Derailment

FromWikipedia,thefreeencyclopedia

Aderailmentissaidtotakeplacewhenavehicle(forexampleatrain)
runsoffitsrails.Thisdoesnotnecessarilymeanthatitleavesitstrack.
Althoughmanyderailmentsareminor,allresultintemporarydisruption
oftheproperoperationoftherailwaysystem,andtheyarepotentially
seriouslyhazardoustohumanhealthandsafety.Usually,thederailment
ofatraincanbecausedbyacollisionwithanotherobject,themechanical
failureoftracks,suchasbrokenrails,orthemechanicalfailureofthe
wheels.
Detailofderailedexpresspassenger
vehicleinPrague,CzechRepublic,in
2007.

Contents
1History
2Causes
2.1Brokenrails
2.2Defectivewheels
2.3Unusualtrackinteraction
2.4Improperoperationofcontrolsystems
2.5Derailmentfollowingcollision
2.6Harshtrainhandling
2.7Flangeclimbing
2.7.1Wheelrailinteraction

AderailedfreighttraininFarragut,
Tennessee,in2002.

3Rerailing
4Examples
4.1Primarymechanicalfailureofatrackcomponent
4.2Primarymechanicalfailureofacomponentofthe
runninggearofavehicle
4.3Dynamiceffectsofvehicletrackinteraction
4.4Improperoperationofcontrolsystems
4.5Secondaryeventsfollowingcollision
4.6Trainhandlingeffects
4.7Geometryfaultsthatresultinquasistaticfailure
5Seealso
6Notes
7References
8Furtherreading

History
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Inthenineteenthcenturyderailmentswerecommonplace,butprogressivelyimprovedsafetymeasureshave
resultedinastablelowerlevelofsuchincidents.IntheUS,derailmentshavedroppeddramaticallysince1980
fromover3,000annually(1980)to1,000orsoin1986,toabout500in2010.[1][2]

Causes
Derailmentsresultfromoneormoreofanumberofdistinctcausesthesemaybeclassifiedas:
theprimarymechanicalfailureofatrackcomponent(forexamplebrokenrails,gaugespreadduetosleeper
(tie)failure)
theprimarymechanicalfailureofacomponentoftherunninggearofavehicle(forexampleaxlebox
failure,wheelbreakage)
afaultinthegeometryofthetrackcomponentsortherunninggearthatresultsinaquasistaticfailurein
running(forexamplerailclimbingduetoexcessivewearofwheelsorrails,earthworksslip)
adynamiceffectofthetrackvehicleinteraction(forexampleextremehunting,verticalbounce,trackshift
underatrain,excessivespeed)
improperoperationofpoints,orimproperobservanceofsignalsprotectingthem(signalerrors)
asasecondaryeventfollowingcollisionwithothertrains,roadvehicles,orotherobstructions(level
crossingcollisions,obstructionsontheline)
trainhandling(snatchesduetosuddentractionorbrakingforces).
[note1]

Brokenrails
Atraditionaltrackstructureconsistsoftworails,fixedadesignated
distanceapart(knownasthetrackgauge),andsupportedontransverse
sleepers(ties).Someadvancedtrackstructuressupporttherailsona
concreteorasphaltslab.Therunningsurfaceoftherailsisrequiredtobe
practicallycontinuousandofthepropergeometricallayout.
Intheeventofabrokenorcrackedrail,therailrunningsurfacemaybe
disruptedifapiecehasfallenout,orbecomelodgedinanincorrect
location,orifalargegapbetweentheremainingrailsectionsarises.170
broken(notcracked)railswerereportedonNetworkRailintheUKin
2008,downfromapeakof988in1998/1999.

Aderailedlocomotiveunitin
AustraliainJanuary2007atacatch
pointhiddenfromview.

Injointedtrack,railsareusuallyconnectedwithboltedfishplates
(jointbars).Theweboftherailexperienceslargeshearforcesand
theseareenhancedaroundthebolthole.Wheretrackmaintenance
ispoor,metallurgicalfatiguecanresultinthepropagationofstar
crackingfromthebolthole.Inextremesituationsthiscanleadtoa
triangularpieceofrailatthejointbecomingdetached.
Metallurgicalchangestakeplaceduetothephenomenonofgauge

Abrokenrail,probablystartingfrom
hydrogeninclusionintherailhead

cornercracking(inwhichfatiguemicrocrackingpropagatesfaster
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thanordinarywear),andalsoduetotheeffectsofhydrogeninclusionduringthemanufacturingprocess,
leadingtocrackpropagationunderfatigueloading.
Localembrittlementoftheparentmetalmaytakeplaceduetowheelspin(tractionunitsrotatingdriving
wheelswithoutmovementalongthetrack).
Railwelds(whererailsectionsarejoinedbywelding)mayfailduetopoorworkmanshipthismaybe
triggeredbyextremelycoldweatherorimproperstressingofcontinuouslyweldedrails,suchthathigh
tensileforcesaregeneratedintherails.
Thefishplates(jointbars)injointedtrackmayfail,allowingtherailstopullapartinextremelycold
weatherthisisusuallyassociatedwithuncorrectedrailcreep.
Derailmentmaytakeplaceduetoexcessivegaugewidening(sometimesknownasroadspread),inwhichthe
sleepersorotherfasteningsfailtomaintainthepropergauge.Inlightlyengineeredtrackwhererailsarespiked
(dogged)totimbersleepers,spikeholdfailuremayresultinrotationoutwardsofarail,usuallyunderthe
aggravatingactionofcrabbingofbogies(trucks)oncurves.[2]
Themechanismofgaugewideningisusuallygradualandrelativelyslow,butifitisundetected,thefinalfailure
oftentakesplaceundertheeffectofsomeadditionalfactor,suchasexcessspeed,poorlymaintainedrunninggear
onavehicle,misalignmentofrails,andextremetractioneffects(suchashighpropellingforces).Thecrabbing
effectreferredtoaboveismoremarkedindryconditions,whenthecoefficientoffrictionatthewheeltorail
interfaceishigh.

Defectivewheels
Therunninggearwheelsets,bogies(trucks),andsuspensionmayfail.Themostcommonhistoricalfailure
modeiscollapseofplainbearingsduetodeficientlubrication,andfailureofleafspringswheeltyresarealso
pronetofailureduetometallurgicalcrackpropagation.
Moderntechnologieshavereducedtheincidenceofthesefailuresconsiderably,bothbydesign(speciallythe
eliminationofplainbearings)andintervention(nondestructivetestinginservice).

Unusualtrackinteraction
Ifavertical,lateral,orcrosslevelirregularityiscyclicandtakesplaceatawavelengthcorrespondingtothe
naturalfrequencyofcertainvehiclestraversingtheroutesection,thereisariskofresonantharmonicoscillation
inthevehicles,leadingtoextremeimpropermovementandpossiblyderailment.Thisismosthazardouswhena
cyclicrollissetupbycrosslevelvariations,butverticalcyclicalerrorsalsocanresultinvehiclesliftingoffthe
trackthisisespeciallythecasewhenthevehiclesareinthetare(empty)condition,andifthesuspensionisnot
designedtohaveappropriatecharacteristics.Thelastconditionappliesifthesuspensionspringinghasastiffness
optimisedfortheloadedcondition,orforacompromiseloadingcondition,sothatitistoostiffinthetare
situation.
Thevehiclewheelsetsbecomemomentarilyunloadedverticallysothattheguidancerequiredfromtheflangesor
wheeltreadcontactisinadequate.
Aspecialcaseisheatrelatedbuckling:inhotweathertherailsteelexpands.Thisismanagedbystressing
continuouslyweldedrails(theyaretensionedmechanicallytobestressneutralatamoderatetemperature)andby
providingproperexpansiongapsatjointsandensuringthatfishplatesareproperlylubricated.Inaddition,lateral
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restraintisprovidedbyanadequateballastshoulder.Ifanyofthesemeasuresareinadequate,thetrackmay
bucklealargelateraldistortiontakesplace,whichtrainsareunabletonegotiate.(Innineyears2000/1to2008/9
therewere429trackbuckleincidentsinGreatBritain).[note2][3]

Improperoperationofcontrolsystems
Junctionsandotherchangesofroutingonrailwaysaregenerallymadebymeansofpoints(switchesmovable
sectionscapableofchangingtheonwardrouteofvehicles).Intheearlydaysofrailwaystheseweremoved
independentlybylocalstaff.Accidentsusuallycollisionstookplacewhenstaffforgotwhichroutethe
pointsweresetfor,oroverlookedtheapproachofatrainonaconflictingroute.Ifthepointswerenotcorrectly
setforeitherroutesetinmidstrokeitispossibleforatrainpassingtoderail.
ThefirstconcentrationofleversforsignalsandpointsbroughttogetherforoperationwasatBricklayer'sArms
JunctioninsoutheastLondonintheperiod18431844.Thesignalcontrollocation(forerunnerofthesignalbox)
wasenhancedbytheprovisionofinterlocking(preventingaclearsignalbeingsetforaroutethatwasnot
available)in1856.[4]
Topreventtheunintendedmovementoffreightvehiclesfromsidingstorunninglines,andotheranalogous
impropermovements,trappointsandderailsareprovidedattheexitfromthesidings.Insomecasestheseare
providedattheconvergenceofrunninglines.Itoccasionallyhappensthatadriverincorrectlybelievess/hehas
authoritytoproceedoverthetrappoints,orthatthesignallerimproperlygivessuchpermissionthisresultsin
derailment.Theresultingderailmentdoesnotalwaysfullyprotecttheotherline:atrappointderailmentatspeed
maywellresultinconsiderabledamageandobstruction,andevenasinglevehiclemayobstructtheclearline.

Derailmentfollowingcollision
Ifatraincollideswithamassiveobject,itisclearthatderailmentoftheproperrunningofvehiclewheelsonthe
trackmaytakeplace.Althoughverylargeobstructionsareimagined,ithasbeenknownforacowstrayingonto
thelinetoderailapassengertrainatspeed.
Themostcommonobstructionsencounteredareroadvehiclesatlevelcrossings(gradecrossings)malicious
personssometimesplacematerialsontherails,andinsomecasesrelativelysmallobjectscauseaderailmentby
guidingonewheelovertherail(ratherthanbygrosscollision).
Derailmenthasalsobeenbroughtaboutinsituationsofwarorotherconflict,suchasduringhostilitybynative
Americans,andmoreespeciallyduringperiodswhenmilitarypersonnelandmaterielwasbeingmovedby
rail.[5][6][7]

Harshtrainhandling
Thehandlingofatraincanalsocausederailments.Thevehiclesofatrainareconnectedbycouplingsinthe
earlydaysofrailwaysthesewereshortlengthsofchain("loosecouplings")thatconnectedadjacentvehicleswith
considerableslack.Evenwithlaterimprovementstheremaybeaconsiderableslackbetweenthetraction
situation(powerunitpullingthecouplingstight),andpowerunitbraking(locomotiveapplyingbrakesand
compressingbuffersthroughoutthetrain).Thisresultsincouplingsurge.
Moresophisticatedtechnologiesinusenowadaysgenerallyemploycouplingsthathavenolooseslack,although
thereiselasticmovementatthecouplingscontinuousbrakingisprovided,sothateveryvehicleonthetrainhas
brakescontrolledbythedriver.Generallythisusescompressedairasacontrolmedium,andthereisa
measurabletimelagasthesignal(toapplyorreleasebrakes)propagatesalongthetrain.

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Ifatraindriverappliesthetrainbrakessuddenlyandseverely,thefrontpartofthetrainissubjecttobraking
forcesfirst.(Whereonlythelocomotivehasbraking,thiseffectisobviouslymoreextreme).Therearpartofthe
trainmayoverrunthefrontpart,andincaseswherecouplingconditionisimperfect,theresultantsuddenclosing
upmayresultinavehicleintarecondition(anemptyfreightvehicle)beingliftedmomentarily,andleavingthe
track.
Thiseffectwasrelativelycommoninthenineteenthcentury.[8]
Oncurvedsections,thelongitudinal(tractionorbraking)forcesbetweenvehicleshaveacomponentinwardor
outwardrespectivelyonthecurve.Inextremesituationstheselateralforcesmaybeenoughtoencourage
derailment.
Aspecialcaseoftrainhandlingproblemsisoverspeedonsharpcurves.Thisgenerallyariseswhenadriver
failstoslowthetrainforasharpcurvedsectioninaroutethatotherwisehashigherspeedconditions.Inthe
extremethisresultsinthetrainenteringacurveataspeedatwhichitcannotnegotiatethecurve,andgross
derailmenttakesplace.Thespecificmechanismofthismayinvolvebodilytipping(rotation)butislikelyto
involvedisruptionofthetrackstructureandderailmentastheprimaryfailureevent,followedbyoverturning.

Flangeclimbing
Theguidancesystemofpracticalrailwayvehiclesreliesonthesteeringeffectoftheconicityofthewheeltreads
onmoderatecurves(downtoaradiusofabout500m,orabout1,500feet).Onsharpercurvesflangecontact
takesplace,andtheguidingeffectoftheflangereliesonaverticalforce(thevehicleweight).
Aflangeclimbingderailmentcanresultiftherelationshipbetweentheseforces,L/V,isexcessive.Thelateral
forceLresultsnotonlyfromcentrifugaleffects,butalargecomponentisfromthecrabbingofawheelsetwhich
hasanonzeroangleofattackduringrunningwithflangecontact.TheL/Vexcesscanresultfromwheel
unloading,orfromimproperrailorwheeltreadprofiles.Thephysicsofthisismorefullydescribedbelow,inthe
sectionwheelrailinteraction.
Wheelunloadingcanbecausedbytwistinthetrack.Thiscanariseifthecant(crosslevel,orsuperelevation)of
thetrackvariesconsiderablyoverthewheelbaseofavehicle,andthevehiclesuspensionisverystiffintorsion.
Inthequasistaticsituationitmayariseinextremecasesofpoorloaddistribution,oronextremecantatlow
speed.
Ifarailhasbeensubjecttoextremesidewear,orawheelflangehasbeenworntoanimproperangle,itis
possiblefortheL/Vratiotoexceedthevaluethattheflangeanglecanresist.
Ifweldrepairofsidewornswitchesisundertaken,itispossibleforpoorworkmanshiptoproducearampinthe
profileinthefacingdirection,thatdeflectsanapproachingwheelflangeontotherailhead.
Inextremesituations,theinfrastructuremaybegrosslydistortedorevenabsentthismayarisefromearthworks
movement(embankmentslipsandwashouts),earthquakeandothermajorterrestrialdisruption,deficient
protectionduringworkprocessesetc.
Wheelrailinteraction
Nearlyallpracticalrailwaysystemsusewheelsfixedtoacommonaxle:thewheelsonbothsidesrotatein
unison.Tramcarsrequiringlowfloorlevelsaretheexception,butmuchbenefitinvehicleguidanceislostby
havingunlinkedwheels.[9]
Thebenefitoflinkedwheelsderivesfromtheconicityofthewheeltreadsthewheeltreadsarenotcylindrical,
butconical.[1][9]Onidealisedstraighttrack,awheelsetwouldruncentrally,midwaybetweentherails.
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Theexampleshownhereusesarightcurvingsectionoftrack.Thefocusisontheleftsidewheel,whichismore
involvedwiththeforcescriticaltoguidingtherailcarthroughthecurve.
Diagram1belowshowsthewheelandrailwiththewheelsetrunningstraightandcentralonthetrack.The
wheelsetisrunningawayfromtheobserver.(Notethattherailisshowninclinedinwardsthisisdoneonmodern
tracktomatchtherailheadprofiletothewheeltreadprofile.)
Diagram2showsthewheelsetdisplacedtotheleft,duetocurvatureofthetrackorageometricalirregularity.
Theleftwheel(shownhere)isnowrunningonaslightlylargerdiametertherightwheeloppositehasmovedto
theleftaswell,towardsthecentreofthetrack,andisrunningonaslightlysmallerdiameter.Asthetwowheels
rotateatthesamerate,theforwardspeedoftheleftwheelisalittlefasterthantheforwardspeedoftheright
wheel.Thiscausesthewheelsettocurvetotheright,correctingthedisplacement.Thistakesplacewithoutflange
contactthewheelsetssteerthemselvesonmoderatecurveswithoutanyflangecontact.
Thesharperthecurve,thegreaterthelateraldisplacementnecessarytoachievethecurving.Onaverysharp
curve(typicallylessthanabout500mor1,500feetradius)thewidthofthewheeltreadisnotenoughtoachieve
thenecessarysteeringeffect,andthewheelflangecontactsthefaceofthehighrail.[note3]
Diagram3showstherunningofwheelsetsinabogieorafourwheeledvehicle.Thewheelsetisnotrunning
paralleltothetrack:itisconstrainedbythebogieframeandsuspension,anditisyawingtotheoutsideofthe
curvethatis,itsnaturalrollingdirectionwouldleadalongalesssharplycurvedpaththantheactualcurveofthe
track.[note4]
Theanglebetweenthenaturalpathandtheactualpathiscalledtheangleofattack(ortheyawangle).Asthe
wheelsetrollsforward,itisforcedtoslideacrosstherailheadbytheflangecontact.Thewholewheelsetisforced
todothis,sothewheelonthelowrailisalsoforcedtoslideacrossitsrail.[note5]
Thisslidingrequiresaconsiderableforcetomakeithappen,andthefrictionforceresistingtheslidingis
designated"L",thelateralforce.ThewheelsetappliesaforceLoutwardstotherails,andtherailsapplyaforce
Linwardstothewheels.Notethatthisisquiteindependentof"centrifugalforce".[note6]Howeverathigher
speedsthecentrifugalforceisaddedtothefrictionforcetomakeL.
Theload(verticalforce)ontheouterwheelisdesignatedV,sothatindiagram4thetwoforcesLandVare
shown.
Thesteeltosteelcontacthasacoefficientoffrictionthatmaybeashighas0.5indryconditions,sothatthe
lateralforcemaybeupto0.5oftheverticalwheelload.[note7]
Duringthisflangecontact,thewheelonthehighrailisexperiencingthelateralforceL,towardstheoutsideof
thecurve.Asthewheelrotates,theflangetendstoclimbuptheflangeangle.Itishelddownbytheverticalload
onthewheelV,sothatifL/Vexceedsthetrigonometricaltangentoftheflangecontactangle,climbingwilltake
place.Thewheelflangewillclimbtotherailheadwherethereisnolateralresistanceinrollingmovement,anda
flangeclimbingderailmentusuallytakesplace.Indiagram5theflangecontactangleisquitesteep,andflange
climbingisunlikely.Howeveriftherailheadissideworn(sidecut)ortheflangeisworn,asshownindiagram
6thecontactangleismuchflatterandflangeclimbingismorelikely.[2][9]
Oncethewheelflangehascompletelyclimbedontotherailhead,thereisnolateralrestraint,andthewheelsetis
likelytofollowtheyawangle,resultinginthewheeldroppingoutsidetherail.AnL/Vratiogreaterthan0.6is
consideredtobehazardous.[1]

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Itisemphasisedthatthisisamuchsimplifieddescriptionofthephysicscomplicatingfactorsarecreep,actual
wheelandrailprofiles,dynamiceffects,stiffnessoflongitudinalrestraintataxleboxes,andthelateralcomponent
oflongitudinal(tractionandbraking)forces.[8]
Wheelrailinteractions

Diagram1:Wheeltreadand
railduringcentralrunning

Diagram2:Wheelandrail
withwheeldisplacedtothe
left

Diagram3:Bogieand
wheelsetinarightturning
curve

Diagram4:LandVforcesin
curving

Diagram5:Wheelandrail
duringflangeclimbing

Diagram6:Wornwheeland
railduringflangeclimbing

Rerailing
Followingaderailment,itisnaturallynecessarytoreplacethevehicleon
thetrack.Ifthereisnosignificanttrackdamagethatmaybeallthatis
needed.Howeverwhentrainsinnormalrunningderailatspeed,a
considerablelengthoftrackmaybedamagedordestroyedfarworse
secondarydamagemaybecausedifabridgeisencountered.
Withsimplewagonderailmentswherethefinalpositionisclosetothe
propertracklocation,itisusuallypossibletopullthederailedwheelsets
backontothetrackusingrerailingrampsthesearemetalblocks
designedtofitovertherailsandtoprovidearisingpathbacktothetrack.
Alocomotiveisusuallyusedtopullthewagon.

Aderailedsteamlocomotivebeing
liftedbackontothetracksbyarail
mountedcranein1951

Ifthederailedvehicleisfurtherfromthetrack,oritsconfiguration(such
asahighcentreofgravityoraveryshortwheelbase)maketheuseoframpsimpossible,jacksmaybeused.Inits
crudestform,theprocessinvolvesliftingthevehicleframeandthenallowingittofalloffthejacktowardsthe
track.Thismayneedtoberepeated.
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Amoresophisticatedprocessinvolvesacontrolledprocessusingslewingjacksinaddition.Photographsofearly
locomotivesoftenindicateoneormorejackscarriedontheframeofthelocomotiveforthepurpose,presumedto
beafrequentoccurrence.
Whenmorecomplexrerailingworkisneeded,variouscombinationsof
cableandpulleysystemsmaybeused,ortheuseofoneormorerail
bornecranestoliftalocomotivebodily.[10][11]Inspecialcasesroad
cranesareused,asthesehavegreaterliftingandreachcapacity,ifroad
accesstothesiteisfeasible.
Intheextreme,aderailedvehicleinanawkwardlocationmaybe
scrappedandcutuponsite,orsimplyabandonedasnonsalvageable.

Examples
Note:thereisalargelistofrailwayaccidentsingeneralatListsofrail
accidents.

Rerailingalocomotiveusinga
rerailerandwoodenblocksaftera
brokenrailderailment

Primarymechanicalfailureofatrackcomponent
IntheHatfieldrailcrashinEnglandin2000,rollingcontactfatiguehadresultedinmultiplegaugecorner
crackinginthesurface300suchcracksweresubsequentlyfoundatthesite.Therailcrackedunderahighspeed
passengertrain,whichderailed.Fourpersonsdied.[12]
IntheearlierHitherGreenrailcrash,atriangularsegmentofrailatajointbecamedisplaced,andlodgedinthe
jointitderailedapassengertrainand49personsdied.Poormaintenanceonanintensivelyoperatedsectionof
routewasthecause.[13]

Primarymechanicalfailureofacomponentoftherunninggearofavehicle
AtEschedeinLowerSaxony,Germanyahighspeedpassengertrainbecamederailedin1998,and101people
died.Theprimarycausewasthefracturefrommetalfatigueofawheeltyrethetrainfailedtonegotiatetwosets
ofpointsandstruckthepierofanoverbridge.ItwasthemostseriousrailwayaccidentinGermany,andalsothe
mostseriousonanyhighspeed(over200kilometresperhour(120mph))line.Ultrasonictestinghadfailedto
revealtheincipientfracture.[14]SeeEschedetraindisaster.

Dynamiceffectsofvehicletrackinteraction
In1967intheUKtherewerefourderailmentsduetobucklingofcontinuouslyweldedtrack("cwr"):atLichfield
on10June,anemptycarflattrain(atrainofflatcarsfortransportingautomobiles)on13Juneanexpress
passengertrainwasderailedatSomertonon15Julyafreightlinertrain(containertrain)wasderailedat
Lamingtonandon23JulyanexpresspassengertrainwasderailedatSandy.Theofficialreportwasnotentirely
conclusiveastothecauses,butitobservedthattheannualtotalofbucklingdistortionswas48in1969,having
beeninsinglefiguresineverypreviousyear,andthat[heatrelated]distortionsper1,000milesperannumwere
10.42forcwrand2.98forjointedtrackin1969,havingbeenamaximumof1.78and1.21inthepreviousten
years.90%ofthedistortionscouldbeattributedtooneofthefollowing:
failuretocomplywiththeinstructionsforlayingormaintainingcwrtrack
recentinterferencewiththeconsolidationoftheballast
theeffectofdiscontinuitiesinthecwrtracksuchaspointsetc.
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extraneousfactorssuchasformationsubsidence.[15]

Improperoperationofcontrolsystems
IntheConningtonSouthrailcrashon5March1967inEngland,asignallermovedthepointsimmediatelyin
frontofanapproachingtrain.Mechanicalsignallingwasinforceatthelocation,anditwasbelievedthathe
improperlyreplacedthesignalprotectingthepointstodangerjustasthelocomotivepassedit.Thisreleasedthe
lockingonthepointsandhemovedthemtoleadtoalooplinewithalowspeedrestriction.Thetrain,travelling
at75milesperhour(121km/h),wasunabletonegotiatethepointsinthatpositionandfivepersonsdied.The
signallerhadseenarmyserviceandwasprobablysufferingfromwhatisnowcalledposttraumaticstress
syndrome.[16]

Secondaryeventsfollowingcollision
ApassengertrainwasderailedinthePolmontrailaccidentintheUKin1984uponhittingacowatspeedthe
trainformationhadthelocomotiveattherear(propelling)withalightdrivingtrailervehicleleading.Thecow
hadstrayedontothelinefromadjacentagriculturalland,duetodeficientfencing.13personsdiedinthe
resultingderailment.[17]Howeverthiswasthoughttobethefirstoccurrencefromthiscause(intheUK)since
1948.[18]

Trainhandlingeffects
TheSalisburyrailcrashtookplaceon1July1906afirstclassonlyspecialboattrainfromStonehousepool,
PlymouthEngland,ranthroughSalisburystationatabout60milesperhour(97km/h)therewasasharpcurveof
tenchains(660feet,200m)radiusandaspeedrestrictionto30milesperhour(48km/h).Thelocomotive
overturnedbodilyandstruckthevehiclesofamilktrainontheadjacentline.28peoplewerekilled.Thedriver
wassoberandnormallyreliable,buthadnotdrivenanonstoppingtrainthroughSalisburybefore.[19]
TherehavebeenseveralotherderailmentsintheUKduetotrainsenteringspeedrestrictedsectionsoftrackat
excessivespeedthecauseshavegenerallybeeninattentionbythedriverduetoalcohol,fatigueorothercauses.
ProminentcasesweretheNuneatonrailcrashin1975(temporaryspeedrestrictioninforceduetotrackwork,
warningsignilluminationfailed),[20]theMorpethaccidentin1984(expresspassengersleepingcartraintook50
milesperhour(80km/h)restrictedsharpcurveatfullspeedalcoholafactornofatalitiesduetotheimproved
crashworthinessofthevehicles)[21]

Geometryfaultsthatresultinquasistaticfailure

Seealso
Listsofrailaccidents
Trainwreck
Tramaccident
Guardrails
Thislocomotivewasderailedbythe1906
SanFranciscoearthquake.Thelocomotive
hadthreelinkandpincouplerpocketsfor
movingstandardandnarrowgaugecars.

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Notes
1. ^TheU.S.FederalRailroadAdministrationcategorisesderailmentsdifferently,fortheuseofprofessionalsinthe
industrythesearenotcompletelyhelpfulforexternalreaders,butforcompleteness,themaingroupingsaregivenhere:
Rail,jointbarandanchoring
Trackgeometrydefect
Generalswitchingrules
Wheels
Axlesandjournalbearings
Switches
Frogs,switchesandtrackappliances
Bogiecomponents
Trainhandling/trainmakeup
Highwayrailgrading
Source:SafetyDatabaseAnalysis,TransportationTechnologyCenterInc,PuebloCol,2002,quotedinWuandWilson,
page210211
2. ^OnNetworkRail,soexcludingcertain"Metro"networks.
3. ^Thehighrailisconsideredtobetheouterrailinacurvethelowrailistheinnerrail.
4. ^Yawdescribesthesituationwhenthelongitudinalaxisofthewheelsetisnotthesameasthelongitudinalaxisof
motion.
5. ^Thiswasunderstoodasearlyas1844,whenRobertStephensongaveevidencethat"inbringingroundthecurve,the
wheelswillallbefixedontheaxles,andbeingofthesamesize,ofcoursetheoutsidehastogoovermoregroundthan
theinsideandthereforetheoutsideonesslideupontheturn,andconsequently,asyouseeintheBristolstations[where
broadgaugetrainswerenegotiatingsharpcurves],youwillseesuchwheelsgrindintheiroperation."Stephensonwas
givingevidenceintheHouseofCommonsregardingtheSouthDevonRailwaybill,on26April1844,quotedinHugh
Howes,TheStrugglefortheSouthDevonRailway,TwelveheadsPress,Chacewater,2012,ISBN9780906294741
6. ^Centrifugalforceisaconvenientimaginaryconceptstrictlyspeakingitistheinertiaofabodybeingaccelerated,
equaltotheproductofthemassofthebodyandtheacceleration.
7. ^ThevalueofLisdeterminedbytheloadonbothwheelsofthewheelsetmultipliedbythecoefficientoffriction,plus
thecentrifugalforce.Buttheslidingonthewheelonthelowrailisnotlateralthewheeltreadisactuallysliding
backwards(i.erotatinglessrapidlythantheforwardspeedrequires)andthelateralfrictionforcegeneratedislimitedby
thevectoroftheslidingaction.

References
1. ^abcGeorgeDBibel,TrainWrecktheForensicsofRailDisasters,HopkinsUniversityPress,Baltimore,2012,
ISBN9781421405902
2. ^abcHuiminWuandNicholasWilson,RailwayVehicleDerailmentandPrevention,inHandbookofRailwayVehicle
Dynamics
3. ^RailAccidentInvestigationBoard(UK),DerailmentofaTrainatCummersdale,Cumbria,1June2009,Derby,
England,2010
4. ^BrianSolomon,RailroadSignaling,VoyageurPress,Minneapolis,MN,2003,ISBN9780760313602
5. ^DonDeNeviandBobHall,UnitedStatesMilitaryRailwayServiceAmerica'sSoldierRailroadersinWWII,1992,
BostonMillsPress,Erin,Ontario,ISBN1550460218.
6.
^ChristianWolmar,EnginesOfWar:HowWarsWereWon&LostOnTheRailways,AtlanticBooks,2010,ISBN
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Derailment
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6. ^ChristianWolmar,EnginesOfWar:HowWarsWereWon&LostOnTheRailways,AtlanticBooks,2010,ISBN
9781848871724
7. ^AmericanExperience:NativeAmericansandtheTranscontinentalRailroad
(http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/americanexperience/features/generalarticle/tcrrtribes/)
8. ^abColinCole,LongitudinalTrainDynamics,inHandbookofRailwayVehicleDynamics
9. ^abcJeanBernardAyasseandHuguesChollet,WheelRailContact,inHandbookofRailwayDynamics
10. ^PeterTatlow,RailwayBreakdownCranes:Volume1,NoodleBooks,2012,ISBN9781906419691
11. ^PeterTatlow,RailwayBreakdownCranes:Volume2,NoodleBooks,2013,ISBN9781906419974
12. ^OfficeofRailRegulation,TrainDerailmentatHatfield:AFinalReportbytheIndependentInvestigationBoard,
London,2006,at[1](http://www.railreg.gov.uk/upload/pdf/297.pdf)
13. ^MinistryofTransport,ReportontheDerailmentthatOccurredon5thNovember1967atHitherGreeninthe
SouthernRegionofBritishRailways,HerMajesty'sStationeryOffice,London,1968,at[2]
(http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/docsummary.php?docID=99)
14. ^ErichPreu,Eschede,10Uhr59.DieGeschichteeinerEisenbahnKatastrophe,GeraNovaZeitschriftenverlag,2002,
ISBN3932785215
15. ^MajorCFRose,RailwayAccidents,InterimReportontheDerailmentsthatoccurredonContinuousWeldedTrack
atLichfield(LondonMidlandRegion),Somerton(WesternRegion)andSandy(EasternRegion),BritishRailways,
duringJuneandJuly1969,andontheGeneralSafetyofthisformofTrack,HerMajesty'sStationeryOffice,London,
1970,at[3](http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/docsummary.php?docID=1272)
16. ^LtColIKAMcNaughton,ReportontheDerailmentthatOccurredon5thMarch,1967,atConningtonSouthinthe
EasternRegionBritishRailways,HerMajesty'sStationeryOffice,London,1969,ISBN0115500790,at
http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/documents/MoT_Connington1967.pdf
17. ^HerMajesty'sRailwayInspectorate,ReportontheDerailmentthatoccurredon30thJuly1984nearPolmontinthe
ScottishRegion,BritishRailways,HerMajesty'sStationeryOffice,1985,ISBN0115506853
18. ^HerMajesty'sRailwayInspectorate,RailwaySafety:ReportontheSafetyRecordoftheRailwaysinGreatBritain
During1984,HerMajesty'sStationeryOffice,London,1984
19. ^MajorJWPringle,ReportfortheBoardofTrade,London,31July1906,at[4]
(http://www.railwaysarchive.co.uk/documents/BoT_Salisbury1906.pdf)
20. ^HerMajesty'sRailwayInspectorate,ReportontheDerailmentthatoccurredon6thJune1985atNuneatoninthe
LondonMidlandRegionofBritishRailways,HerMajesty'sStationeryOffice,1986
21. ^HerMajesty'sRailwayInspectorate,ReportontheDerailmentthatoccurredon24thJune1984atMorpethinthe
EasternRegionofBritishRailways,HerMajesty'sStationeryOffice,1985

Furtherreading
Iwnicki,Simon,ed.(2006).HandbookofRailwayVehicleDynamics.BocaRaton,Fl:TaylorandFrancis.
ISBN9780849333217.
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