight
among materials deriving from older research; the specimen was discovered at the research site
of the Monument Conservation Workshop in Sandomierz, powiat loco. The specimen is stored
in the District Museum in Tarnw. We would like to heartily thank A. Szpunar (Tarnw), M.A.,
for this piece of information.
351
settlement situated by a stronghold in Kulczyn Kolonia, powiat Wodawa, site

No. 8 (M a z u r e k 2006, 110111, photo No. 8), as well as a semi-finished product
of this weapon deriving from a horn workshop dated at the 12th century in
Ukrainian Zvenigorod, oblast Zvenigorod (T e r s k y j 1993, 75, Fig. IX:1).
The next sub-section refers to staff weapons. The study comprises fortyseven spearheads of this category of finds. Unfortunately, in majority they are
deprived of archaeological context. Due to almost identical form of most of the
spearheads, the value of the finds is greatly diminished with respect to Fig.
conclusions on the use of these weapons in the early Medieval Maopolska (cf.
general remarks B h n e r 1958, 146155; S w a n t o n 1973; J o r g e n s e n
1999, 88). In the case of stray finds, it is necessary to use typological breakdowns
prepared for this group of finds. In his monograph, P. Strzy uses the classification of A. N a d o l s k i (1954), and also makes auxiliary use of systematics
of J. P e t e r s e n (1919), A. N. K i r p i c h n i k o v (1966, 5-25) and A. R u t t k a y
(1976, 297305). Each of these typologies is not free from defects, which is related
with the long period of time during which the individual forms were used and
occurrence of some of them in the late Middle Ages. Determination of chronology
of individual finds solely on the basis of typologies may be problematic. Certain
premises revealing detailed data with respect to the structure of spearheads (as
it is shown by examples from Elblg, powiat loco (M a z u r, N o s e k 1973),
Wolkow, Kreis Demmin, Germany (E m m e r l i n g 1979, 133135) or Dorestad,
provincie Utrecht, Holland (Yp e y 1982, Abb. 12), may be provided by metallographic research. This may also have certain significance for determination
of the origin of Maopolska spearheads. They present forms that are quite
common both in the area of Ruthenia and Hungary. Whilst classifying this
category of weapons, it is very difficult to distinguish specific features which may
be determined as local. Analysis of chemical composition of the ore used to
produce the specimen, on the basis of specific individual trace elements, may
provide us with information about the place of manufacturing of a given
spearhead. It would be particularly interesting to examine specimens from the
stronghold in Tuligowy, powiat Jarosaw, Przemyl, Skawina, powiat Krakw,
and Ulw, powiat Tomaszw Lubelski. These finds, as it was justly noted by the
author, have most numerous analogies in nomadic environments, including
Mordva (C h i r k i n 1984, 126127), Volgan Bulgaria (I z m a j l o v 1997, Fig. 3234), yet they also occur in the Polish lands (inter alia in Raci, powiat Tuchola
where nomadic and eastern elements have a strong presence cf. w i t o s a w s k i 2007, 4954).
It is difficult to evaluate the inclusion of a spearhead from Rudnik, powiat
Nisko in the group of early-Medieval specimens positively. We are not familiar
with any other analogous specimen with a reliable early-Medieval dating having
this form of ribs on the blade. It is possible that we are dealing with a specimen
with an earlier certificate of origin, even though the inventory of the Przeworsk
culture also lacks such examples (K a c z a n o w s k i 1995). The author, aware
of the untypical form of the spearhead, does not mention it in his monograph.
352
The lack of good illustrations does not allow for proper evaluation of a find
from Krakw-Wawel, which, on the basis of an ogival ornament at the
adjacency of the blade with un-preserved sleeve was determined as Frankish
by the author. The author also does not exclude that the specimen could have
been provided with wings. In the light of metal science analysis, this hypothesis
is probable, yet due to the absence of the sleeve it is only a guess.
Lacks in the search query are also visible in the case of this category of
armament (Fig. 3). A stray find of a spearhead with an arbor deriving from
Trzepieciny, powiat Zamo (B a l c e r, M a c h n i k, S i t e k 2002, 138, Fig. 54:4)
was not taken into account. In the literature, spears of this type are considered
to be a result of north-eastern impact (B i e r m a n n 2003; K a z a k e v i i u s
1988, 5760), or nomadic influence (C h i r k i n 1984, 128; I z m a j l o v 1997, 74,
Fig. 43:45). Several items are known from eastern areas of Poland, including
Ulw (Te r e s z c z u k 2005, 137, Table No. III:11) and Czermno-Kolonia (K l i s z
2006, 207208, Fig. 1). Analogous specimens have a slightly different form
(shorter blade, longer arbor). The idea of mounting the spearhead with the use
of arbor derives from the Great Steppe people. In the area of Mordva, spearheads
with arbors are dated at the 10th11th century. In Volgan Bugaria, they occur
in the 10th13th century (C h i r k i n 1984, 128; I z m a j l o v 1997, 74, Fig. 43:45). The chronology of an arbor-like spearhead found in Grodno, oblast Grodno
was determined at the 12th13th century (Vo r o n i n 1954, Fig. 22:3). The items
accompanying (arbor-like axes, rhomboidal spearheads with arbors) the find in
Trzepieciny may confirm its nomadic character. Other items which were not
taken into account include a spearhead with splinters from the stronghold in
Trzcinica, powiat Jaso determined as an assegai spearhead (K u n y s z 1962,
Fig. 8:d); two spearheads from the stronghold in Ssiadka ( a k i 1962, Fig.
214:56) are also missing; as well as two specimens from Chem (G o u b 1986,
Table No. VIII:2; B a n a c h 1995, 60, Table No. VII:1); spearheads from Rejowiec-Osady, powiat Chem (B r o n i c k i 1997, 99, Table No. V:5) and a specimen
of unknown origin stored in the Zamo Museum in Zamo (G a j e w s k i 1976,
495, Fig. 1:b). Information about a javelin spearhead which was ploughed out
during WWII in the early-Medieval stronghold in Majdan Nowy is also missing
(S k i b i s k i 1958, 329).
Since the time of A. Nadolski, the number of finds related with mortar
weapons has hugely increased. This refers both to the finds of bows, quivers
and bow holsters20, with respect to which the author makes convincing analogies,
and in particular a huge number of spearheads and crossbows. It is particularly
important that the former finds constitute the largest armament category in
Maopolska, which includes, according to the author, approx. three hundred and
forty-eight specimens. However, P. Strzy makes a reservation that the constant
inflow of new finds, which was registered after the monograph was submitted
20
Apart from specimens analysed by the author, the literature on the subject features
information about items interpreted as elements of a quiver or, possibly, a horse harness,
deriving from Grdek, site No. 25 (K o k o w s k i 1986, 33).
353
5 cm
!

"
$
#
Fig. 3. Staff weapons. 12 Trzepieciny, powiat Zamo (after B a l c e r, M a c h n i k,

S i t e k 2002, Fig. 54:34); 3 Place unknown, Muzeum Zamojskie w Zamociu
(after G a j e w s k i 1976, Fig. 1:b); 4 Trzcinica, powiat Jaso (after K u n y s z 1962,
Fig. 8:d); 5 Chem, powiat loco (after B a n a c h 1995, Tab. VII:1); 6 Chem, powiat
loco (after G o u b 1986, Tab. VIII:2)
354
to printing, has significantly increased the above number (cf. K u n i e r z 2005;

2006; F e d y k, K o t o w i c z 2006). The authors idea on combining the classification of A. Nadolski and A. F. Medvedev whilst analysing spearheads with
arbors seems a very good idea. It is a pity that a similar procedure was not
applied in the case of other types. Assuming these criteria, e.g. with respect
to type I in the classification of A. Nadolski, spearheads with sleeves and one
splinter could be determined as type I/1, whereas spearheads with sleeves and
two splinters as type I/2. A similar procedure could have been applied to type
II spearheads. Another issue is the establishment of a classification for spearheads from the area of Poland, corresponding to the new needs. These are
mainly type III spearheads. The author claims that the typology would be quickly
superannuated. This is not completely true. An excellent example is provided
by a draft of new typology designed by W. witosawski for materials from the
10th12th century which focuses on the general features of shape of individual
varieties (witosawski 2006), without an in-depth analysis of secondary features, as it took place in the case of proposal of A. F. Medvedev, due to which
it was not necessary to separate a large number of types.
An interesting issue is the twining of sleeve spearheads type I, encountered
infrequently in Maopolska specimens, which may provide the author with a basis
for distinguishing a separate variety. The majority of finds is dated at the tribal
phase of the early Middle Ages. Type I spearhead from a burial mound in LipskoPolesie, unknown to the author from autopsy, is an excellent example of this
outline. This specimen also has a twined sleeve (K o t o w i c z in print a);
there is probably yet another specimen of this type, not taken into account by
the author, deriving from a settlement in Podegrodzie, powiat Nowy Scz, site
No. 9 (M a d y d a - L e g u t k o, T u n i a 1992, 140, 143144, Fig. 14:c).
In the subsequent paragraph, the author discusses quite an original group
of spearheads which, as he claims, has not been separated in the early Medieval
sites within the area of Poland so far. These are spearheads with cone-shaped
sleeves transforming into cone-shaped blades. It is worth mentioning that in this
group P. Strzy includes both specimens which ideally fit the description
formulated in this manner and other items with clearly narrowed blades and
quadrilateral cross-sections (Naszacowice, powiat Nowy Scz and finds analogous
to them from site Starigard-Oldenburg, Kreis Ostholstein). In the sentences that
follow, the author acknowledges that omission of similar finds in the previous
studies results from the fact that they were treated as specimens with damaged
blades. Nevertheless, this remark in reality refers to spearheads with clearly
narrowed blades (cf. e.g. G i n a l s k i, K o t o w i c z 2004, 209, Table No. V:5, 78), which were distinguished by T. Kempke and grouped in type 6a in his
classification (K e m p k e 1991, Abb. 14:1-11); J. P o l e s k i (2004, 274) was the
first one to note their presence among Polish materials. Spearheads with coneshaped narrowed sleeves and blades were even considered a separate type in
literature (G i n a l s k i, K o t o w i c z 2004, 209, Table No. V:3). Therefore, we are
dealing here with two varieties of a new type of spearheads with sleeves.
355
Another group of spearheads discussed by the author are type II specimens

according to A. Nadolski. The basic conclusion of the study is that they are much
rarer than spearheads type I, which in general corresponds to determinations
made for this group of finds in the neighbouring area. Their chronology
encompasses the time range from the 9th to the 13th century. The only
reservation that emerges in the context of analysis of similar finds is inclusion
of an awl-like spearhead from Czermno (p. 85) with a clear quadrilateral crosssection (K u n i e r z 2005; 121, Table No. III:31) in this group of specimens.
According to us, it should be assigned to the group of specimens discussed in
the paragraph above.
Most frequently encountered spearhead types are spearheads with type III
arbors according to A. Nadolski. As the author notes, they occur in the discussed
area even more often than spearheads type I, which is however considered
a proof for penetration of these areas by the Mongol armies; sporadically, the
specimens are considered a result of Avar or Hungarian impact (in the case of
older specimens). In the recapitulation, the author states that their significant
concentration in the border zone of south-eastern Poland is a result of the
presence of tribes (?!) and nomadic units. The author even suggests that some
part of the presented items (especially stray finds) may be combined with the
presence of nomads (Tatars) in this area in the late Middle Ages and even in
modern times, bearing in mind the traditionalism of nomadic people. Nevertheless, the issue is much more complex and the authors approach obviously results
from the Polish outlook on the issue. Let us emphasise once again that decisive
impact on Fig. such and similar conclusions is inclusion of Maopolska in the
part of Western Ruthenian areas, where such weapons did not necessarily have
to be connected with the presence of nomads, but in a number of cases (see
a warrior burial ground in Grdek W o o s z y n 2005) constituted the gear
of local warriors. On the other hand, as far as the hypothesis related with later
chronology of certain stray finds is concerned, it is worth noting that majority
of them occurred in early Medieval facilities. This hypothesis may contain a lot
of truth, which seems to be indicated by finds from a castle in Czchw, powiat
Brzesko not included in the study for obvious reasons (S z p u n a r, G l i n i a n o w i c z 2006, 160, Table No. 2:cf).
However, we are not going to debate the classification of type III spearheads
conducted by the author. It is based on the typology of A. F. M e d v e d e v (1966),
which is used most frequently; however, we evaluate it as too extensive and
ambiguous. This fact was also noted by P. Strzy who stated that basically every
spearhead could be assigned to several types. Classification of similar specimens
from the 10th12th century developed for the Polish needs is much clearer
( w i t o s a w s k i 2006).
Despite the undoubtedly significant number of spearheads registered by the
author, a lot of specimens known from literature21 and other studies were not
21
A spearhead from Sawin, powiat Chem, which the author quotes as unpublished, was
previously known in the literature (B r o n i c k i 1996, Table No. III:4).
356
included in the monograph (Fig. 4). Three type III spearheads from BondyrzFolwark, powiat Zamo were not taken into account (B a l c e r, M a c h n i k,
S i t e k 2002, 88, Fig. 54:57), two spearheads discovered in grave No. 8 at site
No. 88 in Przemyl (K o p e r s k i 2004, 107), type I spearhead subjected to metal
science research from Chodlik, site No. 222 (P i a s k o w s k i 1990, 252, 269, Fig.
1:5), and type I specimen from Podegrodzie, powiat Nowy Scz, site No. 9
(M a d y d a - L e g u t k o, T u n i a 1992, 140, 143144, Fig. 4:c), type III specimen
from Mymo, powiat Sanok (K o t o w i c z 2002, 3 and 7, footnote No. 11, Table
No. II:11; 2007, 5960, Fig. 7:4), as well as Jamy and Czerniejw, powiat
Lubartw (N a d o l s k i 1954, catalogue No. 45 and 75)23.
The analysed study also presents fifty-nine bolt spearheads. This is the only
category of early Medieval finds related with crossbows in this area. The
majority (forty-four items) constitutes items with sleeves; the remaining ones
are spearheads with arbors. They were classified according to the typology of
A. F. M e d v e d e v (1966). However, the breakdowns lack three bolt spearheads
discovered in Bondyrz-Folwark, powiat Zamo (B a l c e r, M a c h n i k, S i t e k
2002, 88, Fig. 54:810). Whilst referring to the Przemyl finds, the author lists
seven bolt spearheads deriving from the castle hill; however, A. Koperski has
recently quoted information about sixteen specimens of this type, being quite
cautious with respect to their dating (K o p e r s k i 2004, 107).
It is a pity that the author did not attempt to trace the proposal of
K. W a c h o w s k i (1982), B. Z i m m e r m a n n (2000) and V. S e r d o n (2005)
with respect to the Maopolska finds regarding correlation of the spearhead
weight with its function, which showed that spearheads which are commonly
considered to be arrow missiles (due to their shape), were in reality so heavy
that shooting them from a bow would have been impossible. The absence of such
an analysis results most probably from failing to take into account weight
measurements of the majority of discussed specimens. P. Strzy only takes into
account an attempt at applying this method to specimens from Trepcza, powiat
Sanok, site No. 2 (G i n a l s k i, K o t o w i c z 2004, 218). It seems that the method
could be verified by experimental tests.
In the next chapter of the discussed monograph entitled Protective Armament, the author presents a relatively small number of militaria24; conclusions
drawn here were additionally reinforced by an analysis of iconographic presentations (p. 95102). Unfortunately, all items in this category of finds are
22
The author does not quote this find despite being familiar with the article of J. Piaskowski. It is worth emphasising that the spearhead was sealed from a piece of sorbitic steel and a
piece of iron with ferritic structure and considered a local product (P i a s k o w s k i 1990, 269).
23
We believe that this group should also contain type I arrowhead from Sandomierz, powiat
loco which was discovered in the modern layer, probably in the secondary ore (T a b a c z y s k i,
B u k o 1981, Fig. 74:c; G u l a, R y s i e w s k a 1993, 274, Fig. 5:72).
24
The number has recently increased drastically as a result of publishing another twentytwo lames of lamellar armour from stronghold Zamczysko in Sanok-Biaa Gra, powiat Sanok
(F e d y k, K o t o w i c z 2006, 1415, Fig. 6:4, 67, 916, 7:1, 47, 1011, 10:12).
357

!
0
5 cm
&
'
"
Fig. 4. Mortar weapons. 1 Chodlik, powiat Opole Lubelskie (after P i a s k o w s k i 1990,

Fig. 1:5); 2 Lipsko, powiat Zamo (after K o t o w i c z in print a); 3 Podegrodzie,
powiat Nowy Scz (after M a d y d a - L e g u t k o, T u n i a 1992, Fig. 14:c);
45, 79 Bondyrz-Folwark, powiat Zamo (after B a l c e r, M a c h n i k, S i t e k, 2002,
Fig. 54:510); 6 Mymo, powiat Sanok (after K o t o w i c z 2007, Fig. 7:4).
358
preserved only fragmentarily, which causes difficulties in reconstructing their

original appearance. The author lists only five sites where remnants of chainmail
armour were found. However, he failed to take into account two subsequent
ones, quoted in the literature (P o p p e 1977, 589), and fragments of a specimen
of this type from a stronghold in Grdek, site No. 1a (K u n i e r z 2006, 88,
Table No. V:14150) which has been recently published. The author also omits
a hypothetical find of chain armour preserved in the form of several hundred
individual rings, discovered under the burial mound bank in wicica, powiat
Sandomierz, site No. 225 (F l o r e k 1994, 268269; Kotowicz, in print a). Against
all appearances, the situation in other parts of our country is similar, which
was justly stressed in the text. This state of affairs is not changed by discovery
of complete chain armour from the Lednickie Lake. With respect to description
of the manners of constructing the braid of the chain armour, the author was
unable to avoid a slip of the tongue. The author writes that rings of various
sizes are frequently found; one of such rings would be riveted, whereas the
remaining four, connected to it, would be welded. However, this issue probably
refers to the sealing technique. It is a pity that the author did not make an
attempt at conducting a metallographic research on the fragments of chain
armours found in Maopolska. Examination of armours found at sites BeclavPohansko, okres Beclav, Kn Hora, oblast erkasy, Novgorod, oblast novogrodska, or Gjermundbu, Buskerud fylker provides interesting data regarding
production and provenance of this piece of armament (K o l c h i n 1953, 150151;
V i k e 2000, 8-18; P l e i n e r 2002, 7880).
Another type of armour discussed by the author is lamellar armour. All
lames of this type resurfaced in the stronghold in Sanok-Biaa Gra, powiat
Sanok (cf. also footnote No. 21). The lame with clearly visible four rivets,
discovered in the stronghold in Bdzin, powiat loco, should not be included in
25
According to the available data, this find was accompanied by fragments of wheel-made
ceramics, burnt human bones and indefinite iron and bronze items, as well as a fragment of
bone dice. Moreover, fragments of a large vessel were discovered in the mound bank and
interpreted as a remnant of a pit cremation burial. The mound was examined between 1973 and
1975 by an expedition organised by the Archaeology Institute of the Warsaw University, under
the supervision of A. Kempisty (F l o r e k 1994, 268 - 269; 2005, 125127). The literature on the
subject features divergent opinions with respect to the dating of the burial under the burial
mound. A. Kempisty believed that the mound along with the grave should be dated at the period
of Roman impact; the mound was raised in the early Middle Ages and in the 2nd half of the
10th century a pit cremation burial was dug into its bank (Z o l l - A d a m i k o w a 1979, 315). In
a monograph devoted to the import of Roman weapons into the Barbaricum area (K a c z a n o w s k i 1992, 60), the find from wicica, powiat Sandomierz was connected with a period of
Roman impact. It is interesting that in the Catalogue of Archaeological Finds of the Archaeology
Institute of the Warsaw University the material from this research site (ceramics and chain
armour fragments) are dated exclusively at the early Middle Ages (Catalogue 1988, 22). Moreover, date C14 740 70 A.D. was obtained from a charcoal cluster in the burial mound centre
(F l o r e k 1994, 269; 2005, 127) indicating early Medieval origin of the burial mound. Until the
moment of publication of complete research results on this facility, it is difficult to make a
definite statement with respect to its chronology.
359
this group, as it does not correspond to the idea of lamellar armour in any way;
the major distinguishing feature of a lamellar armour was mounting of individual
lames into one whole by means of straps threaded through openings. Similarly,
it is difficult to connect a lame from Sanok-Biaa Gra26, with this type of armour,
where only one rivet, probably made of bronze, has been preserved (cf. F e d y k,
K o t o w i c z 2006, 1516, catalogue No. 47, Fig. 8:2). In the light of iconographic
presentations and reconstruction of finds (e.g. Makushnikov, Lupinenko 2003),
one also cannot agree with a statement that the author has drawn from older
literature that the lames were connected with one another without any foundation. It seems that in order to stabilise the individual rows and to strengthen
the entire structure, horizontal belts were used in contact points; these belts
were made of leather or thick textile.
The author connected three lame types with the scale armour riveted on
a leather or textile base. It seems that this is a good category for including the
items from Bdzin and Sanok-Biaa Gra mentioned above.
One of the most interesting specimens of protective armament is a fragment
of an upper part of karvash presented by the author. The item derives from
the research site in the stronghold in Czermno; the author justly considers it
to be an element put on the left forearm (cf. also K u n i e r z 2005, 125, Table
IV:37). In the literature on the subject, this specimen is connected mainly with
Mongol armament, due to the fact that similar items were found in the ashes
of strongholds destroyed by these nomads in the course of their 13th century
invasions ( w i t o s a w s k i 1999, 2829, pl. VIII:12). In this context, it is
worth paying attention to an analogy from Belarusian Gomel; the specimen is
unknown to the author and similar to the Czermno item; it was discovered in
a facility interpreted as an armour workshop and dated at the 1st half of the
13th century; the workshop was probably destroyed in the course of a Mongol
invasion in 1239. In the workshop, apart from approx. five karvash fragments,
several other elements were discovered (guards, heads, drags) of sabres and
swords, fragments of chain armour and approx. 1,500 (!) lames of lamellar
armour, preserved in whole and in fragments. Similarly to the Czermno karvash,
a fragment of forearm protection from Gomel has small openings by the edge
adjoining the hand (M a k u s h n i k o v 1993, 123128, Fig. 1:6). The authors
interpret it as an element onto which a chainmail glove or a hand cap was
mounted (M a k u s h n i k o v, L u p i n e n k o 2003, 217, Fig. 10:12; K u n i e r z
2005, 125), which seems, from the point of view of functionality of the entire
structure, a better proposal than the hypothesis of P. Strzy who claims that
the karvash was sawn to a doublet.
With respect to the discussed area, the author quotes information about a
find of just one helmet, discovered loosely within the perimeter of an early
Medieval burial ground in Silniczka, powiat Radomsko. Unfortunately, the
In footnotes Nos. 23 and 34, the abbreviation of the title of work by R. F e d y k and P.
N. K o t o w i c z (2006) is incorrect.
26
360
presented illustration, or rather vague photograph does not allow one to refer
to this unique specimen. It is a pity that P. Strzy did not make an effort to
prepare a proper documentation of the find that it deserves. The analogies
quoted by the author are also not convincing. Connecting the helmet from
Silniczka with Wielkopolska specimens only on the basis of conical shape and
the potential presence of a sleeve is an attempt at fitting this specimen into
the existing background. However, the author notes that the helmet is made
of one piece of metal and there are no signs of rich ornamentation characteristic
for the group of Wielkopolska helmets; in contrast to the Wielkopolska helmets,
the discussed specimen may have been equipped with a nose guard. On account
of the manner of execution, better analogies seem to be provided by two conical
helmets discovered in the area of Lithuania. Both are made of one piece of
appropriately coiled iron sheet. One of them was discovered in a double horse
burial (grave No. 23) in the burial ground in Pakalnikiaj. In contrast to the
Silniczka specimen, the Lithuanian helmet is topped with a convex round boss
and the chainmail coif has been preserved. The second item was discovered in
1921 in the left bank of the Wilia River in the vicinity of Rusiaj. In this case,
the lower edge of the helmet has a relatively wide clamping ring attached with
rivets. The helmet from Pakalnikiaj, Litva on the basis of Ruthenian analogies,
is dated at the 12th beginning of the 13th century and both helmets are
considered local imitations of Ruthenian originals (G a b r n a j t e 1965, 125
132). This explanation may also be valid for the Silniczka specimen.
It is worth mentioning that apart from the Silniczka helmet and the
indefinite helmet fragments discovered in Grdek which were mentioned by the
author, the literature on the subject features one more reference about discovery
of a casque with a pauldron and a spur; the discovery was made in 1837 in the
stronghold in Posadw, Tomaszw Lubelski poviat (B a n a s i e w i c z 1990, 86).
This piece of information, which may provide references for the Grdek find,
quoted by A. Gardawski and Z. Rajewski, informs about discovery of a certain
helmet and a sword in the Huczwa River, in the area of Hrubieszw, powiat
loco (G a r d a w s k i, R a j e w s k i 1956, 106).
The author tries to compensate the deficiency of archaeological finds with
extensive discussion on iconographic sources. Helmets with various structures
are often presented on coins and seals related with Maopolska, starting from
the end of the 1st half of the 12th century. Conical helmets are dominant
(sometimes semi-circular or in the shape of a Phyrgian cap) with solid domes,
as well as rimmed helmets or ribbed helmets appearing until the middle of the
13th century. Helmets with nose-guards were known here already in the middle
of the 13th century. Pot-like helmets appear in the 13th century, but they become
more common at the end of the early Middle Ages (cf. P i e r z a k 2005, 241).
The authors proposal regarding interpretation of helmets presented on coins
of Vladislaus the Exile and the seal of Konrad Mazowiecki as scale helmets or
plate helmets is hard to contradict, but it is also difficult to accept it without
any reservations. Helmets constructed in this manner (as a matter of fact, these
361
are lamellar helmets) were known in the East between the period of antiquity
and the modern times (cf. S k u p n i e w i c z 2007); however, there are no
premises which could indicate their use in the area of Latin Europe after the
10th century. Anyway, these presentations are so schematic that in the case of
coins of Vladislaus the Exile we cannot even be sure if we are dealing with
a helmet or with some other type of headgear or hairstyle.
Unfortunately, no elements related with early-Medieval shields have been
discovered in the discussed area so far. The only source available to us regarding
this category of armament is the iconography of seals and coins of Maopolska
rulers. According to the author, almond-shaped shields were dominant; they can
be divided into two types. One of them has a rounded upper part, whereas the
other is cut flat. Almond-shape shields of the first type also occur in the 2nd
half of the 11th century (a denarius of Boleslaus the Brave) and they undoubtedly
last until the end of the period that is of interest to us27 (a seal of Konrad
Mazowiecki category No. 7). The almond-shaped shield with its upper part
cut off was also known at least from the 2nd half of the 11th century (a denarius
of Boleslaus the Brave), yet its younger image appears on a seal of Mieszko
the Old from 1175. In the 13th century, triangular shields appear in iconography.
It is interesting that a slightly vague image of a circular shield appears on the
coins of Vladislaus the Exile (11411146).
The standard equipment of a mounted warrior encompassed Equestrian Gear
and Caparison. This is also the title of the next chapter of the discussed
monograph (p. 103134). The individual sub-sections discuss spurs and elements
of their sets, whips, saddles, stirrups, bits and horseshoes.
Among these categories of finds, the most important role is played by spurs,
which, due to the significant variability in time, are often considered as finds
which may function as independent chronological determinants. Ninety-one
specimens of this type derive from the area discussed by P. Strzy, along with
elements of spur sets, which in comparison with relevant breakdowns in the
work of Z. H i l c z e r w n a (1956), or J. a k and L. M a k o w i a k - K o tk o w s k a (1988), is quite impressive. In line with P. w i t k i e w i c z (2002),
P. Strzy divided the collection of spurs into two basic groups: pre-Roman spurs
and Roman spurs. This procedure does not seem to be completely justified and
the determined time horizons are not fully clear, which has already been noted
by J. P o l e s k i (2004, 1516). This refers in particular to the group of 10th
century spurs which features specimens that belong to the first and the second
horizon. It seems that it would have been better to continue determining the
types according to classical studies (which is done by the author anyway), until
a comprehensive and modern typology of spurs from the area of Poland is
prepared.
The author did not include the above-mentioned leaden seal of David Igorevich from the
end of the 11th century on which a shield of this type is presented.
27
362
Pre-Roman spurs include specimens with hook-like hitches twisted inside,

hook-like hitches twisted outside, eye hitches, plate-and-rivet hitches and loosely
discovered elements of spur sets.
The largest group is formed by spurs with hook-like hitches twisted inside.
With respect to analysing them, the author mainly relies on the typology of J.
ak and K. Wachowski ( a k, M a k o w i a k - K o t k o w s k a 1988; W a c h o w s k i 1991), yet regarding their genesis he quotes a hypothesis that is convincing
at the current level of research. The hypothesis was brought forward by W.
Szymaski and refers to popularisation of spurs of this type in the 2nd half of
the 7th century. A bronze specimen from Chodlik is dated at this period; however,
this hypothesis contradicts the formulation of the author made one sentence
before, where the stronghold in Chodlik is dated at the earliest at the 1st half
of the 8th century.28 It is a misunderstanding to treat the specimen discovered
in a cremation burial mound in Mokre as missing. In our opinion, discovery
circumstances indicate that we are dealing with a specimen which was buried
as the equipment of a dead person (K o t o w i c z, in print a).
Whilst discussing type D of hook-like spurs, the author quotes a find with
a cup-shaped spurs from Krakw, dated at the 1st half of the 9th century on the
basis of ornaments and analogies. However, during the analysis the author does
not mention an important article by T. Kind, where similar specimens were
determined as Menzlin type (K i n d 2002, Abb. 6) and dated at the Otto times.
It is possible to refer to items from burial grounds in Vinevo (Wiskiauten), dane
Kaliningradska oblast in Sambia and in Birka, Gotladns ln, Sweden, dated at
the 10th century (W r b l e w s k i 1995, 273; B o s k i 2003, 110). Such late
dating of cup-shaped spurs seems to be confirmed by the most recent discovery
of such a spur in grave No. 4 in Udraj II burial ground in Russia. It was one
of the elements of a wealthy gift for the dead, placed next to a wooden structure,
functioning as a coffin. Apart from spurs, the dead person was provided with
a bit and a bone whip handle with a rams head. The most interesting thing
is that the grave equipment also included a denarius of Otto III (9961006) which
dates the entire facility at the beginning of the 11th century (P l a t o n o v a 1998).
The closest analogy for the discussed specimen deriving from a stronghold in
Obiszw, powiat Polkowice, is dated at the 2nd and 3rd quarter of the 10th century
(R z e n i k 2006, 186, Fig. 7:b). Therefore, it is necessary to approach the issue
of chronology of the Krakw spur with more caution and to draw attention to
the opinions regarding northern connotations for finds of this type which appear
in the literature.
The author did not take into account two fragmentarily preserved spurs
which can definitely be included in the discussed group. This is a specimen
discovered in the Bachrz settlement (Fig. 5:1). An iron spur almost certainly
representing the type with hook-like hitches twisted inside was discovered in
28
The analogies to this find presented by the author are also dated at the 8th century at
the earliest.
363

!
"
#
0
5 cm
Ryc. 5. Elements of equestrian gear and caparison. 1 Bachrz, powiat Dynw

(after P a r c z e w s k i 1996, Fig. 1:B); 2 Stasika, powiat Dbica (after O k o s k i,
S z p u n a r, S z p u n a r 2002, Tab. VIII:7); 3 Borowa, powiat Dbica (after K u n y s z
1966, Fig. 19:f); 45 Hrubieszw, powiat loco (after N i e d w i e d , P a n a s i e w i c z
1994, 60, Fig. 4:8; 1994a, 54, Fig. 4:8); 6 Krakw, powiat loco (after a k i 1972,
Fig. 2:5); 7 Ulucz, powiat Brzozw (after M i a n o w s k a 2001, Tab. XIII:1).
364
plot No. CI, between the arable land and the subsoil layer, approx. 1 m from
tub-like facility No. 67. The author of the research, M. Parczewski, dates it at
the 8th century or even the end of the 7th century (P a r c z e w s k i 1996, 279280, Fig. 1:B, 16:5; cf. also K o t o w i c z 2006, 21, Fig. 2:1). A fragmentarily
preserved spur (Fig. 5:2), discovered in residential facility No. 1 dated at the
8th/beginning of the 9th century in an early-Medieval settlement in Stasiwka,
powiat Dbica, site No. 9, was also omitted (O k o s k i, S z p u n a r, S z p u n a r
2002, 159, Table No. VIII: 7; K o t o w i c z 2006, 23: footnote No. 7). It is possible
that a spur preserved in fragments and discovered in Borowa, powiat Dbica,
is also a find of this type (K u n y s z 1966, Fig. 19:f).
Brining the discussion on this type of spurs to an end, it is necessary to
agree with P. Strzy, who does not highly assess the value of these finds as
date determinants. According to the author, type AC spurs occur mainly in time
interval from the 2nd half of the 7th to the 9th century. At the present stage of
research one has to agree with this statement (cf. also D u l i n i c z 2003, 95),
yet the fact of occurrence of this form in the subsequent century is confirmed
by finds of D type spurs in Krakw (analysed above) and E type in Stradw,
powiat Kazimierza Wielka (R z e n i k 2006, 183, footnote No. 12). Examples of
10th century low-arched specimens from the area of North-Western Slavdom also
require a cautious approach (D u l i n i c z 2001, 100).
Another group of pre-Roman spurs analysed by the author are specimens
with hook-like hitches twisted outside. Doubts are raised with respect to the
dating of B type spur from a stronghold in Zawada, powiat Tarnw at the 7th
century. The author was influenced by the presence of horizontal cuts, which
are an example of Merovingian stylistics (W a c h o w s k i 1991, Fig. 6). Such
unilateral approach to the problem led to the fact that the discussed item was
determined as occurring in secondary ore, in a facility from the 10th/1st half of
the 11th century. It is worth noting that settlements in this area are dated at
the period starting in the 9th century (also confirmed by a plate-and-rivet spur
and a horseshoe-like buckle, cf. P o l e s k i 2004, 336); therefore, an exceptional
and chronologically later specimen would be surprising. Automatic dating of
specimens of this type solely on the basis of ornaments causes more and more
doubts (cf. D u l i n i c z 2001, 100).
An interesting group of finds comprises a collection of eye spurs, where the
author included four specimens. The flagship specimen of this type is a find from
a settlement in Chodlik, site No. 2. This is the only specimen in the group which
is supposed to be an early original Carolingian product. Is this really so? First
of all, this is contradicted by the results of metal science research conducted
by J. Piaskowski, which has shown that this spur, with ferritic structure, was
probably manufactured locally (P i a s k o w s k i 1990, 265, 269, Fig. 1:17). Secondly, the presence of a riveted rowel which characterises Carolingian finds was
not ascertained here (G i n a l s k i, K o t o w i c z 2004, 221). Therefore, the
ornamentation of the rowel, which, as we presume, was the confirmation of the
specimens provenance for the author, is little convincing. A specimen from
365
Trepcza, site No. 2 (K o t o w i c z 2006, 24), is an unquestionable imitation of

spurs of this type.
Roman spurs were divided according to the classification of Z. H i l c z e r w n a (1956). Two specimens were not included (Fig. 5:5-5) in the analysis
of items with respect to the first two types; they derive from a 12th/ 13th century
settlement in site No. 5 in Hrubieszw-Podgrze, powiat Hrubieszw (B a n a s i e w i c z et al. 1992, 45, Fig. 4:2; N i e d w i e d , P a n a s i e w i c z 1994, 60,
Fig. 4:8; 1994a, 54, Fig. 4:8; N i e d w i e d , K o m a n 1996, Table No. XXVII:5).
P. Strzy did not make a reference to the suggestion of A. K o p e r s k i (2004,
108) that one of the fragmentarily preserved spurs from the castle hill in
Przemyl may represent variety 4 of type II.
It is unclear why type III according to Z. Hilczerwna has been completely
omitted from the discussion on spurs; this type groups specimens with star-like
rowels. It has to be admitted that in the basic study on this subject written
by S. K o o d z i e j s k i (1985), the beginning of their use in this area is
determined at the 2nd half of the 13th century; however, recent finds may suggest
that certain items, similarly to Ruthenia, may have functioned in the 20s and
30s of the 13th century. Such a problematic specimen may be a spur discovered
in a 13th century well in the stronghold in Trepcza, site No. 2 (G i n a l s k i,
K o t o w i c z 2004, 226, Table No. XIII:2).
Nomadic equivalents of spurs, such as whips, are also related to equestrian
equipment. With respect to the discussed territory, the author quotes two finds
of ends of specimens of this type29, deriving from Grdek (p. 121122). However,
the author has omitted another find from Grdek, published roughly at the same
time a whip made of bronze, in the shape of a rams head (K o k o w s k i 2003,
16, photo No. 8). This very interesting form has a good bone analogy (presented
more schematically) in a find from grave No. 4 at the Udraj II, novogorodska
oblast burial ground in Russia, dated at the beginning of the 11th century. It
is interesting that the equipment of the deceased included two high class yet
mutually excluding specimens related with horse management: a whip and a
spur (P l a t o n o v a 1998). It is difficult to believe that they were used simultaneously. The only reliable hypothesis explaining this phenomenon is an
assumption that the discovered whip was a sign of power, which may be
confirmed by an account about an Avar leader, recounted by E. and A. Kokowski,
who emphasised his every order by waving his whip (K o k o w s k i 2003, 356;
K o t o w i c z 2006, 34, footnote No. 19). It is also interesting that the hypothesis
about the presence of specimens of this type in the Polish lands, which were
previously considered a result of 13th century Tatar invasions or contacts with
Ruthenian duchies (W a c h o w s k i 1984, 66; w i t o s a w s k i 1996, 9193;
2006, 107), has recently been significantly changed. Whilst analysing finds of this
29
When quoting analogies to these finds from the Polish lands, P. Strzy did not include
a bone item presenting a bird head, discovered in Wrocaw (J a w o r s k i 1990, 58-59, photo No.
25, table No. VII:d).
366
type from Silesia, M. Wooszyn indicates that their dating is determined at the
11th century on the basis of stratigraphic clues (W o o s z y n 2004, 263264). It
may be added that the bone specimen from Zvenigorod, oblast Zvenogorod in
Ukraine was discovered in a horn workshop (P e t e g i r i c h 1990, 171), which
could suggest local, Western Ruthenian production of at least some of the
discovered whip ends (K o t o w i c z 2006, 35, footnote No. 20). Identifying the
origin of finds from Grdek, as it is done by A. and E. Kokowski and also by
the author of the monograph, with Volgan Bulgaria30, even though strongly
confirmed by a casting form from Bilr, is not completely certain.
P. Strzy discusses eleven finds of stirrups. In the classification of W. w i t o s a w s k i (1990), they can be assigned to the following types: IVA (Bdzin;
2 x Przemyl; Radymno; Sanok-Biaa Gra), IIB (Krakw Nowa Huta- Mogia),
IIC (Krakw-Nowa Huta-Mogia), IIIA (2 Przemyl).
However, the conclusions on shifting the moment of appearance of type IV
stirrups to the 11th/12th century are too far-fetched. The basis for these conclusions was provided by two richly decorated stirrups from Kalisz (type IVD and
IIIB), discovered accidentally. T. B a r a n o w s k i, L. G a j e w s k i and Z. H e n s e l
(1998, 185) agreed that the specimens must have been used simultaneously on
account of corrosive amalgamation. Type IVD specimens deriving from the area
of Poland, including Bonie, powiat Piaseczno (13th century), Tyczyn, powiat
Sieradz (end of the 13th/beginning of the 14th century), Piekary, powiat Krakw
(2nd half of the 13th/beginning of the 14th century), Kopaliny, powiat Bochnia (end
of the 13th and beginning of the 14th century), Lenica, powiat ????????? (end of
the 13th century and beginning of the 14th century), Dbno, powiat Kielce (1300
1370) and Midzyrzecze, powiat loco (14th century) indicate its 12th14th century
dating ( w i t o s a w s k i 1990, 49; a s z k i e w i c z, M i c h a l a k 2007, 133).
The chronology of type IIIB was determined at the 12th/ 13th century; however,
the second stirrup of this type from Kalisz, on the basis of an analogous and
accidentally discovered specimen from Pritzterbe, Kr. Brandenburg, was dated
at the 11th/12th century (K n o r r 1958, 113, Table No. 1618). Taking into account
reservations regarding vague context of discovery of both IIIB type finds, as well
as potential extension of the time of usage of prestigious armament items, the
proposal has to be assessed as premature. As complementation to the information about this type, it is necessary to remind the opinion of W. w i t o s a w s k i
(1996, 9, 12, Fig. 3:f), who believed that specimens of this type, despite undoubted
Eastern references, could have been manufactured independently in various
areas, including Poland.
In the bit category, P. Strzy determines two-part specimens with circular
tongues (type I), with curbs (type II) and one-part (type III) specimens. Unfortunately, during the discussion of this category of finds, the author also did not
manage to avoid shortages. Two bit curbs (similar in form) from Ulucz, powiat
The author uses imprecise term Bulgarian state which may indicate both the region
located over the Volga River and the Danube River.
30
367
Brzozw are missing Fig. 5:7 (M i a n o w s k a 2001, 88, Table No. XIII:1) and
Krakw Nowa Huta-Mogia, site No. 6231. These are specimens with slightly bent
arms, which have a rectangular plane in the central part, where an oval opening
was cut for the inter-dental space. The settlement in Ulucz is dated at the 8th
10th century and we can examine both specimens within these chronological
borders. They confirm Eastern analogies of the discussed items (inter alia
P l e t n e v a 1958, Fig. 3; H u z i n 1985, Table No. LXV:1). The author also did
not include a partially preserved bit type I according to A. Nadolski, dated at
the 9th12th century and a fragment of the inter-dental space of another
specimen, dated at the 11th12th/ 13th century, discovered at the castle hill in
Przemyl between 1959 and 1960 (K o p e r s k i 1998, 86, catalogue No. X.41 and
X.45).
Dating of a bone curb (made of ivory or antelope horn), ornamented with
slanting grooves and provided with a golden ferrule from Przemyl, remains
a riddle. A serious problem seems to be the lack of a close bone analogy for
this bit form. It is necessary to emphasise the fact of occurrence of metal bits
of this form (in the shape of a small letter f) provided with a small lateral
loop-like element, in the area of Hungary, Ukraine and Lower Austria already
in the 5th century (Q u a s t 2007, 51, Abb. 11). M. r s n e s (1993, 255257, Fig.
45:b) assigns such specimens to type OH, form 5C3 and dates them between
the 5th and the 7th century. Curbs from a place called Lbec in Ukraine seem
to be similar; they are dated at the 10th century (K i r p i c h n i k o v 1973, 15
16, Table No. IV:1). However, it is necessary to remember that in any case these
curbs are additionally provided with circular or rectangular lateral elements. The
absence of a strict analogy raises suspicions with respect to proper interpretation
of this item. Maybe this is not an item with a military function32? Due to the
absence of direct analogies, both the function and the chronology proposed by
P. Strzy (12th/13th century) of the specimen remain an open issue.
An unpublished find of a pommel, deriving from Krakw Wawel, is extremely
interesting. These items, which have been interpreted in different ways (cf. ak
1952), have their close analogies both in the East (K i r p i c h n i k o v 1973, 35,
90, Fig. 20), and the West of Europe (including K i s s 1984; E v a n s 2004). This
is another ferrule type III from the area of Poland according to A. K i s s (1984),
apart from specimens from Wrocaw, powiat loco, Gniezno, powiat loco, Milicz,
powiat loco and Grodziec, powiat Zotoryja. They were brought to Europe by the
Avars. Unfortunately, our area lacks finds corresponding to a Frankish saddle
from grave No. 446 in burial ground Wesel-Bislich, Kreis Wesel (J e n s s e n
1981), saddle elements from Lieps, Ldkr. Mecklenburg-Strelitz (S c h m i d t 2001,
Abb. 7), Gtzkow, Kr. Greifswald (H e r m a n n 1985, p. 298, Abb. 144), or
31
The authors would like to thank Ms. E. Kubica-Kabaciska, M.A. from the Archaeological
Museum in Krakw, Nowa Huta Branch for the drawing and all information regarding the find.
32
It is worth mentioning a hypothesis identifying the find with a handle of a modern seal
(K o p e r s k i 2004, 109).
368
Zelenka, oblast Kiev (K i r p i c h n i k o v 1973, Table No. XIII). Finds from

Lutomiersk, powiat Pabianice, previously determined as pommel ferrules, are
considered spur elements in the light of newer interpretations (W a c h o w s k i
2007). With respect to the enigmatic character of iconographic sources, even
small fragments related to these elements are significant for the reconstruction
of saddle structure in the Polish lands (cf. remarks of N o w a k o w s k a 2007,
p. 161).
The last group of specimens discussed in the analysed study are horseshoes,
connected more and more often with a caparison in the literature (p. 131134).
The author includes twenty-eight specimens33 in the group of early-Medieval
finds, which are classified according to a systematic approach developed by
J. Kamierczyk. It is worth noting that not all horseshoes from the area
correspond precisely to the descriptions of individual types, differentiated in the
work of the above-mentioned scientist. This is caused by the current status of
research and the specific character of the region. Most numerous are horseshoes
type I/1, about which Kamierczyk wrote that they were not used widely. Influx
of new materials seems to contradict this statement. It is also important that
the author indicates that the chronology of horseshoes in the area of Central
Europe may be earlier than it was assumed in the literature on the subject,
i.e. the 8th century, in line with the opinions of Czech and Slovak researchers34.
Such early dating has not yet been confirmed for Polish finds, yet it is necessary
to draw attention to a horseshoe find35, not registered in the monograph, which
was discovered in burial mound No. 2 in a cremation burial ground in Biaka,
powiat Krasnystaw. The burial mound, on the basis of ceramic material discovered therein, is dated at the 10th century (R e j n i e w i c z 1985; K o t o w i c z
2005, 166~167; in print a). Apart from the find from Biaka, the analysed
monograph also lacks a horseshoe discovered in 1966 in a plot of land at
Bernardyska Street in Krakw (Fig. 5:6) in an early-Medieval layer with
splinters of ceramic items from the 11th/12th century and an 11th century denarius
with a cross ( a k i 1972, 244, Fig. 2:5), as well as a fragmentarily preserved
item deriving from the castle hill in Przemyl36 (K o p e r s k i 2004, 109).
33
In the case of the horseshoe from Krakw-Wawel, an incorrect catalogue number was
provided in the inventory (23043/72 instead of 27354/84).
34
Extending the chronology of individual types is also visible with respect to other types
(cf. a s z k i e w i c z, M i c h a l a k 2007, Table No. II).
35
If the horseshoe is not a later interpolation (lack of complete research publication makes
it impossible to negate this thesis completely), we would be dealing with one of the oldest
specimens of this type not only in Maopolska, but in Poland in general. The second item with
a similar chronology was discovered in a burial mound in Biaogrz, powiat Zgorzelec (K o t ow i c z, in print b)
36
The specimen discovered in a mixed layer within the borders of grave No. 3 in the burial
ground at Grunwaldzka Street, site No. 79 is not a horseshoe. A. Koperski includes it in type
I variety according to J. Kamierczyk (K o p e r s k i 2004, 109), even though we are clearly
dealing with a horseshoe-like item (heel protector). This is how the author calls the discovery
in his source publication, stating justly that it is too small to be a horseshoe (K o p e r s k i 1988,
402, 404, 409, Fig. 5:1).
369
A summary of the authors analytical investigations is chapter entitled

Armament in Historical and Cultural Context. Selected Issues (p. 135143). It
is divided into two very important parts regarding foreign impacts on the
Maopolska armament in the early-Medieval period and transformations of the
armament in chronological terms.
In general, it has to be stated that the author has satisfactorily dealt with
the first issue. Assigning individual finds to several groups, including Carolingian, Great Moravian, Old Hungarian and Eastern militaria does not raise any
doubts. A separate issue is a problem whether they are imported products
exclusively or maybe local imitations (cf. remarks above regarding an eye spur
from Chodlik). Therefore, it might be more justified to determine them as
militaria belonging to a given cultural circle. It is also symptomatic that in the
tribal phase there are relatively few of these items (even though in comparison
with forms determined as domestic, this percentage is still significant); their
number grew after the 10th century. In this case these are Eastern finds. It is
only here that the author states clearly that separation of these materials is
difficult because a substantial part of this area in the period from the 2nd half
of the 10th century to the 13th century (!) remained under the rule of Ruthenian
dukes. Then the author makes a just remark that the majority of militaria from
these areas should be considered Ruthenian products, i.e. they could be produced
locally. It is a pity that this reflection occurred so late, because, as we have
emphasised a number of times, inclusion of materials dated at the period after
the 10th century from the eastern borders of our country is an overuse and
clearly impacts general conclusions regarding the number and the character of
sources from the areas considered as belonging to Maopolska by the author.
A better solution, from the point of view of reconstructing the early-Medieval
martial art, would be comparison of Polish materials with Western Ruthenian
materials, where the border would be the reconstructed Polish and Ruthenian
border. This could allow for determination of a set of Maopolska armament and
Western Ruthenian armament and the impact of foreign elements in both cases.
The monograph is completed by a sub-section where the author outlines the
evolution of armament in early Medieval Maopolska. In general, this attempt
is successful, yet certain conclusions are burdened with errors discussed above.
As was mentioned before, the study is accompanied by forty illustrations
presenting individual finds and twelve maps showing distribution of individual
categories of finds.
Unfortunately, the drawings especially the ones that present elements
of mortar weapons are the weakest part of the study37. No clear concept is
visible in their preparation. The drawings are not arranged according to the
typological order of specimens or the alphabetical order of sites, which creates
an impression of chaos. This may obviously be a subjective opinion, yet with
In the case of illustrations presenting spurs, side projections and arm cross-sections are
frequently missing, which has crucial significance for the classification of finds.
37
370
respect to this volume of work and the specific character of archaeological

monographs, where illustrations are often the most significant sources of
information about the finds, this publication leaves a feeling of wanting.
The attached maps also have to be assessed critically. They were composed
in an unplanned manner by placing individual finds on a contour map of Poland.
Such a solution could be justified if they were meant to show the scale of macro
phenomena, and, apart from Maopolska finds, finds from other areas of Poland
were also taken into account. However, this solution is too general to show the
scale of the phenomenon in the area of Maopolska. The maps should depict
the distribution of finds in comparison to the marked political divisions, ethnic
divisions or the stronghold network.
The main text, the catalogue and the captions under illustrations feature
too many various errors and distortions. Their presence is definitely unintentional, yet it may cause a lot of problems, especially for readers who are not
acquainted in depth with the Maopolska subject matter38.
Summing up, it is necessary to state that despite the numerous inconsistencies and shortages listed above, the author managed to summarise the status
of knowledge regarding armament in early Medieval Maopolska in a quite
shapely form. The study is written in a concise and clear manner; the conclusions are convincing and based on familiarity with literature. The greatest
advantage of the study is the catalogue, compiling information about individual,
often unpublished, categories of finds. Obviously, the source base of items of this
type is constantly growing; however, on the basis of the corpus of finds presented
by P. Strzy, it was and it will be possible to explain a number of detailed
problems. In our opinion, the monograph should be a mandatory reading for
all researchers dealing with relics of armament in the area of Poland; we would
also like to recommend it to researchers on the early Middle Ages in Maopolska.
*
Finally, a general reflection on the text. In the recapitulating conclusions of the

review of the work of L. Marek, devoted to early-Medieval swords, P. S t r z y
(2006a, 122) writes: However, it is a pity that this publication, in spite of its
apparent modernity, contains a number of inconsistencies, especially with respect
to classification, and does not take into account the entire available literature
on the subject, and, therefore, the source basis is incomplete. One almost wishes
to say: it is a pity that the author did not take these remarks into consideration
with respect to his own work.
38
Only some errors are listed below: instead of Magorzata Zieliska-Durda (p. 8), should
be Maria Zieliska; instead of Toworek (p. 1718, footnote No. 23, 33 and 36), should be Tworek;
instead of Bobrowicko (p. 32), should be Bobowicko; instead of Horodysko (p. 81), should be
Horodyszcze; instead of Archaeologia historia (p. 133, footnote No. 339), should be Archaeologia historica; instead of Somcza (Fig. 13), should be Homcza; the article of Z. Mchurova
(p. 129, footnote No. 285) refers to a settlement called Konvky (not Konovlovky); captions were
changed by Tables Nos. 13 and 14.
371
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Adres of the authors:

MA Piotr N. Kotowicz
Muzeum Historyczne
ul. Zamkowa 2
38-500 Sanok
e-mail: p_kotowicz@o2.pl
MA Arkadiusz Michalak
Muzeum Archeologiczne
rodkowego Nadodrza w Zielonej Grze
ul. Duga 27
66-008 widnica k. Zielonej Gry
e-mail: a.michalak@muzeum-swidnica.org

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STATUS OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA

TOM XLIIXLIII, 20072008

PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK

P. N. Kotowicz, A. Michalak, Status of Research on Early-Medieval Armament in Maopolska.

A monograph written by P. Strzy on early-Medieval armament in Maopolska

PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK

STATUS OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA

PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK

The next chapter, Weapons of Offense, presents a detailed analysis of the

STATUS OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA

determine the alleged early-Medieval chronology7 of a sword head which was

PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK

are genetically related to it (P e t e r s e n 1919, 7677, 154156, Fig. 6566). It

STATUS OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA

PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK

STATUS OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA

PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK

STATUS OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA

Fig. 2. Blunt weapons. 1 Lipsko, powiat Zamo (after K o t o w i c z in print a);

The recently presented chronological analysis of the find induces us to adopt

PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK

STATUS OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA

powiat Chem17 (R u s z k o w s k a 1978, 180), and a find from Ojcw, powiat

PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK

STATUS OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA

settlement situated by a stronghold in Kulczyn Kolonia, powiat Wodawa, site

PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK

STATUS OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA

Fig. 3. Staff weapons. 12 Trzepieciny, powiat Zamo (after B a l c e r, M a c h n i k,

PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK

to printing, has significantly increased the above number (cf. K u n i e r z 2005;

STATUS OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA

Another group of spearheads discussed by the author are type II specimens

PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK

STATUS OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA

Fig. 4. Mortar weapons. 1 Chodlik, powiat Opole Lubelskie (after P i a s k o w s k i 1990,

PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK

preserved only fragmentarily, which causes difficulties in reconstructing their

STATUS OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA

PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK

STATUS OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA

PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK

Pre-Roman spurs include specimens with hook-like hitches twisted inside,

STATUS OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA

Ryc. 5. Elements of equestrian gear and caparison. 1 Bachrz, powiat Dynw

PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK

STATUS OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA

Trepcza, site No. 2 (K o t o w i c z 2006, 24), is an unquestionable imitation of

PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK

STATUS OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA

PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK

Zelenka, oblast Kiev (K i r p i c h n i k o v 1973, Table No. XIII). Finds from

STATUS OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA

A summary of the authors analytical investigations is chapter entitled

PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK

respect to this volume of work and the specific character of archaeological

Finally, a general reflection on the text. In the recapitulating conclusions of the

STATUS OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA

PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK

STATUS OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA

PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK

STATUS OF RESEARCH ON EARLY-MEDIEVAL ARMAMENT IN MAOPOLSKA

PIOTR N. KOTOWICZ, ARKADIUSZ MICHALAK