Circuit Elements and Sources Explained

October 2010
Chapter 2
Circuit Elements

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October 2010
Circuit elements:
There are five ideal basic circuit elements: voltage sources, current
sources, resistors, inductors, and capacitors.
In this chapter we discuss the characteristics of voltage sources, current
sources, and resistors.
Inductors and capacitors will be discussed in Chapter 6, Where their use
requires solving integral and differential equations.
2.1 Voltage and Current Sources

An electrical source is a device that is capable of converting nonelectric
energy to electric energy and vice versa.
A discharging battery converts chemical energy to electric energy, whereas
a battery being charged converts electric energy to chemical energy.
A dynamo is a machine that converts mechanical energy to electric energy
and vice versa. If operating in the mechanical-to-electric mode, it is called a
generator. If transforming from electric to mechanical energy, it is referred
to as a motor.
The important thing to remember about these sources is that they can either
deliver or absorb electric power.
An ideal voltage source is a circuit element that maintains a prescribed
voltage across its terminals regardless of the current in those terminals.
An ideal current source is a circuit element that maintains a prescribed
current through its terminals regardless of the voltage across those terminals.
These circuit elements do not exist as practical devices, they are idealized
models of actual voltage and current sources.

An independent source establishes a voltage or .
current
in
a circuit without relying on voltages or currents elsewhere in
the circuit.
SMS
October 2010
A dependent source establishes a voltage or current whose

value depends on the value of some voltage or current
elsewhere in the circuit.
The circuit symbols for the
ideal independent sources
are shown in Fig. 2.1.
The circuit symbols for the

ideal dependent sources arc shown in Fig. 2.2.
A diamond is used to represent a dependent source.
Dependent
sources
are
sometimes called controlled

sources.
In Fig. 2.2(a), the controlling
voltage is named
equation
that
vx
, the
determines
the supplied voltage
vs
is:
v s= v x
is a multiplying constant
that is dimensionless.
In Fig.2.2(b), the controlling current is
ix
, the equation
supplied
.for
the
voltage v s is : v s= ix
the multiplying constant has the dimension volts per ampere.
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October 2010
In Fig.2.2(c), the controlling voltage is
vx
, the equation for the supplied
current is is : is= v s
the multiplying constant has the dimension amperes per volt.
In Fig.2.2(d), the controlling current is
ix
, the equation for the supplied
current is is : is= ix
the multiplying constant is dimensionless.
An active element is one that models a device capable of generating electric
energy (like voltage and current sources).
Passive elements model physical devices that cannot generate electric energy
Like Resistors, inductors, and capacitors
SMS
October 2010
Example 2.1:
Using the definitions of the ideal independent voltage and current sources, state which
interconnections in Fig. 2.3 are permissible and which violate the constraints imposed by
the ideal sources,
Solution:
Connection
(a) is valid. Each source supplies voltage across terminals a, b. This requires
that each source supply the same voltage with the same polarity to each terminal, which
they do.
Connection (b) is valid. Each source supplies current through terminals a, b. This requires
that each source supply the same current to each terminal in the same direction, which
they do.
Connection (c) is not permissible. Each source supplies voltage across terminals a, b.
This requires that each source supply the same voltage with the same polarity to each
terminal, which they do not.
Connection (d) is not permissible. Each source supplies current through terminals a, b.
This requires that each source supply the same current to each terminal in the same
direction, which they do not.
Connection (e) is valid. The voltage source supplies voltage across terminals a, b. The
current source supplies current through terminals. Because an ideal voltage source
supplies the same voltage regardless of the current, and an ideal current source supplies
the same current regardless of the voltage, this is a permissible connection.
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October 2010
Example 2.2: Testing Interconnections of Ideal Independent and Dependent Sources

Using the definitions of the ideal independent and dependent sources, state which
interconnections in Fig. 2.4 are valid and which violate the constraints imposed by the
ideal sources.
Solution:
Connection
(a) is invalid. Both the independent source and the dependent source supply
voltage across terminals a, b. This requires that each source supply the same voltage
with the same polarity. The independent source supplies 5 V, but the dependent source
supplies 15 V.
Connection (b) is valid. The independent voltage source supplies voltage across
terminals a, b. The dependent current source supplies current through the same
terminals. Because an ideal voltage source supplies the same voltage regardless of
current, and an ideal current source supplies the same current regardless of voltage, this
is an allowable connection.
Connection (c) is valid. Same as (b).
Connection (d) is invalid. Both the independent source and the dependent source supply
current through terminals a, b. This requires that each source supply the same current in
the same reference direction. The independent source supplies 2 A, but the dependent
source supplies 6 A in the opposite direction.

SMS
October 2010
Assessment 2.1:
For the circuit shown,

a) What value of v g is required in
order for the interconnection to be
valid?
b) For this value of v g , find the power
associated with the 8 A source.
Solution:
a)
ib
is same like 8 A but in opposite direction.
the dependent voltage source
ib
4
i b=8 A
and the independent voltage source vg are
in parallel and with same polarity.

b)
i 8
v g= b =
=2V
4 4
P8 A=vi=2 8=16 W (delivers)

SMS
October 2010
Assessment 2.2:
For the circuit shown,

a) What value of is required in order for the
interconnection to be valid?
b) For the value of calculated in part(a), find
the power associated with the 25 V source.
Solution:
a) The independent and dependent current sources are in same branch, So they
should be equal.
v x =25
v x =15
15
=
=0.6
25
b)
P25 v =v i=25 15=375 W (absorbs)
OR
P25 v =v i=( 25 ) (15)=375 W (absorbs , same result )

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SMS
October 2010
Question 2.1:
a) Is the interconnection of ideal sources in the
circuit in Fig. P2.1 valid? Explain,
b) Identify which sources are developing power
and which sources are absorbing power.
c) Verify that the total power developed in the
circuit equals the total power absorbed.
d) Repeat (a)-(c), reversing the polarity of the
10 V source.
Solution:
a) Yes, independent voltage sources can carry the 8 A current required by the
connection; independent current source can support any voltage required by
the connection, in this case 20 V, positive at the top.
b) 30 V source: absorbing.
10 V source: delivering.
8 A source: delivering.
c)
||
P30V =( 30 ) ( 8 ) =240W
P10V =( 10 ) ( 8 )=80 W (del)
P8 A=( 20 ) ( 8 ) =160 W (del)

P||= P del=240 W
d) The interconnection is valid, but in this circuit the voltage drop across the 8 A
current source is 40 V, positive at the top; 30 V source is absorbing, the 10 V
source is absorbing, and the 8 A source is delivering
||
P30V =( 30 ) ( 8 ) =240W
||
P10V =( 10 ) ( 8 )=80W
P8 A=( 40 )( 8 )=320 W (del)
P||= P del=320 W
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October 2010
Question 2.2:
If the interconnection in Fig. P2.2 is
valid, find the power developed by the
current sources. If the interconnection is
not valid, explain why.
Solution:
The interconnection is valid and the voltage and current in the circuit are
shown in figure:
P10 A =( 100 ) ( 10 )=1000W ( dev )
P5 A=( 140 ) ( 5 )=700 W (dev )
Pdev =1700 W

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October 2010
Question 2.3:
If the interconnection in Fig. P2.3 is
valid, find the total power developed by
the voltage sources. If the
interconnection is not valid, explain why.
Solution:
The 4 A and 5 A current sources in the right branch should supply the same
current in the same direction, so the interconnection is not valid.

SMS
October 2010
Question 2.4:
If the interconnection in Fig. P2.4 is valid, find
the total power developed in the circuit. If the
interconnection is not valid, explain why.
Solution:
The interconnect is valid since the voltage sources can carry 5 A of current
supplied by the current source, and the current source can carry the voltage
drop required by the interconnection. Note that the branch containing the 10
V, 40 V, and 5 A sources must have the same voltage drop as the branch
containing the 50 V source, so the 5 A current source must have a voltage drop
of 20 V, positive at the right. The voltages and currents are summarized in the
circuit shown:
||
P50V =( 50 ) ( 5 )=250 W
||
P10V =( 10 ) ( 5 )=50 W
P40 V =( 40 )( 5 )=200W (dev )
P5 A=( 20 ) ( 5 )=100 W (dev)
Pdev =300W

SMS
October 2010
2.2 Electrical Resistance (Ohm's Law):

Resistance is the capacity of materials to resist the flow of current.
the relationship between the voltage and current is

v =iR
where:
i
R
= the voltage in volts,

= the current in amperes,
= the resistance in ohms.
In SI units, resistance is measured in ohms.

The reciprocal of the resistance is referred to
as conductance, is symbolized by the letter G, and is measured in Siemens
(S). Thus
G=
1
S
R
An 8 resistor has a conductance value of 0.125 S, we may also describe an

8 resistor as having a conductance of 0.125 mho.
Power and resistor relationship:
v 2 2 2.3:
i2
Example
P=vi=
=i R= Calculating Voltage, Current, and Power for a Simple Resistive Circuit
R
G
In each circuit in Fig. 2.8, either the value of
v or
i
is not
known.
a) Calculate the values of v and i .
b) Determine the power dissipated in each
resistor.
SMS
October 2010
2.4 Kirchhoffs Laws:

A node is a point where two or more circuit elements meet.
Kirchhoff's current law (KCL):

Solution:
The algebraic sum of all the currents at any node in a circuit equals zero.
v a is a drop in the direction of the current in the resistor. Therefore,
a)
voltage
The
In any
circuit
with n nodes, n - 1 independent current equations can be derived
v a =( 1 )( 8 )=8 V
from Kirchhoff's current law.
The current
ib
is in the direction of the voltage drop across the resistor. Thus,
( 50 ) ( 0.2 )=10
A or loop: Starting at an arbitrarily selected node, we trace a
Aib=closed
path
closed
path vin
ais circuit
selected
basic circuit
elements
and return to
The
voltage
a rise in through
the direction
of the current
in the resistor,
Hence
c
v c =( 1 ) ( 20
)=20
V
original
node
without
re-passing through any intermediate.
The current id is in the direction of the voltage rise across the resistor. Therefore
i d=
50
=2 A
25
Kirchhoff's voltage Law (KVL):

p8 =vi
algebraic sum of all the voltages around any closed path in a circuit
b) The
p8 =8 1=8 W
equals zero.
p0.2 =50 10=500 W
p20 =20 1=20
W Kirchhoff's Current Law
Example
2.6: Using
Think
about
a circuit analysis strategy before
p25 =50
2=100W
beginning to write equations. not
Sum the currents at each node in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.16. Note that there is no
every closed
provides
an the
opportunity
to write
equation
based
4 branch
connection
dot ()path
in the
center of
diagram, where
thea useful
crosses
theon
Kirchhoff's
Notsource
every inode
provides for a useful application of
branch
containingvoltage
the ideallaw.
current
a .
Kirchhoff's current law. Some preliminary thinking can help in selecting the
most useful analysis tools for a particular problem.

.
SMS
October 2010
Solution:
In writing the equations, we use a positive sign for a current

leaving a node. The four equations are:
i 1+i 4 i 2i 5=0
node a:
node b: i2+i3i1ib ia =0
i bi 3i 4 i c =0
node c:
i 5+i a +i c =0
node d:
SMS
October 2010
Example 2.7: Using Kirchhoffs Voltage Law

Sum the voltages around each designated path in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.17.
Solution:
In writing the equations, we use a positive sign for a voltage

drop. The four equations are:
v 1+ v 2 +v 4v bv 3=0
path a:
v a +v 3 + v 5=0
path b:
v b v 4 v c v 6v 5=0
path c:
v av 1+ v 2v c + v 7v d =0
path d:

SMS
October 2010
Example 2.8: Applying Ohm's Law and Kirchhoff's Laws to Find an Unknown Current
a) Use Kirchhoff's laws and Ohm's law to find
i o in the circuit shown in Fig. 2.18.
b) Test the solution for i o by verifying that
the total power generated equals the total
power dissipated.
Solution:the circuit and assigning an unknown current to the 50

Redrawing
resistor and unknown voltages across the 10 and 50 resistors.
The nodes are labeled a, b, and c to aid the discussion.
Summing the currents at node b:

i 1i 06=0
Summing the voltages around the closed path (cabc) to obtain:

120+10 i 0 +50 i1 =0
Solving these two equations:

The
The
The
The
power
power
power
power
i 0=3 Ai 1=3 A , v 1=150 V
dissipated in 50 is: p50 =( 3 )2 ( 50 )=450 W

dissipated in 10 is: p10 =(3 )2 (10 )=90 W
delivered to the 120 V source is: p120V =120 i0 =120 ( 3 )=360 W
delivered by the 6 A source: p6 A =150 ( 6 )=900 W
total power absorbed is 360 + 450 + 90 = 900 W

SMS
October 2010
Assessment problem 2.6:
Use Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's laws to

find the value of R in the circuit
shown.
Solution:
Applying KVL for the left loop:

200+ i1 R+120=0
i 1 R=80
Applying KVL for the outer loop:

200+ i1 R+8 i 3=0
200+ 80+8 i 3=0
i 3=15 A
Applying ohms law for resistor 24 :

Applying KCL at upper middle node (a):
i 2=
120
=5 A
24
i 1 +i 2+i 3=0
i 1=20 A
i 1 R=80
R=4

SMS
October 2010
Question 2.18:
Given the circuit shown in Fig. P2.18, find
a) the value of ia ,
b) the value of ib ,
c) the value of v o ,
d) the power dissipated in each resistor,
e) the power delivered by the 50 V
source.
Solution:
a, b) Applying KVL for the right loop:

20 i a +80 i b=0
i a=4 i b

50+4 i g +20 i a=0
Applying KCL for node (a):

i g+ia +i b =0
Solving,
i a=2 A ,i b =0.5 A ,i g=2.5 A
c)
d)
OR
v 0 =20i a =40 V
i o=80 i b=40 V
p=i 2 R
2
p4 =(2.5) 4=25 W
p20 =(2)2 20=80 W
2
p80 =(0.5) 80=20 W
e)
p50V =vi=50 2.5=125W

SMS
October 2010
Question 2.21:
The current i o in the circuit in Fig. P2.21 is
4A .
a) Find i1 .
b) Find the power dissipated in each resistor.
c) Verify that the total power dissipated in the
circuit equals the power developed by the
180 V source.
Solution:
a) Applying
KVL for the outer loop:
180+ 25i 0 +8 i 2=0
i 2=10 A
Appluing KCL at node (a):

i 0i 3 +i 2=0
i 3=6 A
Applying KVL for the right loop:

70 i 1+ 10i 3 +8 i 2=0
i 1=2 A
By applying KCL at the intermediate node

i 4=8 A
b) p5 =(8)2 ( 5 )=320 W
2
p25 =( 4 ) ( 25 )=400W
2
p70 =(2) ( 70 )=280 W
p10 =( 6 )2 ( 10 )=360 W
2
p8 =(10) ( 8 )=800 W
c)
Pdis =320+ 400+280+360+800=2160 W

Pdev =180 i g= (180 )( 12 )=2160 W

SMS
October 2010
Question 2.22:
For the circuit shown in Fig. P2.22, find
(a) R and (b) the power supplied by the
125 V source.
Solution:
a) Applying
125+ (3 9 ) + ( 3 6 )+ ( i e 10 ) + ( ie 6 ) =0
i e =5 A
Applying KCL at node (a):

3i d +i e =0
i d=2 A
Applying KVL for the right bottom loop:

30 i c +5i d +10i e +6 i e =0
i c =3 A
Applying KCL at node (b):

i a +i d +i c =0
i a=5 A

125+i a R+30 i c =0
R=7
Applying KCL at node (c):

b)
i g+ ia +3=0
i g=8 A
P125V =vi =125 8=1000W (delivers)
SMS
October 2010
Question 2.25:
The currents ia and ib in the circuit in
Fig. P2.25 are 4 A and 2 A , respectively.
a) Find ig .
b) Find the power dissipated in each resistor.
c) Find v g .
d) Show that the power delivered by the
current source is equal to the power
absorbed by all the other elements.
Solution:
a, c) Applying KCL at node (a):
2+4i 4 =0 i 4 =6 A

804 i 4 +v g12 4=0 v g=152 V
Applying KVL for the outer loop:

b
80+ ( 8+12+4 ) 2+ ( 6+10 ) i 112 4=0 i 1=5 A
Applying KCL at node (b):

4i gi 1=0 i g=9 A
b p=R i 2
p8 = ( 8 ) (2)2=32W ; p12 = (12 )( 2)2=48 W
p4 =( 4 ) (2)2=16 W ; p 4 =( 4 ) (6)2=144 W
2
p24 = (24 ) ( 3 ) =216 W ; p6 =( 6 ) ( 5 ) =150 W
p10 =( 10 ) ( 5 )2=250 W ; p12 =( 12 ) ( 4 )2=192W
d) Sum the power dissipated by the resistors:
pdiss =32+48+16 +144+216+ 150+ 250+192=1048 W

The power associated with the sources is:
pvolt source=( 80 )( 4 ) =320W
(absorbs)
pcurrsource =v g i g=( 152 ) (9 )=1368 W
(delivers)
Thus the total power dissipated is 1048 + 320 = 1368 W,
equals the total power developed is 1368 W

SMS
October 2010
Question 2.28:
a) Find the voltage v y in the circuit in
Fig. P2.28.
b) Show that the total power generated
in the circuit equals the total power
absorbed.
Solution:
a) Applying KCL at node (a) leads that current in the 200 resistor is
30 i B

15.2+10,000 i 0.8+200 ( 30i ) =0
i =1 10 A

25+ 500 ( 29 i ) + v y +200 ( 30 i )=0
v y =4.5 V
b)
Power (m
Power
Current
W )
15.2
Equation
180
p=R i 2
(mA)
1
1
1
30
130.5
p=vi
29
420.5
29
29
10
0.8
p=vi
2
p=R i
p=vi
p=R i
725
p=v i
P generated=15.20.8725=741 mW
Element
15.2 V
10 k
0.8 V
200
Depen.
Source
500
25 V
Pabsorbed =10+180+130.5+ 420.5=741 mW

Both are equals.

SMS
October 2010
Question 2.29:
Find (a) i o , (b) i 1 , and (c) i2 in the
circuit in Fig. P2.29.
Solution:
a) No current can occurs in an open loop, so
i 0=0
b, c) Applying KVL for the left loop:

60+ i g ( 1000+5000 )=0
i g=10 mA
v =( 5 103 ) ( 10 103 )=50 V
i 2 500i 1 2000=0
i 2=4 i 1
Applying KCL at node (a):

3
6 10 v i1i2=0
i 1+i 2=0.3
By solving,
i 1=0.06 A=60 mA
i 2=0.24 A=240 mA

SMS
October 2010
Question 2.30:
Find v 1 and v g in the circuit shown in
Fig. P2.30 when v o equals 250 V .
(Hint: Start at the right end of the circuit
and work back toward v g .)
Solution:
v =i R
v o =i a 12.5
i a=
250 10
=20 mA
12.5
ib
ic
ia
v o =i b ( 50 )
i b=
250 103
=5 mA
50
Applying KCL at point (a):

50 i2 +i a +i b=0
i 2=0.5 mA
v 1=i 2 100=50 mA
v 1=i c 25
i c =2 mA
Applying KCL at point (b):

20 i1 +i 2 +i c =0
i 1=0.125 mA

v g +10 i 1+ 40 i 1=0
v g=6.25 mV

.
SMS
October 2010
Question 2.31:
For the circuit shown in Fig. P2.31,
calculate (a) i and v o and (b) show
that the power developed equals the power
absorbed.
a) Applying
Solution:
5020 i +5 i +20=0
i =2 A
v o =40 2=80 V
5020 i +18 i =0
i =5 A
Thus, we can now know current & voltage values in all parts
as shown.
b)
+
A 47
A 42
60 V
A 40
P50V =vi=50 47=2,350 W
(Generates)
P20 i =vi=( 20 2 ) 47=1,880 W
(Generates)
P18 =i 2 R=( 5 )2 18=450 W
(Absorbs)
P5 i =vi=(5 2 ) 42=420W
(Absorbs)
P40 =i 2 R=( 2 )2 40=160 W
(Absorbs)
P8 i =vi=60 ( 8 5 ) =2,400W
(Absorbs)
P20 v =vi=20 40=800 W
(Absorbs)
P generated = Pabsorbed

SMS

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October 2010

2.1 Voltage and Current Sources

A dependent source establishes a voltage or current whose

The circuit symbols for the

sometimes called controlled

the supplied voltage

In Fig.2.2(c), the controlling voltage is

, the equation for the supplied

, the equation for the supplied

Example 2.2: Testing Interconnections of Ideal Independent and Dependent Sources

For the circuit shown,

is same like 8 A but in opposite direction.

the dependent voltage source

and the independent voltage source vg are

in parallel and with same polarity.

For the circuit shown,

P25 v =v i=25 15=375 W (absorbs)

P25 v =v i=( 25 ) (15)=375 W (absorbs , same result )

P8 A=( 20 ) ( 8 ) =160 W (del)

P10 A =( 100 ) ( 10 )=1000W ( dev )

P5 A=( 140 ) ( 5 )=700 W (dev )

P5 A=( 20 ) ( 5 )=100 W (dev)

2.2 Electrical Resistance (Ohm's Law):

the relationship between the voltage and current is

= the voltage in volts,

In SI units, resistance is measured in ohms.

An 8 resistor has a conductance value of 0.125 S, we may also describe an

In each circuit in Fig. 2.8, either the value of

2.4 Kirchhoffs Laws:

Kirchhoff's current law (KCL):

is in the direction of the voltage drop across the resistor. Thus,

Kirchhoff's voltage Law (KVL):

beginning to write equations. not

In writing the equations, we use a positive sign for a current

Example 2.7: Using Kirchhoffs Voltage Law

In writing the equations, we use a positive sign for a voltage

Solution:the circuit and assigning an unknown current to the 50

Summing the currents at node b:

Summing the voltages around the closed path (cabc) to obtain:

Solving these two equations:

i 0=3 Ai 1=3 A , v 1=150 V

dissipated in 50 is: p50 =( 3 )2 ( 50 )=450 W

total power absorbed is 360 + 450 + 90 = 900 W

Assessment problem 2.6:

Use Ohm's law and Kirchhoff's laws to

Applying KVL for the left loop:

Applying KVL for the outer loop:

Applying ohms law for resistor 24 :

a, b) Applying KVL for the right loop:

Applying KVL for the left loop:

Applying KCL for node (a):

p80 =(0.5) 80=20 W

p50V =vi=50 2.5=125W

Appluing KCL at node (a):

Applying KVL for the right loop:

By applying KCL at the intermediate node

Pdis =320+ 400+280+360+800=2160 W

Applying KCL at node (a):

Applying KVL for the right bottom loop:

Applying KCL at node (b):

Applying KVL for the left loop:

Applying KCL at node (c):

Applying KVL for the left loop: