Pulse Pressure= Systolic Pressure - Diastolic Pressure

Heart Rate= Number of heart beats per minute

Stroke Volume= Amount of Blood pumped out of the heart in one beat. Also calculated by- End Diastolic
Volume - End Systolic Volume
Cardiac Output= Amount of Blood pumped out of the heart in one minute. Calculated by Heart Rate x
Stroke Volume
Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP) = 2/3(Diastolic Pressure) * 1/3(Systolic Pressure)
Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP) = 2/3(Diastolic Pressure) * (Pulse Pressure)
THE HEART-All about the heart, including chambers, parts of the heart, and blood flow through the heart.
a. Main PARTS OF THE HEART IN ORDER OF BLOOD FLOW(also includes vessels leading in and out of the heart ): Superior Vena
Cava/Inferior Vena Cava, right atrium, tricuspid valve, right ventricle, pulmonary valve, pulmonary artery, pulmonary
capillary bed(lungs), pulmonary veins, left atrium, bicuspid(mitrial valve), left ventricle, aortic valve, aorta, arteries,
arterioles, capillaries, venules, veins, Superior vena cava/inferior vena cava.
-MAIN FUNCTIONS of PARTS OF THE HEART
a. The Atrium. The atrium's function is to transport blood to the ventricles. The right atrium's job is to receive oxygenated
lacking blood from the body. The Left Atrium's function is to receive oxygenated blood from the lungs.(NOTE: if you are
looking at a diagram of the heart, the right atrium would be on the left side, and the left atrium would be on the right side
because you are looking in front of the heart.)
b. Ventricles. The ventricles job is to receives blood from the atrium and then pump it to a location. The right ventricle is
suppose to pump oxygen lacking blood from the right atrium to the lungs/pulmonary capillary beds to be filled with oxygen,
released of carbon dioxide and it is brought back to the heart to the left ventricles, which pump the blood to all parts of the
body.
c. Valves. The valves in the heart are suppose to stop blood from going into the wrong place at the wrong time. For example,
the triscupid's job is to stop blood from the right atrium from going to the right ventricles at the wrong time. Main valves in
the heart include the tricuspid valve, the pulmonary valve, the bicuspid valve, and the aortic valve.
BLOOD VESSEL All three types, arteries, veins, capillaries, and also arterioles and venules. You will need to know their
structure, their functions, and how they are alike and different. There are three layers to all vessels except for capillaries,
which have one epithelial cell thick walls to let nutrients and other materials to go through.
a. Arteries and Arterioles. These blood vessels carry blood away from the heart. For the most part, they carry oxygen rich,
"red" blood, but there is one exception. The pulmonary arteries carry oxygen poor, "blue" blood away from the heart to the
lungs. These vessels have very thick muscle cell layers, since they need to pump the blood. Arteries are the vessels that lead
immediately from the heart and other that lead from those. Arterioles are basically very small versions of arteries, with much
less muscle cells. They feed to the capillaries.
b. Veins and venules. These blood vessels carry blood back to the heart from the rest of the body. For the most part, they
carry oxygen poor, "blue" blood, but there is one exception. The pulmonary veins carry oxygen rich, "red" blood back to the
heart from the lungs. These vessels have very small muscle layers, and have valves. Venules are very small versions of veins.
They directly take blood from the capillaries.
c. Capillaries. Capillaries are the smallest types of blood vessels. It is in the capillaries that oxygen exchange and other
exchanges of nutrients and wastes take place. It is so because capillaries only have a cell thick wall made of epithelial cells,
and materials can easily pass through. Arterioles feed into capillaries and venules take used blood from it.
BLOOD Red Blood Cells (Erythrocytes)- these blood cells are formed in the red bone marrow and are formed in the process
of hematopoiesis (or more specifically, erythropoiesis). These cell lack a nucleus and are used to carry oxygen to the cells
throughout the body. Each erythrocyte has a life span of about 120 days, and at the end of their life span they are filtered out
of the blood in the spleen. Erythrocytes also cannot reproduce. These cells contain hemoglobin- a protein that is used to
allow the erythrocyte to carry oxygen.
Platelets (Thrombocytes)- These blood cells are also formed in the red bone marrow and are formed in the process of
hematopoiesis. These cells also do not contain a nucleus. These cells are produced from fragmentation of a larger precursor
cell- the megakaryocyte. These cells help allow the blood to clot. Therefore this cell is necessary in the process of
hemostasis- the process by which bleeding stops.
White Blood Cells (Leukocytes)- These blood cells are also formed in the red bone marrow and are formed in the process of
hematopoiesis. Leukocytes help aid in the immune system. there are many different kinds of leukocytes, including:
lymphocytes, basophils, neutrophils, eosinophils, monocyte, macrophage.
Types of White Blood Cells
Granulocytes- Granulocytes are white blood cells that have differently stained granules when viewed
under a microscope. Granulocytes are Basophils, Neutrophils, and Eosinophils.
Basophils- Basophils are a type of White Blood Cell, and more specifically a granulocyte. It is actually the
least common white blood cell in the body. They are thought to be associated with allergies , as they can
secrete a substance known as histamine.
Hematopoiesis is the process by which all blood cells (erythrocytes, thrombocytes, and leukocytes) are made. All the blood
cells start out as a stem cell. Then the stem cell specializes to eventually become one of the types of blood cells.

Functions

The major functions of the integumentary system are:

1.

2.
3.
4.

5.

6.

Protection. The integumentary system's main focus is to protect your body from injury and pathogens.
For example, the stratum germinativum repairs minor injuries. Additionally, the skin acts as a barrier to protect from
pathogens. Keratin and glycolipids in the skin help waterproof it and the continuity of the skin protects from bacterial
invasion. There are also chemical barriers such as skin secretions of sebum, human defensins, and cathelicidins . The
acid mantle of the skin causes the skin to have a low pH which slows bacterial growth on the skin's surface. Melanin
protects the body from UV damage. Additionally, Langerhans' cells and dermal macrophages are located in the skin
and activate the immune system. The structure of DNA in the skin allows its electrons to absorb UV radiation and
convert it into heat.
Temperature maintenance. The integumentary system also regulates heat exchange with environment
and keeps body at an average of 98.6 degrees F or 36.0 degrees C. Sweat, secreted by sudoriferous glands, helps cool
the body. Dilation and constriction of blood vessels in the skin also helps to regulate the body temperature.
Synthesis and storage of nutrients. Synthesizes Vitamin D3 and stores lipids in adipose (fat) tissue.
Sensory reception. There are touch, pressure, pain, and temperature receptors in the skin which
interact with the nervous system. Meissner's corpuscles and Merkel disks sense light touch while Pacinian receptors,
located deeper in the dermis, detect deep pressure. Hair follicle receptors sense movement of hairs. Nocireceptors
and bare nerve endings sense pain. Thermoreceptors sense heat and cold.
Excretion and secretion. The skin excretes salt water and organic wastes. In postpubescent females,
modified glands called mammary glands secrete milk. Sudoriferous (sweat) glands are identified into two typesapocrine and eccrine. Eccrine sweat glands secrete cooling sweat and apocrine sweat glands secrete during emotional
stress or excitement. Ceruminous glands are modified sweat glands that produce ear wax.
Protects the body from dehydration.

The epidermis is organized into strata (singular stratum) or layers. From the basement membrane to the surface, they are the
stratum germinativum (or the stratum basale), the stratum spinosum, the stratum granulosum, the stratum lucidum (found in
thick skin, only), and the stratum corneum.

Stratum Germinativum
Dermal Circulation
Stratum germinativum is the deepest epidermal layer. It can also be called stratum basale.
The other major method of skin coloration is dermal circulation.
The stratum germinativum is also known as the "growing layer of the skin" or the "base of it" (hence its other name, stratum
basale).
In times of vasoconstriction, such as fright, the skin will pale and in some cases turn blue. If the skin turns blue, it is called
cyanosis.
It is attached by hemidesmosomes, which are special disc-shaped proteins, to the basement membrane, which is a network of
protein fibers separating the epidermis from the dermis below.
In times of vasodilation, such as embarrassment, the skin will turn red.
The Stratum Germinativum, as pictured above, descends into the dermis in what are called Epidermal ridges. The areas
where the dermis projects upward are called "'dermal papillae'". These are required because there are no blood vessels in the
epidermis, so all nutrients must be obtained through diffusion from the dermis.

Vitamin D3 Synthesis

These ridges are what cause the elaborate patterns in the epidermis of areas with thick skin, such as fingertips.

One of the main functions of the integumentary system is the synthesis of Vitamin D3 from a cholesterol-based steroid, which
is required for the uptake of calcium into our bones. This function is carried out by the two deepest layers, the stratum
germinativum and the stratum spinosum. A low amount of UV radiation is required for this process.

In this layer, there are

The Dermis
-germinative cells, which are large stem cells that replace shed cells in the surface.
-melanocytes, which are the cells that produce melanin, a brownish-yellow pigment. These melanocytes have
processes which extend throughout this layer in order to distribute the melanin.
-nervous receptors, which provide information about the outside world to the brain.
Stratum Spinosum

The dermis, which is beneath the Epidermis, consists of two layers. Collagen fibers make up 70% of the dermis and give
structural toughness and strength. From most superficial to deepest, they are the papillary layer and the reticular layer.

Papillary Layer
After the germinative cells divide, the daughter cells progress to the Stratum Spinosum. Here the cells divide rapidly.

Stratum Granulosum

After the cells cease mitosis, they progress to the stratum granulosum, where they begin to produce large amounts of the
protein "'keratin'", which is both flexible and durable. This protein also makes up our hair and nails.

Stratum Lucidum

The papillary layer is named after the dermal papillae. It is a very loose connective tissue whose purpose is to supply the
epidermis with nutrients. It is filled with capillaries and nerves to reach this end.

Reticular Layer

The reticular layer is made up of very dense irregular connective tissue. It is filled with densely packed elastin fibers, which
give the skin its elasticity. This layer is also filled with collagen fibers, which resist that elasticity, in order to keep the skin
rigid. One of the major causes of wrinkles is the degradation of collagen fibers due to UV light.

This layer is found only in thick skin like the palms and soles of feet. It consists of flattened, densely packed cells that are
filled with keratin (3-5 layers).

Nails

Stratum Corneum

Nails are made of tightly packed keratin. The nails help us grip things with our fingers.

After the cells of the stratum granulosum or of the stratum lucidum die, which is a total of around 2-4 weeks after they are
born in the stratum germinativum, they are pushed up to the most superficial layer, the stratum corneum. This consists of 1530 layers of densely packed, flattened dead cells that have accrued large amounts of keratin. They are considered keratinized
or cornified cells. This is useful because keratin is very strong, and it protects the deeper and more vulnerable dermis. They
are very tightly attached to each other by desmosomes, which are special proteins that join two cells and are very difficult to
break. These desmosomes are why one's skin peels off in sheets after a bad sunburn instead of in individual cells.

The main parts of the nail are the hyponychium, eponychium (the cuticle), nail matrix, lunula, nail plate, nail root, free
margin, and the paronychium.

Cells usually spend an extra two weeks in the stratum corneum before finally sloughing off to be replaced by the layer
beneath them.

The two main types of glands in the integumentary system are sebaceous glands, which produce oil, and sudoriferous glands,
which produce sweat. There are more sebaceous glands and less sudoriferous glands in thin skin. In thick skin there are more
sudoriferous glands and less sebaceous glands. Acne is caused by the inflammation of sebaceous (oil producing) gland ducts.

Keratin is coiled like a rope which is what makes it so strong

Skin Color
Pigmentation

Sebaceous Glands

Pigmentation is one of the two major methods of skin coloration

Cutaneous Membrane

Epidermis

UV radiation, while beneficial in small amounts to the synthesis of Vitamin D3, can cause serious damage in large doses.
Melanin protects the body by absorbing the UV rays, and it clusters around the nuclei of epidermal cells to protect the DNA.
Unfortunately, melanin cannot protect us from 100% of the UV light and some is bound to get through. Long periods of
exposure can cause premature wrinkling and skin cancer even in dark-skinned individuals. A minimum of SPF 15 is
recommended in sunscreen, and for fair skinned individuals, it is better to have a 20-30 SPF sunscreen.

There are two major pigments which can influence skin color: carotene, which is orangey yellow and found in carrots and
squashes, and melanin, which is brown, yellow brown, or black and produced by melanocytes. Two types of melanin are
eumelanin and pheomelanin. Eumelanin is brownish-black and pheomelanin is reddish-yellow. The number of melanocytes are
about the same for all races, and in albinism, melanocytes are present but experience interference with melanin production.

Glands

Sebaceous glands secrete sebum, an oily substance which lubricates hair and skin. Sebaceous glands are present everywhere
except for areas with thick skin, i.e. the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. Sebaceous glands are located in the dermis
layer, and are generally connected to hair follicles, except for in hairless areas such as the eyelids.

Sudoriferous Glands

Sudoriferous glands typically secrete sweat. Sudoriferous glands are found anywhere on the body without thick skin. There
are two types of sudoriferous glands: apocrine and eccrine.

Made up of stratified squamous epithelium.

Carotene can be synthesized into Vitamin A, which is needed for the maintenance of epithelial cells. Eating large amounts of
carotene can also cause the skin of light-skinned individuals to turn orange.
The thick skin has five layers and is found in the palms of hands and the soles of feet (.5mm-thickness of a paper towel) Up to
6 mm thick. Thick skin has more skin receptors and sudoriferous glands and fewer sebaceous glands. Skin ridges (e.g.,
fingerprints) are found due to well-developed dermal papillae. Skin ridges aid in grip and object manipulation.

The thin skin is found everywhere else and covers the rest of the body(.08mm-thickness of one side of a plastic sandwich bag)
Usually 1-2 mm thick. Thin skin has fewer skin receptors and sudoriferous glands and more sebaceous glands.

Apocrine Glands
Melanin is transferred into the stratum germinativum and stratum spinosum by intracellular vesicles arising from melanocytes.
Melanocytes are typically in a 1:20-1:4 ratio with basal stem cells depending on the area. Because cells rise through the
strata, this colors the entire epidermis. When exposed to sunlight, melanocytes will gradually increase their production of
melanin with the maximum occurring about 10 days after the initial exposure. Freckles appear due to increased melanocyte
activity in an area. They occur mostly on surfaces exposed it the sun, such as the face.

Apocrine glands develop during puberty. These glands are located in the ear canal, around the eyes and nose, under the arms,
on the areola of the breasts, and in the pubic regions. Mammary (milk) glands are one type of modified apocrine gland.
Earwax, or cerumen, is secreted by ceruminous glands, the other type of modified apocrine gland. The appearance of
cerumen can differ depnding on genetic factors. Typical apocrine glands secrete sweat.

Eccrine Glands

Color- different shades and varieties can signal skin cancer

The Immune Response

Eccrine glands are found everywhere without thick skin. Eccrine glands are present at birth and continue to secrete sweat
from then on. The sweat secretion produced by eccrine glands is made of water and sodium chloride.

Diameter- if the diameter is larger than 1/4 inch or 6 mm, it is likely it is melanoma.

Diseases of the Integument

There are 3 levels of the immune system. The first two are nonspecific (or innate), meaning they defend against all kinds of
pathogens. The third is specific (or adaptive, or acquired), because it identifies and targets certain pathogens.

The Immune response is the third line of defense. It is a specific defense system, meaning it targets specific
antigens. Antigens are molecules, usually proteins or polysaccharides, that are identified as foreign to the body. These
molecules could be toxins, part of a viral protein cote, or molecules unique to certain bacteria, protozoa, pollen, or other
foreign cells.

MHC
First Line of Defense

Burns

First Degree Burns

These burns are the most superficial. First degree burns affect the epidermis to the papillary layer of the dermis. First degree
burns give the skin a dry red appearance, sometimes with small white blisters.

Second Degree Burns

These burns destroy most or all of the epidermis, and involve all layers of the dermis. Second degree burns are pink or red,
and cause the involved skin to look shiny and wet. The sensation in tissue with a second-degree burn is weakened.

An allergen is an antigen which produces a rapid response from the immune system when introduced to the skin.

An infection is an invasion of dermal tissue by disease-causing agents.

Skin Cancer

Skin cancer is the most common type of cancer in the US. The three major types of skin cancer are basal cell carcinoma,
squamous cell carcinoma, and melanoma. Skin cancer occurs when DNA of epithelial cells is damages, causing the cells to
grow out of control. The most common cause of skin cancer is excessive exposure to sunlight.

Lymphocytes and their Components

Lymphocytes are white blood cells that concentrate in lymphatic tissues such as the lymph nodes, thymus gland, and the
spleen. They are the primary agents of the immune response.

Basal Cell Carcinoma

Phagocytes are white blood cells (leukocytes) which engulf pathogens by extending pseudopods to
surround it. This process is called phagocytosis. Leukocytes are formed in stem cells in bone marrow through the
process of hematopoiesis (this term refers to all blood cells).
o
Macrophages are larger, long-living versions of monocytes. Monocytes
circulate through the blood stream, and are known as macrophages when they mature. Macrophages move
throughout blood, lymph, and body tissues. They are specialized in the removal of dying or dead cells and
cellular debris as well as pathogens. Macrophages also play an important role in chronic inflammation.
o
Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cell. They are
normally present in the blood stream, but quickly enter tissues to phagocytize pathogens, primarily bacteria,
in acute inflammation. They respond within minutes to the site of injury.
o
MAST Cells also secrete histamine, as well as seratonin. They help cause
inflammation and respond to wound injuries.
o
Dendritic Cells are the messengers between the innate and adaptive immune
systems. Dendritic cells acquire and present antigens to lymphocytes to activate them.
Basophils and Eosinophils are also white blood cells, but are not phagocytes. Basophils secrete
chemicals such as histamine. Histamine triggers vasodilation, causing more phagocytes to be brought into the area.
Histamine is also known as being responsible for the symptoms of allergies and the common cold. Eosinophils are
short-lived and have a wide range of functions, including attacking parasites and helping with allergic responses. The
proteins they make can be harmful to the body's own tissues as well as pathogens.
Natural Killer Cells (NK cells) attack abnormal or pathogen-infected body cells, such as tumors, by
releasing toxic granules to kill the cells.
The Complement System is a group of about 30 proteins which assist defense reactions. They help by
enhancing the process of phagocytosis, attracting phagocytes to foreign cells, and promoting cell lysis. They are
generally synthesized by the liver.
Interferons are secreted by cells invaded by a virus. They stimulate neighboring cells to produce
proteins that will help defend against the viruses.
Chemokines guide the movement of cells. Cells respond to certain chemokines by moving towards
areas of higher concentrations of chemokines. In the immune system, they create a chemical gradient to attract
neutrophils and other leucocytes to the wound site.
Fevers are an increase in body temperature. Substances that induce fevers are called pyrogens. The
increased temperature inhibits bacterial growth and increases the rate of tissue repair during an infection. It may
also help certain types of immune cells function more efficiently.
The Inflammatory Response

When an antigen binds to a B cell or a nonself cell binds to a T cell, the B or T cell divides to produce many identical copies.
This results in an increased number of the B or T cell that can respond to the specific antigen.

Cell-Mediated Response

The cell-mediated response occurs as a response to nonself cells, and involves mainly T cells.

Basal cell carcinoma is the most common type of skin cancer. It is curable if found early, especially because it rarely
metastasizes (spreads to other organs). BCCs look like smooth, pearly bumps which are mostly found on the face, neck, and
back.

Squamous Cell Carcinoma

Squamous cell carcinoma occurs on parts exposed to the sun. SCC often develops on areas with actinic keratoses, which are
crusty red sores caused by UV exposure. SCC looks like firm red bumps susceptible to bleeding and crusting.

Melanoma

Melanoma is deadly if not found early because it metastasizes quickly. It is most common in the southern hemisphere where
the ozone layer is thin. Melanoma looks like irregular dark spots with a different appearance than a patient's moles.

ABCD Test

You can separate skin cancer with other skin disorders by using the ABCD of skin cancers.

The inflammatory response is the biological response to harmful stimuli, such as burns, chemical irritants, frostbite, physical
injury, or pathogen infection. (Given this is the Immune System page, this section will focus on the inflammatory response to
pathogen infection.) It is characterized by swelling, pain, redness, warmth, and dysfunction of organs involved (tumor,
dolor, rubor, calor, and functio laesa, respectively). Its purpose is to increase blood supply to the area to bring nutrients,
proteins, and white blood cells to the affected tissues. Note that the epithelium and the capillaries are separated by
interstitial fluid rather than being located right next to each other. In the example a splinter, the following events occur as
part of the inflammatory response:

1. Damaged cells release chemokines.

2. MAST cells, responding to chemokines, direct contact with the splinter, or bacteria,
release histamine.
3. Histamine causes capillary endothelial cells to enlargen and move outwards, creating a swell in the
capillary which encourages fluid collection. The capillary walls also become more porous. This process is
called vasodilation. Vasodilation causes redness, temperature increase and swelling. The increase in temperature
causes an increased metabolic rate in cells. Activated capillary endothelial cells also display adhesion molecules
called selectins on the inner capillary surface.
4. Phagocytes, namely neutrophils, are attraccted to, slowed down by, and roll along the wall due to
the selectins. Chemicals in the bloodstream activate integrins, adhesion receptors on neutrophils. The integrins then
bind to adhesion receptor molecules on the capillary endothelial cell surfaces. The accumulation and adhesion of
leukocytes to the blood vessel walls is calledmargination or pavementing.
5. Leukocytes squeeze through openings in the capillary walls (extravasation, emigration, or more
specifically diapedesis). Exudation, or the entering of fluid from the bloodstream into the interstitial fluid, also
occurs. This fluid, mainly plasma, contains proteins and antibodies. Fluid buildup due to exudation is called
an edema and is visible as a swelling (tumor). The plasma also help activate the complement, kinin (generates
proteins that sustain physical inflammatory effects, namely vasodilation), coagulation (clotting),
and fibrinolysis (counter-balances the coagulation effect) systems.
6. Neutrophils and other phagocytes attack invading bacteria that have entered due to the
splinter. Complement helps phagocytes engulf foreign cells, and stimulates additional histamine secretion by
basophils.

Asymmetry- the area is not symmetrical

Borders- the borders are not even

The inflammatory response (and the immune system in general) often consists of reactions to certain stimuli which in turn
cause more reactions. Signaling pathways like this can be referred to asbiochemical cascades.

B cells originate and mature in bone marrow (think: "B" for bone). They respond to antigens using
specialized proteins called antibodies on their plasma membrane surface.
Plasma cells: release speciic antibodies which circulate through the body,
binding to antigens
o
Memory cells: long-living B cells that do not release antibodies but circulate
through the body and respond to subsequent invasions. Memory B cells provide immunity, as their response is
much more quick and powerful than the first occurrence.
The antibodies, or immunoglobulins of B cells are antigen receptors only to a particular antigen.
Antibodies inactivate antigens by binding to them, stimulating complement proteins to promote macrophage
phagocytosis. There are 5 classes of antibodies, each a variation of the basic Y-shaped protein with variable regions
which give them specificity to antigens. The 5 classes are as follows:
o
IgA: second most common, major class of Ig in secretions like mucus
o
IgD: not very common, mainly found on B cell surfaces
o
IgE: least common, involved in allergic reactions, helpful in diagnosing
parasites
o
IgG: most common and versatile, only class transferred across placenta, is
an opsonin (enhances phagocytosis)
o
IgM: third most common, first made by fetus, good at clumping
microorganisms in preparation for excretions
T cells originate in the bone marrow but mature in the thymus gland (think: "T" for thymus). They
have antigen receptors which are not antibodies but recognition sites for molecules displayed by nonself cells.
Nonself cells, such as invaded body cells, cancer cells and tissue transplant cells, display different markers than self
cells. When T cells encounter a nonself cell, they divide and produce two kinds of cells:
o
Cytotoxic T cells or killer T cells destroys nonself cells by causing them to
lyse.
o
Helper T cells stimulate proliferation of B cells and cytotoxic T cells.
Clonal Selection
o

Allergies and Allergens

Infections

The skin is a physical barrier made of dead cells. It secretes oily and acidic secretions from sweat
glands, which inhibit bacterial growth.
Sebum (unsaturated fatty acids) provides a protective film on the skin and inhibits growth
Secretions from mucous membranes (saliva, tears, sweat, etc.) contain antimicrobial proteins such
as lysozyme, which breaks down bacterial cell walls.
Vibrissae (nose hair) filters microbes, dust, and pollutants within air.
Cilia that line the lungs traps and moves foreign substances out from the lungs towards the throat
with a sweeping motion.
Gastric juice, which is highly acidic, kills microbes in the stomach.
Symbiotic bacteria in the digestive tract and vagina out-compete other potentially harmful
organisms.
Urine flushes microbes from the urethra.
Defecation and vomiting also expel microorganisms.
Second Line of Defense

The second line of defense deals with pathogens that have entered the body. It involves several nonspecific mechanisms.

Third Degree Burns

These burns involve all of the layers of the skin. Third-degree burns permanently damage tissue. These burns have a charred
black or brown appearance. The tissue involved in a third degree burn often must be amputated.

The major histocompatibility complex, or MHC, is the mechanism the immune system uses to differentiate between self and
foreign cells. It is a collection of glycoproteins that exist on all body cell membranes. Each individual has a highly unique (but
not always, especially in the case of identical twins) set of MHC molecules.

The first line of defense is made up primarily of the skin, mucous membranes, and their secretions. They protect against
external pathogens from entering the body. Here are some examples.

Burns are disorders of the integument caused by exposure to intense heat, radiation, electricity, or friction. Burn appearance
and treatment varies greatly depending on how deeply the skin was burned. Burns are classified into degrees.

1. In a celluar infection, antigens are broken down by the cell and presented at the cell surface by
class I MHC proteins.
2. T cells bind to the MHC detect antigens and undergo clonal selection, initiating the production of
cytoxic T cells and helper T cells.
3. Helper T cells bind to macrophages which are displaying marker combinations which signal with
marks that they have engulfed a pathogen.
4. Helper T cells produce interleukins, communication chemicals, to stimulate T cell and B cell
proliferation. This initiates a posive-feedback cycle, increasing the concentratin of leukocytes in the rea.
Humoral Response

The humoral response, or antibody-mediated response occurs as a response to antigens or pathogens circulating in the blood
or lymph.

1. An antigen is engulfed by a phagocyte. It displays the antigen on its surface using a class II MHC
protein.
1. B cells recognize the antigen and produce plasma cells, which release antibodies that bind with
antigens or antigen-carrying pathogens.
2. B cells produce memory cells, providing future immunity.
3. Macrophages and helper T cells stimulate B cell production through cell-mediated response.

The Lymph System

The lymph system assists the immune system and may be also be considered part of the circulatory system, particularly
because of its work with lymphocytes. Its main purpose is to transport white blood cells and remove interstitial fluid. It
consists of a network of lymphatic vessels, nodes and organs.

The spleen filters and stores blood. It is located above the left kidney and commonly purple and fistshaped. The spleen also stores white blood cells and platelets, recycles red blood cells, and fights some types of
bacteria, including meningitis and pneumonia.
The thymus stores immature lymphocytes and is the site of T cell maturation. It is located at the
sternum.
The tonsils are part of the body's first line of defense, and also help produce T cells. However, they
do not have a significant function and are often removed due to inflammation. They are located in the pharynx.
Lymph Nodes are oval-shaped filters placed throughout the lymphatic vessels.

A fluid called lymph circulates the lymphatic system. It is derived from interstitial fluid and carries
bacteria to the lymph nodes, where they are destroyed by leukocytes. The lymph also transports fats coming from
the organs in the digestive system. Its name comes from the Roman deity of freshwater, Lympha.

Disorders

and you live with it. Thanks to today's medical technology, people can live a happy, active, and normal life even if they have
asthma.

The immune system may reject an organ from a donor if the organ does not match your body exactly. Antirejection medicines
(immunosuppressants) may be used, but they can weaken the immune system.

Ataxia telangiectasia Autoimmune polyglandular syndrome

There are three types of organ rejection; hyperacute, acute, and chronic.

Burkitt lymphoma
'Asthma'

Asthma is a chronic long term disease that effects your airways. It is a lung disease that causes your airways to swell up
narrowing it (inflammation). It effects people of all ages and can cause wheezing, chest tightness, shortness of breath, and
coughing. Coughing usually happens early in the morning or at night. When the airways are swollen there is less space for air
to pass through causing moderate or extreme discomfort. Usually the inflammation of the airways are cause from certain
inhaled substances. When the airways react to the substance, the muscles tighten. Cells in the airways may make more mucus
than usual. Asthma symptoms may be mild and treatable with an inhaler or other asthma medicines. These symptoms should
be treated immediately to prevent them from worsening and becoming an asthma. These symptoms will go away after using
asthma medicine. Sometimes extreme inflammation of the airways may happen. This is called an Asthma attack or a flareup
or an exacerbation (eg-zas-er-BA-shun). Asthma attacks may require medical attention and support. The disease has no cure

Disease Name

Cause

Symptoms

Treatment

Prevention

Diabetes, type 1 DiGeorge syndrome Familial Mediterranean fever Immunodeficiency with hyper-IgM Leukemia, chronic
myeloid
o
Severe combined immunodeficiency

Organ Transplants and Rejection

Effect on the Body

Atherosclerosis/
Arteriosclerosis

Smoking, High
Blood Cholesterol,
Hypertension, Build
up of plaque in the
arteries

Normally asymptomatic, if in
the coronary arteries- angina,
shortness of breath, arrhythmia

Lifestyle changesquit smoking, eat

healthier, exercise,
lose weight, reduce
stress. Angioplasty,
Coronary Artery
Bypass Grafting

Hypertension

Risk factors, age,

medical problems,
bad diet, obesity,
gender, smoking

Usually asymptomatic, headaches

if serious, people learn after
complications start

Lifestyle changes,
Medicines- diuretics,
beta blockers, ACE
inhibitors, Alpha
blockers

Control risk
factors, medicines

High blood pressure, damage to

internal organs

High Blood
Cholesterol

Diet, weight,
activity, heredity,
age/sex

Asymptomatic

Control risk factors/

make lifestyle
changes,
medications- statins,
bile acid
sequestrants, fibrates

Control Risk factors

Too much cholesterol in blood.

Cholesterol is in plaque. Low
Density Lipoprotein (LDL) is the
"bad" cholesterol, and High
Density Lipoprotein (HDL) is the
"good" cholesterol

Stroke

Obstructed blood
flow to brain, 2
types- ischemictoo little blood,
Hemorrhagic
stroke- too much
blood in skull

Trouble walking, speaking.

Paralysis/numbness on 1 side of
body, trouble seeing, headache, a
Transient Ischemic Attack (a
temporary lack of blood to the
brain)

Control risk factors,

restore blood flow,
aspirin, Tissue
plasminogen
activator, angioplasty

Control risk
factors, antiplatelet drugs,
anticoagulants

Blood flow blocked to brain,

death of brain tissue

Heart Attack
(Myocardial
Infarction)

Build up of plaque
in coronary
arteries, blocking
of blood flow to
heart, spasm

Chest painpressure/squeezing/fullness,
arm/jaw/back pain, shortness of
breath

Aspirin, Nitroglycerin,
Thrombolytic Meds,
Beta Blockers, ACE
Inhibitors,
Anticoagulants,
Angioplasty, Coronary
Artery Bypass
Grafting

Control Risk
Factors for heart
disease

Blood flow obstructed to heart,

death of heart tissue

Cardiogenic
Shock

Heart attack, other

heart conditions

Confusion, lack of alertness, loss

of consciousness, rapid heart
beat, seating, weak pulse, cold at
touch

Emergency life
support, medicines to
help the heart,
angioplasty/stents,
Coronary Artery
Bypass Grafting,
other surgeries

Control risk factors

for heart disease,
get help
immediately if you
have a heart attack

The weakened heart isnt able

to pump enough blood to the
body

Lymphoma

Not known

Swollen lymph nodes, fatigue,

weakness, weight loss, fevers

Radiation,
Chemotherapy

Stop smoking, not

much you can do to
control

Cancer of the immune systemlymphocytes

Kawasaki's
Disease

Thought to be a
response to a virus

Swollen lymph nodes, rash, red

lips, red palms, redness of eyes,
joint pain

Aspirin, prevent from

getting to coronary
vessels, surgical
treatment rare

No prevention

Inflammation of blood vesselscan effect any vessels

Atrial
Fibrillation

Electrical signals in
heart are abnormal

Palpitations, Shortness of breath,

weakness, chest pain, fatigue

Prevent clots, aspirin,

Rhythm Control

Healthy Lifestyle

Abnormal heart electrical

conduction, can cause
complications

Control risk factors

for heart diseases

When the body cannot pump

enough blood to the rest of the
body.

Congestive
Heart Failure

Coronary Artery
Disease,
hypertension,
arrhythmias, heart
muscle diseases

Shortness of breath, swelling in

ankles, feet, abdomen, legs,
fatigue

Treat underlying
cause, lifestyle
management,
medicines- ACE
inhibitors, beta
blockers, diuretics

Artificial pacemaker,
implanted
defibrillator, heart
transplant

Control risk
factors, know
family history of
atherosclerosis

Hardening of arteries due to

the build up of plaque in the
arteries

Hyperacute rejection occurs a few minutes after the transplant when the
antigens are completely unmatched. The tissue must be removed right away so the recipient does not die.
This type of rejection is seen when a recipient is given the wrong type of blood. For example, a person given
type A blood when he or she is type B.
Acute rejection may occur any time from the first week after the transplant
to 3 months afterward. All recipients have some amount of acute rejection.
Chronic rejection can take place over many years. The body's constant
immune response against the new organ slowly damages the transplanted tissues or organ.