2
advantages of concrete
Concrete floors have inherent advantages over other types of flooring solutions.
Concrete floors are economical. All the necessary information for their design and construction is
well understood and covered by Australian Standards.
Concrete floors are strong and durable.
Concrete floors are quiet. Concrete is a very dense material, which limits the transmission of
sound.
Concrete floors are energy efficient.
Concrete floors are suitable for a wide range of floor coverings.
Concrete floors are inherently fire resistant.
Concrete floors allow design flexibility.
Concrete floors lend themselves to fast construction.
Speed of construction is of greatest interest to builders and developers. Reinforced concrete floors
are delivering floor construction cycles as low as 3-4 days per floor on high-rise buildings.
Penetrations for services are easily accommodated. Steel reinforced concrete floors are amenable
to later cutting for penetrations as may be required over the life of a building. There is a growing
view that designers need to build in future flexibility for the buildings they design. For this reason the
partial prestress solution is finding favour for large spans as it ensures that the majority of the floor
area is conventionally reinforced. This allows later service penetrations to be cut without the risk of
cutting through prestressing wires.
3
concrete floor systems
There are many feasible concrete floor systems from which the designer can select an economical
and technically satisfactory solution. To provide satisfactory performance a concrete floor must have
adequate strength to safely resist the applied loads, and sufficient stiffness to limit deflections under
both transient and long term loads. With the trend toward longer spans, the criterion of stiffness has
become more important, so that in practice the principal dimensions of the floor are determined by
stiffness considerations rather than strength.
Concrete floors are reinforced using either reinforcing bars or fabric to form a normal reinforced
concrete structure, or using high-strength wire strand, which is stressed to form a prestressed
concrete structure. The action of prestressing a draped cable in concrete enables the applied loads
to be balanced by the uplift force so that deflection is largely counterbalanced. This is a significant
benefit in long-span floors as it eliminates the need to camber formwork or to provide deeper
concrete sections. Prestressing brings with it additional complexity on site over conventional
reinforcement, but allows concrete to compete with structural steel framed floors for long spans.
In recent times the difference between normal reinforced concrete and fully prestressed concrete
has become less clear-cut with the increasing popularity of partially prestressed concrete for large
spans. This approach combines the prestressing benefits of controlling deflection and cracking with
the economy of reinforced concrete.
A combination of partially prestressed beams (with both strand and reinforcement) together with
conventional steel reinforced slab panels make an economical floor system for large spans. It has
the advantage that the conventionally reinforced slab panels allow future services penetrations, or
the possible provision as a later addition, of a stair between floor levels
4
design considerations
Traditionally, column spacings were selected to provide the most economical structure, and slab
spans were often in the order of 8 -9 metres. However, recently there has been a trend to larger
floor areas in city office buildings, where the economics of smaller spans have been disregarded to
obtain spans as great as 16 metres or more. Large spanning floors incur penalties in structural
depth, self weight, bounce, deflection, and cost.
It behoves the designers to look carefully at the need for large spans as the cost penalty increases
in a logarithmic proportion to the span.
In many cases the addition of just a couple of internal columns at the rear of a lift core can transform
the economics of a structure by markedly reducing slab span.
In this case the columns at the rear of the lift core form an area that would be ideal for a meeting
room or compactus storage, whilst saving structural cost.
Sensible positioning of columns need not detract from the flexibility of floor areas.
The irony of large expenditure to provide long-span 'column free' space is that the tenants of the
column-free space often install dummy columns to contain vertical cabling and services.
There are trends in design of high-rise buildings now to separate the core of the building into
separate vertical elements which provides the benefit of reduced spans and shorter air conditioning
duct runs. This adds up to reduced structural weight, cost and depth; and, reduced ceiling depth
needed for smaller ducts, giving savings on floor to floor height.
5
Materials
Designers are taking advantage of the high strength materials now available, with the advent of 500
MPa steel reinforcement and high strength concrete mixes. These high strength materials have led
to review of the Australian Standard AS 3600 - Concrete Structures. Under the recommendations,
the use of 500 MPa steel reinforcement - classes N (Normal Ductility) and L (Low Ductility) - is
permitted in the design of reinforced concrete structures. While these can strongly influence the
ductility and load carrying capacity of reinforced concrete beams and slabs, other details are also
important. The ratio of moment capacity to cracking moment in critical regions is a vital factor.
Particular consideration is directed to the effects of moment redistribution when predicting the fire
resistance period for structural adequacy of continuous beams and slabs.
High strength concretes are being used in the construction industry predominantly in columns and
core walls. This trend is extending to the use of higher strength concretes in slabs and beams. At
this stage many engineers limit the maximum design strength of concrete to 50 MPa because most
codes for concrete structures do not provide for higher concrete strengths. It is to be expected that
there will be change in time to much higher strengths as knowledge of their behaviour is gained,
particularly in regard to brittleness and confinement.
It is no longer possible to simple expect the designers specifications will ensure that the materials
are fit for purpose, unless Test Certificates for those materials are submitted and approved. This is
vital to the performance of the structure.
Designers should be aware that direct substitution of non Australian produced steel reinforcement
for Australian made product may not achieve design intent. There are some significant differences
in metallurgical properties of reinforcing steels. Australian site practices require that the reinforcing
steel have a low carbon equivalent to suit the prevalence of on site welding of steel cages. Welding
is also used in high-speed factory made reinforcing cages, produced by member companies of the
Steel Reinforcement Institute of Australia, where reliability of performance and delivery are assured.
It is of real concern, that decisions may be made to circumvent the assured nature of a known
Australian product allied to known welding practices that suit the metallurgical nature of the local
product, in favour of uncertain results. A further factor influencing caution in the selection of steel
supply is the rebendcharacteristics of the reinforcement to suit Australian site practices where
rebending to 90 degrees then complete straightening is common.
The vital significance of the ductility of reinforced concrete structures is gaining increased
recognition. Materials and ductility are no logner of passing concern.
6
floors for apartment buildings
Apartment buildings, home units, townhouses and other forms of residential building make particular
demands on floor systems. These demands differ from those that serve office buildings, schools or
warehouses.
The different demands on floor systems for apartment buildings may be summarised, as follows:
COLUMN LAYOUT
The columns supporting the floor slab of apartment buildings are invariably of a narrow blade
type set in the walls. The walls are placed to suit the apartment layout not to suit a regular
structural grid. As a result, there may be no regular grid type layout for columns, and
adjacent slab panel spans may differ markedly. The design flexibility of a concrete flat plate
floor answers this demand better than any other flooring type.
FLOOR SLAB DESIGN
The floor slab design for apartment buildings is usually driven by the demand that the depth
of the structure be an absolute minimum, with the soffit of the slab being the ceiling. The
shallow structural depth of a concrete flat plate floor answers this demand better than any
other flooring type. A flat plate floor without beams is the usual design selected, to achieve
the minimum structural depth.
On low height apartment buildings the floor slab may be supported on load bearing internal
walls, or on beams, and be designed as a hinged one-way or two-way slab.
On apartment buildings of medium height and above, flat plate slabs without beams prevail,
to minimise structural depth.
DROP PANELS
Drop panels may be used to assist the slab span and to control shear at the column head;
however, the recent trend is to use shear mat reinforcement or stud rails at column heads to
obviate the need for drop panels. It is much simpler to build a plain flat plate floor slab
without drop panels or band beams, as the formwork deck is totally flat, and as a result much
easier to construct. Shear mat reinforcement, by eliminating drop panels, removes the drop
panel protrusion below the slab, which is often in the way of services. Additionally, drop
panels are usually unpopular where exposed to view.
LARGER SPANS
Flat plate slab conventionally steel reinforced construction is now capable of longer spans in
relation to slab depth for apartment buildings. Considerable savings in depth and cost are
due to recent advances in technology and code requirements.
Even in shorter spans, the advances bring savings in slab depth and cost.
The advances that allow increased flat plate slab spans include:
The introduction of high strength 500 MPa steel reinforcement.
The now common use of higher strength (32 MPa plus) concrete in slabs.
The use of negative top reinforcement to limit deflections in multiple bay spans.
The acceptance of a range of serviceability responses (revisions to AS 1170).
The opportunity for reductions in cover for fire (for apartments) due to the performance
based Building Code of Australia
Combine the advances (with the lesser floor loadings allowable for apartments compared to
offices), and the flat plate slab becomes very efficient.
New formwork systems and new prefabricated steel reinforcement systems add to the
economic effectiveness of the flat plate floor while maintaining it's inherent flexibility in being
suitable for any shape in plan. Electrical conduits are easily located within the floor slab, and
plumbing and other services are readily accommodated. Future services can generally be
incorporated later due to the forgiving nature of conventional steel reinforced concrete.
7
serviceability considerations for floors
Concrete floors are noted for their inherent advantages in regard to serviceability. However regard
must be addressed to serviceability issues which arise with any floor system, of any type. The
design of any floor system is governed by serviceability limit states.
SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATES
These are states beyond which the specified service requirements of the flooring system is
no longer met, and the functionality is impaired.
Serviceability limit states (ref AS 1170.1-1989) include:
Deformations or deflections affecting the appearance or effective use of the structure.
Vibrations causing discomfort to people or damage to finishes and fixtures.
Cracking of the concrete likely to adversely affect the appearance, durability, or watertightness of the structure.
These states are satisfied for most flooring systems by limiting the span to depth ratio and by
satisfying detailing requirements.
EFFECTS ON APPEARANCE AND FUNCTIONALITY
Short term deflections
Deflection limited relative to span and relative to proximity of reference sight lines (eg. face
brickwork) and dependent upon available lines of sight.
Long term deflections
Excessive long term deflections can lead to loss of function and amenity. Slab deflections
can cause unintended load transference to partitions. Suitable movement allowance should
be provided for partitions both below and above slabs. This is particularly important in the
case of masonry walls.
Differential deflection of longer span floor beams can result in end rotation. This can be
significant in respect of appearance, function or damage. A 500mm deep beam with a
span/300 deflection has an end rotation of 0.1 radians corresponding to a 5mm relative
horizontal displacement.
Dynamic response
The dynamics (bounce) of flooring systems is a limiting state in design. For lightly loaded
floors in particular, the application of static live load deflection limits does not necessarily
ensure satisfactory dynamic performance. The response can result in shaking, rattling, and
horizontal movement of furniture.
Cracking and damage to ceilings and linings can also result.
Camber
Camber may be used in some cases to reduce the visual impact of deflections, or to prevent
ponding. However, camber does not reduce the actual deflections due to load. The use of
camber to allow for larger deflections than usual for non-cambered floors, can lead to
problems with end rotations, and misalignments of associated building elements. The use of
camber needs to be carefully considered as it impacts on the cost of formwork.
8
selection of floor type
Common types of floor systems.
8.1 Flat Plate
The principal feature of the flat-plate floor is its flush soffit which requires only simple
formwork and easy construction. The overall depth of this floor is a minimum and it allows
great flexibility for locating horizontal services.
The economical span of a flat plate is limited, however, by the need to control long-term
deflection.
The span 'L' of a reinforced concrete flat-plate is approximately D x 30 to D x 32. The
economical span of a flat Plate can be extended by prestressing to approximately D x 35
for a single span and D x 42 for a multi-span, where D is the depth of slab.
This guide allows a quick overview of suitable floor systems for a range of spans.
Advantages:
Simple formwork
No beams - suits services
Minimum structural depth
Disadvantages:
Smaller economical spans
Long term deflection may be controlling factor
interior span. Prestressing increases the economical span to D x 45 for an end span and D
x 50 for an interior span. D is the depth of the slab excluding the drop panel, in each case
Advantages:
Simple formwork
No beams - suits services
Minimum structural depth
Disadvantages:
Smaller economical spans
Economical span not as great as beam and slab
8.3 Waffle Slab
Introducing waffles to the soffit of the slab reduces the quantity of concrete and
reinforcement and also the weight of the floor. The saving of materials tends to
be offset by increasing structural depth. Formwork complication is minimised by use of
standard, modular, reusable formwork. The deeper, stiffer floor permits longer spans to be
used. The economical reinforced concrete floor span 'L' is approximately D x 20 for a
single span and D x 25 for a multi-span, where D is the depth of the slab and waffle.
Advantages:
Reusable formwork pans
Savings on weight and materials
Long span possible
Attractive soffit appearance
Economical
Disadvantages:
Structural depth
Penetrations controlled by waffle ribs
Single Span
Multi Span
Advantages:
Speed when properly set up
Elimination of formwork
Structural efficiency
Disadvantages:
Propping may be required
Careful detailing needed
Limited penetrations
cranage may prove critical
9
Selection of Floor types
Preliminary Selection Guide and Ready Reckoner
A convenient and quick selection guide indicating the economical span range for various
slab and beam floor types is given in the Preliminary Selection Guide (below) and the
Ready Reckoner (on the following page)
SPAN , L (m)
6
Flat Plate
10
11
12
13
14
Flat Slab
*
*
Pan Floor
Band Beam
and Slab
Hollow Core
Soffit Slab
T - Beam
Generally uneconomical for
Reinforced Concrete
Prestressed Concrete
(A) If the multiplier is 25 and the depth must be restricted to 550 mm, then the
economical span can be read off as 13.8m.
Alternatively:
(B) If the required span is 11.5m and the system has a multiplier of 30, the
depth can be read off as 380 mm.
15
16
SPAN, L (m)
DEPTH MULTIPLIER
50 45 40 35
18
30
25
20
18
17
16
16
15
14
14
13
12
12
11
10
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
DEPTH, D (mm)
800
900
1000
10
cost comparisons
The choice of Boor system is usually made by comparing the cost of alternative proposals
which are technically feasible and which satisfy the constraints imposed by the planning
and construction of the building. In practically every case the final decision is made on the
basis of least cost.
The structural component of a multi-storey commercial/office building accounts for
approximately 17-25% of the total direct building cost; of this the floors account for
approximately half. The floor structure thus represents a significant component of the cost
of a commercial/office building. For a simple structure with few services, such as a parking
station or storage building, the floor structure represents an even greater proportion of the
total cost
The direct cost of a floor structure comprises the cost of materials, plant labour formwork
and consumable items directly associated with the floor. The normal sub-contract system
used on a building project permits a reasonably accurate assessment of the direct cost of
alternative structures since the costs of the main items - concrete, reinforcement and
formwork - are known. Thus a useful guide to comparative direct costs and the cost
sensitivity of different floor systems to increasing span is obtained from the quantities of
materials required.
These quantities determined for various floor systems in popular current use are set out in
the nomographs which follow. They may be used directly to assist in the assessment of
different floor systems for a building proposal.
Clearly there is a cost premium for increased span, since quantities of materials per square
metre increase as the span increases. This is as expected because the principal factors of
bending, shear and deflection which affect the design of the floor, increase with increasing
span. The premium paid for increasing span can be kept to a minimum by selecting a floor
system that is highly efficient for the required span and thus is less sensitive to the effects
of the increased span.
Any cost comparison of alternatives should include also the effect of consequential costs
arising from associated elements such as the facade and the mechanical services, eg a
deeper floor zone increases the cost of the facade, core and services. Beam penetrations
and complicated ductwork required with some floor systems also increase costs. Such
costs can also be assessed fairly accurately.
Indirect costs arising from overheads related to the estimated time of construction should
be considered also. However, an important distinction should be made between direct
costs that can be assessed and controlled by appropriate contractual arrangements and
time-related overhead costs that can be estimated for a construction floor cycle which may
be difficult to achieve. A builder assessing the relative merits of different floor systems will
consider the risk exposure and apply what is considered to be an appropriate weighting to
direct and indirect costs.
FLOOR SYSTEMS FOR LIGHTER LOADING (Live Load range 2-3 kPa)
REINFORCED CONCRETE FLAT SLAB MULTI SPAN
(Column Support)
AVERAGE CONCRETE
THICKNESS (mm)
REINFORCEMENT
(Kg/m2)
400
21
380
20
360
REINFORCEMENT
340
19
18
320
17
300
16
280
CONCRETE
260
15
14
240
13
220
12
200
11
180
10
160
9
NUMBERS REFER TO DIAGRAM BELOW
140
120
100
9
SPAN, L (m)
10
11
6
12
REINFORCEMENT
(Kg/m2)
400
15
380
14
360
13
NUMBERS REFER TO DIAGRAM BELOW
340
12
320
11
300
10
280
260
9
REINFORCEMENT
240
220
6
2
200
CONCRETE
180
160
140
120
100
9
SPAN, L (m)
10
11
0
12
FLOOR SYSTEMS FOR HEAVIER LOADING (Live Load range 3-5 kPa)
Notes on Nomographs
1.
Diagrams are suitable for park stations, offices and normal commercial buildings, ie
total loadings of 3-5 kPa. Heavy weight partitions or storage loads will require
increased quantities of concrete and/or reinforcement.
2.
For single span floors, quantities are given for a typical bay assuming minimal
structural edge beams. Deep architectural beams should be considered separately
For multi-span floors quantities are for a typical internal bay. Allowance should be
made for approximately 5-10% additional concrete and/or reinforcement for end
spans and non-typical areas.
3.
For convenience, multi span beam layouts assume a transverse spacing of 8.4 m to
suit carparking. Longer spans are possible eg 9.6m but quantities will increase.
4.
A required fire rating of two hours is assumed. Higher ratings will require an
increase in concrete quantities and possibly reinforcement.
REINFORCEMENT
(Kg/m2)
400
40
380
38
360
36
340
34
320
32
300
30
CONCRETE
280
28
260
REINFORCEMENT
26
240
24
220
22
200
20
180
18
160
NOT ECONOMIC
AT SPANS
EXCEEDING 10m
140
ECONOMIC SPAN RANGE
120
100
16
14
12
9
SPAN, L (m)
10
11
10
12
14
320
DASH LINES
INDICATE
UNECONOMIC
SPAN LENGTHS
300
280
13
12
11
260
10
CONCRETE
240
220
200
180
7
PRESTRESSING
160
140
120
4
REINFORCEMENT
100
80
10
11
SPAN, L (m)
12
13
2
14
400
15
380
14
360
13
340
12
320
11
300
10
CONCRETE
280
9
PRESTRESSING
260
240
220
200
5
REINFORCEMENT
180
160
NOT ECONOMIC AT
SPANS SHORTER
THAN 6m
140
3
NOT ECONOMIC
AT SPANS
EXCEEDING 10m
ECONOMIC
SPAN RANGE
120
2
1
100
0
6
9
SPAN, L (m)
10
11
12
REINFORCEMENT
(Kg/m2)
300
38
280
36
260
34
CONCRETE
240
32
220
30
REINFORCEMENT
200
28
180
26
160
140
NOT
ECONOMIC
24
NOT ECONOMIC
AT SPANS
EXCEEDING 12m
22
ECONOMIC
SPAN RANGE
120
20
100
6
1200
2400
Ds
8400
8400
200
170
10
11
SPAN, L (m)
12
13
18
14
REINFORCEMENT
(Kg/m2)
44
340
DASH LINES
INDICATE
UNECONOMIC
SPAN LENGTHS
320
300
42
40
38
280
36
260
CONCRETE
240
34
220
32
200
30
180
28
160
26
140
24
REINFORCEMENT
22
120
NUMBERS REFER TO DIAGRAM BELOW
100
20
6
Case Bw
1
2
3
600
1200
2400
Ds
4200
4800
6000
120
120
120
10
11
SPAN, L (m)
12
13
14
9.0
280
260
8.5
DASH LINES
INDICATE
UNECONOMIC
SPAN LENGTHS
240
220
8.0
7.5
7.0
200
6.5
CONCRETE
180
160
6.0
REINFORCEMENT
140
5.5
120
5.0
100
4.5
80
4.0
PRESTRESSING
3.5
60
NUMBERS REFER TO DIAGRAM BELOW
40
3.0
2.5
20
0
2.0
7
Case Bw
1
2
600
1200
Ds
4000
4000
120
120
10
11
SPAN, L (m)
12
13
14
8.0
300
DASH LINES
INDICATE
UNECONOMIC
SPAN LENGTHS
280
260
7.5
7.0
6.5
240
CONCRETE
220
6.0
200
5.5
5.0
PRESTRESSING
180
4.5
160
REINFORCEMENT
4.0
140
120
100
3.0
7
Case Bw
1
2
3.5
1800
2400
Ds
8400
8400
160
150
10
11
12
13
SPAN, L (m)
14
15
16
AVERAGE CONCRETE
THICKNESS (mm)
280
9.0
260
8.5
CONCRETE
240
8.0
220
7.5
200
7.0
180
6.5
160
6.0
5.5
REINFORCEMENT
140
120
5.0
100
4.5
PRESTRESSING
4.0
80
NUMBERS REFER TO DIAGRAM BELOW
60
DASH LINES
INDICATE
UNECONOMIC
SPAN LENGTHS
40
20
0
3.0
2.5
2.0
Case Bw
1
2
3.5
1800
2400
Ds
8400
8400
160
150
10
11
SPAN, L (m)
12
13
14
11
Practical Design and Detailing for Construction
Having selected the type of concrete floor system and established the principal dimensions
of the slabs and any beams to meet the overall criteria for economy the designer should be
confident that he has taken the correct decision. However, the following steps of detail
design and documentation are equally important in achieving the desired overall economy
and speed of construction. Poor detailing or complex details can add large cost and time
penalties to an otherwise economical solution.
Some general principles should be followed:
Avoid unnecessary complications and refinements of detail. Use simple details that
reduce construction complications and problems. There is a tendency for some
designers to be blinded by the power of computers to generate voluminous calculations
and refined analysis of forces with consequent refined details of reinforcement to suit.
Such refinements are wasted if the practical conditions on site are not considered.
Rationalise the sizes of members to simplify formwork consistent with structural economy
Use standard plywood sheets or multiple thereof to reduce waste, eg band-beam widths of
1200, 1800 and 2400 mm. Detail band/beam and beam/column intersections to simplify
formwork. Adopt standard dimensions for drop panels in flat slabs to suit plywood sheets
and timber sizes.
Co-ordinate the requirements of other trades for holding-down bolts and block-outs for
electrical and plumbing work.
Simplify reinforcement details to suit fixing in the field, reduce the risk of errors and ease
checking on site. The sizes and spacings of reinforcement should be rationalised so that
differences between structural bays are kept to a minimum. There is a trade off between
the cost of the material and labour which usually results in an additional cost for complexity.
Refer to the Concrete Institute of Australias Reinforcement Detailing Handbook for specific
examples.
12
FORMWORK FACTORS
(For minimum structural edge details)
FORMED FACE
PLAN AREA
1.30
1.25
1.20
1.15
1.10
1.05
1.00
10
11
12
13
14
SPAN, L (m)
Formwork factors are based on minimal structural edge beams. Deep architectural
beams increase these factors significantly and may inhibit the use of flying table
forms.
13
checklist for design procedure
The Australian Standard AS 3600 Concrete Structures Code is a significant document
defining the design requirements.
It specifies design criteria for both:
serviceability - by limiting deflections to tolerable values and designing for
durability/exposure conditions
and
strength - by defining appropriate section details to resist applied loads
The following check list sets out the principal steps in designing a concrete floor to meet
the requirements of AS 3600.
1.
Member Arrangement
Determine a feasible arrangement for columns, walls, beams. Note
preferred options for structural efficiency (Section 7)
2.
3.
4.
Floor Depth
Select a suitable overall depth of floor to satisfy deflection control from the
guideline values
5.
6.
7
8.
9.
Prestress Design
For a prestressed design, proceed as above to step 5, then select a load to
be balanced - typically 0.8 to 1.0 times selfweight and a combination of
prestress force to drape and balance this load. Calculate design bending
moments and shear forces as in step 6 above and additional reinforcement
for strength design as in step 7. Check deflection if required. This will not
be critical for the usual combination of balanced live and dead load.
10.