MAE331 Lecture

Aircraft Control Devices
and Systems
Design for Control"
Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics, MAE 331,

2012"
Control surfaces"
Control mechanisms"
Flight control systems"
Copyright 2012 by Robert Stengel. All rights reserved. For educational use only.!
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/MAE331.html!
http://www.princeton.edu/~stengel/FlightDynamics.html!
Elevator/stabilator: pitch control"

Rudder: yaw control"
Ailerons: roll control"
Trailing-edge flaps: low-angle lift control"
Leading-edge flaps/slats: High-angle

lift control"
Spoilers: Roll, lift, and drag control"
Thrust: speed/altitude control"
Mechanical, Power-Boosted System"

Critical Issues for Control"
Effect of control surface deflections on aircraft motions"
Generation of control forces and rigid-body moments on the aircraft"
Rigid-body dynamics of the aircraft"
E is an input for longitudinal motion"
Grumman A-6!
McDonnell Douglas F-15!
Critical Issues for Control"

Command and control of the control surfaces"
Displacements, forces, and hinge moments of the
control mechanisms"
Dynamics of control linkages included in model"
E is a state for mechanical dynamics"
E =
Aerodynamic and
Mechanical Moments
on Control Surfaces"
Increasing size and speed of aircraft
leads to increased hinge moments"
This leads to need for mechanical or
aerodynamic reduction of hinge
moments"
Need for aerodynamically balanced
surfaces"
Elevator hinge moment"
H elevator = C H elevator
1 2
V Sc
2
Control Surface Dynamics

and Aerodynamics
Aerodynamic and Mechanical

Moments on Control Surfaces"
Hinge-moment coefficient, CH"
Linear model of dynamic effects"
C H surface = C H + C H + C H + C H command + ...

C H : aerodynamic/mechanical damping moment
C H : aerodynamic/mechanical spring moment
C H : floating tendency
C H command : pilot or autopilot input
Angle of Attack and

Control Surface Deflection"
Floating and Restoring

Moments on a Control Surface"
Positive angle of attack produces negative moment on the elevator"

With stick free , i.e., no opposing torques, elevator floats up due
to negative H"
Horizontal tail with

elevator control
surface"
Horizontal tail at
positive angle of attack"
Horizontal tail with

positive elevator
deflection"
Dynamic Model of a Control

Surface Mechanism"
Approximate control
dynamics by a 2ndorder LTI system"
H H = H + H command + ...
Positive elevator deflection produces a negative ( restoring )

moment, H, on elevator due to aerodynamic or mechanical spring"
Dynamic Model of a Control

Surface Mechanism"
Stability and control derivatives of
the control mechanism"
mechanism dynamics = external forcing
Bring all torques and inertias to right side"
I elevator = effective inertia of surface, linkages, etc.
1 2
V Sc
2
C H elevator
H
E = elevator =
I elevator
I elevator
1 2
V Sc
= $%C HE E + C H E E + C H + C H command + ...&' 2

I elevator
H E + H E + H + H
+ ...
E
( H elevator I elevator )
;
H
=
H =
H E =
command
Coupling of System Model and Control

Mechanism Dynamics"
2nd-order model of control-deflection dynamics"
Short Period Model Augmented by

Control Mechanism Dynamics"
State Vector!
Command input from cockpit"

Forcing by aerodynamic effects"
Augmented dynamic equation"
Control surface deflection"

Aircraft angle of attack and angular rates"
x SP / E = FSP / E x SP / E + G SP / E Ecommand
E
SP
x E = F E x E + G E u E + F x SP
& # 0
(%
(' %$ H E
#
% E
%$ E
1
H E
&# E & # 0
(%
(+ %
('$ E ' %$ H E
# 0
&
( Ecommand + %
('
%$ H q
0 &# q &
(%
(
H (%$ ('
'
Short period approximation"

Coupling with mechanism dynamics"
x SP = FSP x SP + G SP u SP
$
M
$ q ' & M q
&
)&
L
&% )( & 1 V
N
%
= FSP x SP + FSPE x E
'
$ M
E
)$ q ' &
&
)
+
)
& L E
)&% )( &%
VN
(
(s M )
(s + L V )
SP/ E ( s ) = sI n FSP/ E =
0
H q
0
H
SP / E ( s ) = s 2 + 2 SP nSP s + n2SP
M E
L E
VN
s
H E
Short Period"
2
SP
E
F E
Mq
1
0
Hq
M
L
VN
0
H
M E
L E
VN
0
H E
Coupling of the modes

depends on design
parameters"
=0
1
( s H E )
+ 2 E n E s + n2 E
"
$
% $
'=$
' $
& $
$
#
0
0
1
H E
%
'
'
'
'
'
'
&
G SP / E
" 0
$
0
=$
$ 0
$ H
# E
Roots of the Augmented Short

Period Model"
Control Mechanism"
)( s
"
FSP
= $ E
$ FSP
#
0 '$
) E '
&
)
0 )% E (
)(
Characteristic equation for short-period/elevator dynamics"
q '
)
)
)
)
)(
E
E
Augmented stability and control matrices"
FSP/ E
Roots of the Augmented Short

Period Model"
$
&
x SP ' = &
&
&
&%
ME ,
L E
VN , H q , and H
Desirable for mechanical natural

frequency > short-period natural
frequency"
Coupling dynamics can be
evaluated by root locus analysis"
%
'
'
'
'
&
Horn Balance"
Inertial and aerodynamic

effects"
Control surface in front of
hinge line"
C H C H + C H E E + C H pilot input
Horn Balance"
Increasing elevator C H
improves pitch stability, to a

point "
Stick-free case"
Control surface free to float "
Too much horn area"
C H C H + C H E E
Degradesrestoring moment "

Increases possibility of
mechanical instability"
Increases possibility of
destabilizing coupling to shortperiod mode"
Normally "
C H < 0 : reduces short-period stability

C H E < 0 : required for mechanical stability
NACA TR-927, 1948!
All-Moving Control Surfaces"
Overhang or
Leading-Edge
Balance"
Shorts SB.4!
Area in front of the

hinge line"
Effect is similar to
that of horn balance"
Varying gap and
protrusion into
airstream with
deflection angle"
Particularly effective at supersonic speed (Boeing

Bomarc wing tips, North American X-15 horizontal
and vertical tails, Grumman F-14 horizontal tail)"
SB.4 s aero-isoclinic wing"
Sometimes used for trim only (e.g., Lockheed L-1011
horizontal tail)"
Hinge moment variations with flight condition"
Lockheed L-1011!
North American X-15!
C H C H + C H + C H pilot input
Grumman F-14!
NACA TR-927, 1948!
Boeing !
Bomarc!
Elevator"
Horizontal tail and elevator
in wing wake at selected
angles of attack"
Control Surface Types
Effectiveness of high-mounted
elevator is unaffected by wing
wake at low to moderate angle
of attack"
Effectiveness of low
mounting is unaffected by
wing wake at high angle of
attack"
Ailerons"
When one aileron goes up, the other goes down"
Average hinge moment affects stick force"
Compensating Ailerons"
Frise aileron"
Asymmetric contour, with hinge line at or
below lower aerodynamic surface"
Reduces hinge moment"
Cross-coupling effects can be adverse or

favorable, e.g. yaw rate with roll"
Up travel of one > down travel of other to
control yaw effect"
Abzug & Larrabee, 2002!
Spoilers"
Elevons"
Spoiler reduces lift, increases drag"

Speed control"
Combined pitch and roll control

using symmetric and
asymmetric surface deflection"
Principally used on"
Differential spoilers"
Roll control "
Avoid twist produced by outboard
ailerons on long, slender wings"
free trailing edge for larger high-lift
flaps"
General Dynamics F-106!
Delta-wing configurations"
Swing-wing aircraft"
Plug-slot spoiler on P-61 Black

Widow: low control force"
Hinged flap has high hinge moment"
Grumman F-14!
North American P-61!
Dassault Rafale!
Canards"
Pitch control"
Ahead of wing downwash"
High angle of attack
effectiveness"
Desirable flying qualities
effect (TBD)"
SAAB Gripen!
Yaw Control of Tailless Configurations"
Typically unstable in pitch and yaw"

Dependent on flight control system
for stability"
Split ailerons or differential drag
flaps produce yawing moment"
Northrop Grumman B-2!
McDonnell Douglas X-36!
Rudder"
Rudder Has Mechanical As Well as

Aerodynamic Effects"
Rudder provides yaw control"
Martin B-57!
Turn coordination"
Countering adverse yaw"
Crosswind correction"
Countering yaw due to engine loss"
! American Airlines 587 takeoff behind Japan Air 47, Nov. 12, 2001"
! Excessive periodic commands to rudder caused vertical tail failure"
Strong rolling effect, particularly at high "

Only control surface whose nominal
aerodynamic angle is zero"
Possible nonlinear effect at low deflection
angle"
Insensitivity at high supersonic speed"
Wedge shape, all-moving surface on North
American X-15"
American A-300!
Japan B-747!
Bell X-2!
http://www.usatoday.com/story/travel/flights/2012/11/19/airbus-rudder/1707421/!
NTSB Simulation of American

Flight 587"
! Flight simulation derived from digital flight data recorder (DFDR) tape"
Control Mechanization Effects"
Control Mechanization
Effects
Fabric-covered control
surfaces (e.g., DC-3, Spitfire)
subject to distortion under air
loads, changing stability and
control characteristics"
Control cable stretching"
Elasticity of the airframe
changes cable/pushrod
geometry"
Nonlinear control effects"
Douglas DC-3!
Supermarine !
Spitfire!
friction"
breakout forces"
backlash"
Nonlinear Control Mechanism Effects"

Friction"
Deadzone"
Control Mechanization Effects"

Breakout force"
Force threshold"
Internally Balanced
Control Surface"
B-52 Control Compromises to

Minimize Required Control Power"
Boeing B-52!
Limited-authority rudder, allowed by "

Low maneuvering requirement "
Reduced engine-out requirement (1 of
8 engines) "
Crosswind landing gear"
Limited-authority elevator, allowed by"

Low maneuvering requirement "
Movable stabilator for trim"
Fuel pumping to shift center of mass"
Small manually controlled "feeler"

ailerons with spring tabs "
Primary roll control from powered
spoilers, minimizing wing twist"
! B-52 application"
! Control-surface fin
with flexible seal
moves within an
internal cavity in
the main surface"
! Differential
pressures reduce
control hinge
moment"
B-52 Rudder Control Linkages"
B-52 Mechanical
Yaw Damper"
Combined stable rudder tab, low-friction bearings, small
bobweight, and eddy-current damper for B-52"
Advantages"
Requires no power, sensors, actuators, or computers"
May involve simple mechanical components"
Problems"
Misalignment, need for high precision"

Friction and wear over time"
Jamming, galling, and fouling"
High sensitivity to operating conditions, design difficulty"
Boeing B-47 Yaw Damper"
Northrop N-9M!
Yaw rate gyro drives rudder to increase

Dutch roll damping"
Comment: The plane wouldn t need this
contraption if it had been designed right
in the first place. "
However, mode characteristics -especially damping -- vary greatly with
altitude, and most jet aircraft have yaw
dampers"
Yaw rate washout to reduce opposition to
steady turns"
Northrop YB-49 Yaw Damper!
Minimal directional stability due to small vertical surfaces

and short moment arm"
Clamshell rudders, like drag flaps on the B-2 Spirit"
The first stealth aircraft, though that was not intended"
Edwards AFB named after test pilot, Glen Edwards,
Princeton MSE, killed testing the aircraft"
B-49s were chopped up after decision not to go into
production"
Northrop had the last word: it built the B-2!
Northrop/Grumman B-2!
Northrop YB-49!
Instabilities Due To
Control Mechanization"
Aileron buzz (aero-mechanical instability; P-80)"

Rudder snaking (Dutch roll/mechanical coupling; Meteor, He-162)"
Aeroelastic coupling (B-47, Boeing 707 yaw dampers)"
Rudder Snaking"
Control-free dynamics"
Nominally symmetric control position"
Internal friction"
Aerodynamic imbalance"
Coupling of mechanical motion with

Dutch roll mode"
Douglas DC-2!
Solutions"
Trailing-edge bevel"
Flat-sided surfaces"
Fully powered controls"
North American FJ-4!
Roll/Spiral Limit Cycle

Due to Aileron Imbalance"
Lockheed P-38!
Control Surface Buzz"
Unstable nonlinear
oscillation grows
until it reaches a
steady state"
This is called a
limit cycle"
At transonic speed, normal shocks

may occur on control surface"
With deflection, shocks move
differentially "
Possibility of self-sustained
nonlinear oscillation (limit cycle)"
ARC R&M 3364!
Rudder Lock"
Rudder deflected to stops at high
sideslip; aircraft trims at high "
3 necessary ingredients"
Low directional stability at high
sideslip due to stalling of fin"
High (positive) hinge momentdue-to-sideslip at high sideslip
(e.g., B-26)!
Negative rudder yawing moment "
Problematical if rudder is
unpowered and requires high
foot-pedal force ( rudder float of
large WWII aircraft)"
Solutions"
Increase high-sideslip directional
stability by adding a dorsal fin
(e.g., B-737-100 (before),
B-737-400 (after))"
Hydraulically powered rudder"
Solutions "
Splitter-plate rudder
fixes shock location
for small deflections"
Blunt trailing edge"
Fully powered
controls with
actuators at the
surfaces"
Control Systems
Martin B-26!
Boeing 737-100!
Boeing 737-400!
SAS = Stability Augmentation System!
Downsprings and Bobweights"

Adjustment of "
Stick-free pitch trim moment"
Stick-force sensitivity to
airspeed*"
Effect of Scalar Feedback Control

on Roots of the System"
K
H (s) =
Downspring"
Mechanical spring with low spring
constant"
Exerts a ~constant trailing-edge
down moment on the elevator!
Beechcraft B-18!
Bobweight"
Similar effect to that of the
downspring"
Weight on control column that
affects feel or basic stability"
Mechanical stability augmentation
(weight is sensitive to aircrafts
angular rotation)"
* See pp. 541-545, Section 5.5, Flight Dynamics!
Closed-Loop Transfer Function"
kn(s)
d(s)
Block diagram algebra "
y(s) = H (s)u(s) =
kn(s)
kn(s)
u(s) =
K (s)
d(s)
d(s)
= KH (s) [ yc (s) y(s)]

y(s) = KH (s)yc (s) KH (s)y(s)
Roots of the Closed-Loop System"

kn(s)
Kkn(s)
Kkn(s)
y(s)
d(s)
=
=
=
"
%
kn(s) [ d(s)+ Kkn(s)] closed ( s )
yc (s)
$1+ K
'
loop
d(s) &
#
K
[1+ KH (s)] y(s) = KH (s)yc (s)

KH (s)
y(s)
=
yc (s) [1+ KH (s)]
Closed-loop roots are solutions to"
closed (s) = d(s) + Kkn(s) = 0

loop
or!
kn(s)
= 1
d(s)
Root Locus Analysis of Pitch Rate Feedback to

Elevator (2nd-Order Approximation)"
Root Locus Analysis of Pitch

Rate Feedback to Elevator
(2nd-Order Approximation)"
KH ( s ) = K
k q ( s zq )
q(s)
=K 2
= 1
E(s)
s + 2 SP nSP s + n2SP
! # of roots = 2"
! Angles of asymptotes, , for
! # of zeros = 1!
the roots going to "
! K -> +: 180 deg"
! Destinations of roots (for k =
):"
! K -> : 0 deg"
Center of gravity : doesn t

matter"
Locus on real axis"
K > 0: Segment to the left of
the zero"
K < 0: Segment to the right of
the zero"
Feedback effect is analogous

to changing Mq"
! 1 root goes to zero of n(s)"

! 1 root goes to infinite radius"
Root Locus Analysis of Angular

Feedback to Elevator (4th-Order Model)*"
Flight Path Angle!
Pitch Rate!
Pitch Angle!
Angle of Attack!
* p. 524, Flight Dynamics"
Root Locus Analysis of Angular

Feedback to Thrust (4th-Order Model)"
Flight Path Angle!
Pitch Angle!
Pitch Rate!
Angle of Attack!
Direct-Lift Control-Approach
Power Compensation"
F-8 Crusader "
Direct Lift and

Propulsion Control
Vought F-8!
Variable-incidence wing,
better pilot visibility"
Flight path control at low
approach speeds "
requires throttle use "
could not be accomplished
with pitch control alone "
Vought A-7!
Engine response time is slow"

Flight test of direct lift control
(DLC), using ailerons as flaps"
Approach power
compensation for A-7 Corsair
II and direct lift control studied
using Princetons VariableResponse Research Aircraft"
Princeton VRA!
Direct-Lift/Drag Control"
Direct-lift control on S-3A
Viking"
Implemented with spoilers"
Rigged up during landing
to allow lift."
Speed brakes on T-45A

Goshawk make up for slow
spool-up time of jet engine"
BAE Hawk's speed brake
moved to sides for carrier
landing"
Idle speed increased from
55% to 78% to allow more
effective modulation via
speed brakes"
Lockheed S-3A!
Boeing T-45!
Next Time:
Flight Testing for
Stability and Control
Reading
Flight Dynamics, 419-428
Aircraft Stability and Control, Ch. 3
Virtual Textbook, Part 17
Trailing-Edge
Bevel Balance"
Supplementary!
Material!
Bevel has strong

effect on
aerodynamic hinge
moments"
See discussion in
Abzug and Larrabee!
Control Tabs"
Control Flap Carryover Effect on

Lift Produced By Total Surface"
Balancing or geared tabs"

Tab is linked to the main surface
in opposition to control motion,
reducing the hinge moment with
little change in control effect"
from Schlichting & Truckenbrodt!
Flying tabs"
Pilot's controls affect only the
tab, whose hinge moment
moves the control surface"
Linked tabs"
divide pilot's input between tab
and main surface"
Spring tabs "
C L E
C L
vs.
cf
xf + cf
put a spring in the link to the

main surface"
cf
(x
+ cf )
Aft Flap vs. All-Moving

Control Surface"
Carryover effect"
Aft-flap deflection can be almost as effective as
full surface deflection at subsonic speeds"
Negligible at supersonic speed"
Aft flap "

Mass and inertia lower, reducing likelihood of
mechanical instability"
Aerodynamic hinge moment is lower"
Can be mounted on structurally rigid main
surface"
Boeing 767 Elevator Control System"
Mechanical and Augmented

Control Systems"
Mechanical system"
Push rods, bellcranks, cables, pulleys"
Power boost"
Pilot's input augmented by hydraulic servo that
lowers manual force"
Fully powered (irreversible) system"

No direct mechanical path from pilot to
controls"
Mechanical linkages from cockpit controls to
servo actuators"
"
Boeing 777 Fly-By-Wire Control System"
Classical Lateral Control Logic for

a Fighter Aircraft (c.1970)"
The Unpowered F4D Rudder"
Rudder not a problem under normal flight conditions"
Not a factor for upright spin "
However, in an inverted spin "
Single-engine, delta-wing aircraft requiring small rudder inputs"

Rudder was ineffectual, shielded from flow by the large delta wing"
rudder effectiveness was high "
floating tendency deflected rudder in a pro-spin direction "
300 lb of pedal force to neutralize the rudder"
Fortunately, the test aircraft had a spin chute"
MIL-DTL-9490E, Flight Control Systems - Design, Installation and Test of

Piloted Aircraft, General Specification for, 22 April 2008"
Superseded for new designs on same date by"
SAE-AS94900"
http://www.sae.org/servlets/works/documentHome.do?comtID=TEAA6A3&docID=AS94900&inputPage=dOcDeTaIlS
Powered Flight Control Systems"
Early powered systems had a single

powered channel, with mechanical
backup"
A4D!
Artificial-feel system"
Pilot-initiated reversion to
"conventional" manual controls"
Flying qualities with manual control
often unacceptable"
Reversion typically could not be

undone"
Gearing change between control stick
and control to produce acceptable pilot
load"
Flying qualities changed during a highstress event"
Hydraulic system failure was common"
Alternative to eject in military aircraft"
Redundancy was needed"
Advanced Control Systems"
A3D!
Restores control forces to those of an

"honest" airplane"
"q-feel" modifies force gradient"
Variation with trim stabilizer angle"
Bobweight responds to gravity and to
normal acceleration"
Fly-by-wire/light system"
B-47!
Minimal mechanical runs"

Command input and feedback signals
drive servo actuators"
Fully powered systems"
Move from hydraulic to electric power"
United Flight 232, DC-10

Sioux City, IA, 1989"
Control-Configured Vehicles"
Command/stability augmentation"
Lateral-directional response"
USAF F-15 IFCS!
Uncontained engine failure damaged all three flight control

hydraulic systems (http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_Airlines_Flight_232)"
Bank without turn"

Turn without bank"
Yaw without lateral translation"
Lateral translation without yaw"
Velocity-axis roll (i.e., bank)"
Longitudinal response"
Pitch without heave"

Heave without pitch"
Normal load factor"
Pitch-command/attitude-hold"
Flight path angle"
Princeton Variable-Response Research Aircraft!
USAF AFTI/F-16!
United Flight 232, DC-10

Sioux City, IA, 1989"
Pilot maneuvered on differential control of engines to make a runway approach"

101 people died"
185 survived"
Propulsion Controlled Aircraft"
Proposed backup attitude control in event of flight control system failure"

Differential throttling of engines to produce control moments"
Requires feedback control for satisfactory flying qualities"
Proposed retrofit to McDonnell-Douglas
(Boeing) C-17!
NASA MD-11 PCA Flight Test!
NASA F-15 PCA Flight Test!
Stability-and-Control
Flight Testing
Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics
MAE 331, 2012"
Flight test instrumentation"

Pilot opinion ratings"
Flying qualities requirements"
Flying qualities specifications"
Pilot-induced oscillations"
Early Flight Testing Instrumentation"
Flight recording instruments: drum/strip charts, inked needles, film,

galvanometers connected to air vanes, pressure sensors, clocks"
Flying (or Handling) Qualities"

Stability and controllability
perceived by the pilot"
1919 flight tests of Curtiss
JN-4H Jenny at NACA
Langley Laboratory by
Warner, Norton, and Allen"
Elevator angle and stick
force for equilibrium flight"
Correlation of elevator angle
and airspeed with stability"
Correlation of elevator angle
and airspeed with wind
tunnel tests of pitch moment
"
Hundreds/Thousands of Measurements
Made in Modern Flight Testing"
Modern Approach to Flight Testing

Instrumentation"
iPhone"
#
u
%
3-axis accelerometer"
v
%
3-axis angular rate"
w
%
2-axis magnetometer
%
p
compass"
%
q
%
GPS position
%
measurement"
z=
r
%
1 GHz processor"
% horizontal
512 MB RAM"
%
% vertical
32 GB flash memory"
%
L
%
%
h
%$
&
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
('
Flying Qualities Research at NACA"

Hartley Soul and Floyd Thompson
(late 1930s)"
Long- and short-period motions"

Time to reach specified bank angle"
Period and damping of oscillations"
Correlation with pilot opinion
"
Robert Gilruth (1941-3)"

Parametric regions and boundaries"
Multi-aircraft criteria"
Control deflection, stick force, and
normal load factor"
Roll helix angle"
Lateral control power"
First Flying Qualities Specification"

! First flying qualities specification: 1935 "
! Edward Warner. Douglas DC-4 transport "
! Interviews with pilots and engineers"
Gilruth Roll-Rate Criterion [pb/2V]"

Helix angle formed by
rotating wing tips, pb/2V!
Roll rate, p, rad/s"
Wing semi-span, b/2, m"
Velocity, V, m/s"
Robert Gilruth criterion"

pb/2V > 0.07 rad"
NACA TR-715, 1941!
Simplified Roll-Rate Response"
Tradeoff between high pb/2V and

high lateral stick forces prior to
powered controls:"
p (t) = [Cl p p(t) + Cl A A(t)]qSb / I xx
NACA TR-868!
= a p(t) + c A(t)
USAF/Calspan TIFS!
USAF AFTI F-16!
pSSmax , / sec
Step response [p(0) = 0]"
p(t) =
Closed-loop control"
Variable-stability research aircraft, e.g., TIFS, AFTI
F-16, NT-33A, and Princeton Variable-Response
Research Aircraft (Navion)"
Initial-condition response (A = 0) "
p(t) = p(0)eat
Aircraft That Simulate Other Aircraft"
USAF/Calspan NT-33A!
c at
(e 1) Astep
a
Princeton VRA!
Steady-state response"
pSS =
Cl A
Cl p
ASS
IAS, mph"
Cooper-Harper Handling Qualities

Rating Scale"
NASA TN-D-5153,1969!
Effect of Equivalent Time Delay on

Cooper-Harper Rating"
Short-Period Bullseye or Thumbprint "
Carrier Approach on Back Side

of the Power/Thrust Curve"
Precise path and airspeed control while

on the back side of the power curve"
Slower speed requires higher thrust"
Lightly damped phugoid mode requires
"coordination of pitch and thrust control"
nSP
Reference flight path generated by optical

device, which projects a meatball relative
to a datum line"
SP
Pilot-Induced Oscillations"
MIL-F-8785C specifies no tendency for pilot-induced
oscillations (PIO)"
Uncommanded aircraft is stable but piloting actions couple
with aircraft dynamics to produce instability"
F-22!
Space Shuttle!
Pilot-Induced Oscillations"
Category I: Linear pilot-vehicle system oscillations"
Category II: Quasilinear events with nonlinear contributions"
Category III: Nonlinear oscillations with transients!
Hodgkinson, Neal, Smith, Geddes, Gibson et al!
NASA DFBW F-8 Simulation of Space Shuttle!
YF-16 Test Flight Zero"
High-speed taxi test; no flight intended!

Pilot-induced oscillations from sensitive roll control"
Tail strike"
Pilot elected to go around rather than eject"
MIL-F-8785C Aircraft Types"

I.
Small, light airplanes, e.g., utility aircraft and

primary trainers"
II. Medium-weight, low-to-medium
maneuverability airplanes, e.g., small
transports or tactical bombers"
III. Large, heavy, low-to-medium
maneuverability airplanes, e.g., heavy
transports, tankers, or bombers"
IV. Highly maneuverable aircraft, e.g., fighter
and attack airplanes"
Military Flying Qualities

Specifications, MIL-F-8785C"
Specifications established during WWII "
US Air Force and Navy coordinated efforts
beginning in 1945"
First version appeared in 1948, last in 1980"
Distinctions by flight phase, mission, and aircraft
type"
Replaced by Military Flying Qualities Standard,
MIL-STD-1797A, with procurement-specific criteria"
MIL-F-8785C Flight Phase"

A. Non-terminal flight requiring rapid maneuvering precise
tracking, or precise flight path control "
air-to-air combat "

ground attack "
in-flight refueling (receiver) "
close reconnaissance "
terrain following "
close formation flying"
B. Non-terminal flight requiring gradual maneuvering"
climb, cruise "

in-flight refueling (tanker) "
descent"
C. Terminal flight "
takeoff (normal and catapult) "

approach "
wave-off/go-around "
landing"
Principal MIL-F-8785C Metrics"

MIL-F-8785C Levels of Performance"
1. Flying qualities clearly adequate for the mission
flight phase"
2. Flying qualities adequate to accomplish the
mission flight phase, with some increase in pilot
workload or degradation of mission effectiveness"
3. Flying qualities such that the aircraft can be
controlled safely, but pilot workload is excessive
or mission effectiveness is inadequate"
Next Time:
Advanced Problems of
Longitudinal Dynamics
Reading
Flight Dynamics, 204-206, 503-525
Aircraft Stability and Control, Ch. 13
Longitudinal flying
qualities"
static speed stability"

phugoid stability"
flight path stability"
short period frequency
and its relationship to
command acceleration
sensitivity"
short period damping"
control-force gradients"
Lateral-directional flying
qualities"
natural frequency and damping
of the Dutch roll mode"
time constants of the roll and
spiral modes"
rolling response to commands
and Dutch roll oscillation"
sideslip excursions"
maximum stick and pedal forces"
turn coordination"
Supplementary
Material
Helicopters and Flying Saucers"
Princeton University s
Flight Research Laboratory (1943-1983)
Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics, MAE 331, 2010"
Forrestal Campus"
3,000-ft dedicated runway
"
Short-Takeoff-and-Landing, Inflatable
Plane, and the Princeton Sailwing"
Pilatus Porter !
Goodyear InflatoPlane!
Princeton Sailwing"
Piasecki HUP-1 helicopter!

Hiller H-23 helicopter!
Princeton Air Scooter!
Hiller VZ-1 Flying Platform!
Princeton 20-ft Ground Effect Machine
"
Variable-Response Research Aircraft

(Modified North American Navion A)"
Avionics Research Aircraft

(Modified Ryan Navion A)"
Navion in the NASA Langley Research Center

30 x 60 Wind Tunnel"
Lockheed LASA-60 Utility Aircraft"
Schweizer 2-32 Sailplane ( Cibola )"
Steve Sliwa, 77, landing on Forrestal Campus runway.!

currently CEO, In Situ, Inc.!
Apple iPhone Used for On-Board Data

Processing and Recording
Jillian Alfred, Clayton Flanders, Brendan Mahon
Princeton Senior Project, 2010"
iPhone Installation!
System Components!
Hobbico NexSTAR!
Rigid boom (USAF)"

Probe and drogue (USN)"
Atray Dixit, Jaiye Falusi, Samuel Kim, Gabriel Savit

Princeton Senior Project, 2012"
Overview!
System Hardware!
Pitot Tube Placement!
Aerial Refueling"
Difficult flying task"
High potential for PIO"
Alternative designs"
Autonomous UAV Control in a

Simulated Air Traffic Control System
Formation Flying"
Coordination and precision"
Potential aerodynamic interference"
US Navy Blue Angels (F/A-18)"
MIL-F-8785C Superseded by
MIL-STD-1797"
Handbook for guidance rather than a requirement"
Body of report is a form, with numbers to be filled in for
each new aircraft, e.g.,"
UAV Handling Qualities"

UAV Handling Qualities.....You Must Be Joking,
Warren Williams, 2003"
UAV missions are diverse and complex"
All UAVs must have sophisticated closed-loop flight
control systems"
Cockpit is on the ground; significant time delays"
Launch and recovery different from takeoff and landing"
Suggestion: Follow the form of MIL-F-8785C, FAR

Part 23, etc., but adapt to differences between
manned and unmanned systems"
Useful reference data contained in Appendix A (~700 pages)"
Even the Best Specs

Cannot Prevent Pilot Error"
Flight Testing for Certification in
Other Agencies"
Federal Aviation Administration
Airworthiness Standards"
Part 23: GA"
Part 25: Transports"
UK Civil Aviation Authority"

European Aviation Safety Agency"
Transport Canada"
TAROM Flight 381 (A310 Muntenia )!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VqmrRFeYzBI!
On September 24, 1994, a TAROM Airbus A310, Flight 381, from Bucharest on
approach to Paris Orly went into a sudden and uncommanded nose-up position and
stalled. The crew attempted to countermand the plane's flight control system but were
unable to get the nose down while remaining on course. Witnesses saw the plane climb
to a tail stand, then bank sharply left, then right, then fall into a steep dive. Only when
the dive produced additional speed was the crew able to recover steady flight. !
!
An investigation found that an overshoot of flap placard speed during approach,
incorrectly commanded by the captain, caused a mode transition to flight level
change. The auto-throttles increased power and trim went full nose-up as a result. The
crew attempt at commanding the nose-down elevator could not counteract effect of
stabilizer nose-up trim, and the resulting dive brought the plane from a height of 4100
feet at the time of the stall to 800 feet when the crew was able to recover command. !
!
The plane landed safely after a second approach. There were 186 people aboard.
[Wikipedia]!
Pilot Error, or Aircraft

Maintenance, or Both?"
TAROM Flight 371 (A310 Muntenia )!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=htzv2KebEkI&NR=1&feature=fvwp!
TAROM Flight 371 was an Airbus A310 that crashed near

Baloteti in Romania on 31 March 1995. It was a flight from
Bucharest's main Otopeni airport to Brussels. The flight crashed
shortly after it took off. Two main reasons are indicated: first the
throttle of the starboard engine jammed, remaining in takeoff
thrust, while the other engine reduced slowly to idle, creating
an asymmetrical thrust condition that ultimately caused the
aircraft to roll over and crash. Second, the crew failed to respond
to the thrust asymmetry.!
!
None of the 10 crew and 50 passengers survived. [Wikipedia]
Point-Mass Dynamics and

Aerodynamic/Thrust Forces
Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics,
MAE 331, 2012
Properties of the Atmosphere"

Frames of reference"
Velocity and momentum"
Newton s laws"
Introduction to Lift, Drag, and Thrust"
Simplified longitudinal equations of
motion"
The Atmosphere
Properties of the
Lower Atmosphere!
Wind: Motion of the Atmosphere"
Zero wind at Earth s surface = Inertially rotating air mass"

Wind measured with respect to Earth s rotating surface "
Wind Velocity Profiles vary over Time!

Typical Jetstream Velocity!
Air density and pressure decay

exponentially with altitude"
Air temperature and speed of sound
are linear functions of altitude "
Airspeed = Airplane s speed with respect to air mass"

Inertial velocity = Wind velocity Airspeed "
Air Density, Dynamic Pressure,

and Mach Number"
= Air density, function of height
z
= sealevel e = sealevel e
Contours of Constant
Dynamic Pressure," q
In steady, cruising flight, " Weight = Lift = C L
1 2
Vair S = C L qS
2
sealevel = 1.225 kg / m 3; = 1 / 9, 042 m

1/2
1/2
Vair = !"vx2 + vy2 + vz2 #$ = !"v T v #$ = Airspeed

air
air
Dynamic pressure = q =
Mach number =
1
( h ) Vair2
2
Vair
; a = speed of sound, m / s
a (h)
Airspeed must increase as altitude increases

to maintain constant dynamic pressure"
Newtonian Frame of Reference"
Newtonian (Inertial) Frame of

Reference"
Unaccelerated Cartesian frame
whose origin is referenced to an
inertial (non-moving) frame"
Right-hand rule"
Origin can translate at constant
linear velocity"
Frame cannot be rotating with
respect to inertial origin"
Equations of Motion
for a Point Mass
Position: 3 dimensions"
What is a non-moving frame?"
r= y
z
Translation changes the position of an object"
Velocity and Momentum"
Newton s Laws of Motion:

Dynamics of a Particle"
Velocity of a particle"
x vx
dx

v=
= x = y = vy
dt
z v
z
First Law"
If no force acts on a particle, it remains at rest or
continues to move in a straight line at constant
velocity, as observed in an inertial reference
frame -- Momentum is conserved"
Linear momentum of a particle"

vx
p = mv = m vy
vz
where m = mass of particle
d
( mv ) = 0 ; mv t1 = mv t2
dt

Dynamics of a Particle "

Dynamics of a Particle"
Second Law"
Third Law"
A particle of fixed mass acted upon by a force

changes velocity with an acceleration
proportional to and in the direction of the force,
as observed in an inertial reference frame; "
The ratio of force to acceleration is the mass of
the particle: F = m a"
fx
d
dv
( mv ) = m = F ; F = fy
dt
dt
fz
1/ m
0
0
dv 1
1
= F = I 3F = 0
1/ m
0
dt m
m
0
1/ m
0
For every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction"
fx
fy
f
z
Equations of Motion for a Point Mass:

Position and Velocity "
vx
x
dr
= r = y = v = vy
dt
z
vz
Rate of change
of position!
Rate of change
of velocity!
vx
1/ m
0
0
1
dv
= v = vy = F = 0
1/ m
0
dt
m
0
0
1
/
m
vz
Vector of
combined forces!
Equations of Motion for a

Point Mass "
Written as a single equation"
x (t) =
With"
fx
fy
f
z
"
$
$
" r % " Position % $
'=$
x $
'=$
# v & $# Velocity '& $
$
$
$#
fx
FI = fy = Fgravity + Faerodynamics + Fthrust

I
fz I
Equations of Motion for a

Point Mass !
x (t) =
vx

v

y

vz
=
=
fx / m
vy f / m
y
vz f / m
z
x
y
z
vx
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
x
0
0
0
y
0
0
0
z 0
0
0
vx + 1 / m
0
0
vy 0
1/ m
0
0
0
1
/
m
vz
Dynamic equations are linear!
x %
'
y '
z '
'
vx '
vy '
'
vz '&
Gravitational Force:
Flat-Earth Approximation"
dx(t)
= f[x(t),F]
dt
0
1
0
0
0
0
dx(t)
= f[x(t),F]
dt
Approximation"
fx
f
y
fz
Flat earth reference is an inertial

frame, e.g.,"
North, East, Down"
Range, Crossrange, Altitude ()"
(F
) = (F
gravity I
gravity E
g is gravitational acceleration"
mg is gravitational force!
Independent of position!
z measured down"
= mg f = m 0
go
go 9.807 m / s 2 at earth's surface
Non-Dimensional
Aerodynamic Coefficients"
Aerodynamic Force"
Body-Axis Frame"
Body-Axis Frame"
Inertial Frame"
! X $ ! CX
#
& #
FI = # Y & = # CY
#" Z &%I # C
" Z
! C
# X
= # CY
#
" CZ
$
& 1 2
& Vair S
& 2
%I
CX
FB = CY
C
Z
$
&
& qS
&
%I
Referenced to the
Earth not the aircraft"
Velocity-Axis Frame"
CD
FV = CY
C
L
qS
Aligned with the

aircraft axes"
q S
CX
CY
C
Z
axial force coefficient

= side force coefficient
normal force coefficient
B
Velocity-Axis Frame"
CD
CY
C
L

drag coefficient

= side force coefficient

lift coefficient

Functions of flight condition, control settings, and disturbances, e.g.,

CL = CL(, M, E)"
Non-dimensional coefficients allow application of sub-scale model
wind tunnel data to full-scale airplane"
Aligned with and

perpendicular to
the direction of
motion"
Longitudinal Variables"
Lateral-Directional Variables"
= (with wingtips level)
u(t) : axial velocity

w(t) : normal velocity
V ( t ) : velocity magnitude
( t ) : angle of attack
( t ) : flight path angle
(t) : pitch angle
along vehicle centerline!

perpendicular to centerline!
along net direction of flight!
angle between centerline and direction of flight!
angle between direction of flight and local horizontal!
angle between centerline and local horizontal!
= + (with wingtips level)

(t) : sideslip angle
(t) : yaw angle
( t ) : heading angle
( t ) : roll angle
angle between centerline and direction of flight!

angle between centerline and local horizontal!
angle between direction of flight and compass reference
(e.g., north)!
angle between true vertical and body z axis!
Introduction to
Lift and Drag
Lift and Drag are Oriented

to the Velocity Vector"
%
1 2
C ( 1
Vair S 'C L0 + L * Vair2 S
&
2
) 2
Lift components sum to produce total lift"
Lift = C L
Pressure differential between upper and lower surfaces"

Wing"
Fuselage"
Horizontal tail"
1 2
1
Vair S $%C D0 + C L2 &' Vair2 S
2
2
Drag components sum to produce total drag"
Drag = C D
Skin friction"
Base pressure differential"
Shock-induced pressure differential (M > 1)"
2D vs. 3D Lift"
Aerodynamic Lift"
Inward-Outward Flow!
%
1
1
C (
Lift = C L Vair2 S C Lwing + C L fuselage + C Ltail Vair2 S 'C L0 + L * qS
&
2
2
)
Streamlines!
Tip Vortices!
Chord Section!
Fast flow over top + slow flow over bottom =

Mean flow + Circulation"
Speed difference proportional to angle of attack"
Kutta condition (stagnation points at leading and
trailing edges)"
Inward flow over upper surface"

Outward flow over lower surface"
Bound vorticity of wing produces tip vortices"
Aerodynamic Drag"
2D vs. 3D Lift"
Drag = C D
Identical Chord Sections!
Infinite vs. Finite Span!
1 2
1
Vair S C Dp + C Di + C Dw Vair2 S $%C D0 + C L2 &' qS
2
2
Drag components"
Parasite drag (friction, interference, base pressure
differential)"
Induced drag (drag due to lift generation)"
Wave drag (shock-induced pressure differential)"
In steady, subsonic flight"

Parasite (form) drag
increases as V2"
Induced drag proportional
to 1/V2"
Total drag minimized at
one particular airspeed"
What is aspect ratio?!
Finite aspect ratio reduces lift slope"
2-D Equations of
Motion for a Point Mass"
2-D Equations of Motion
Restrict motions to a vertical plane

(i.e., motions in y direction = 0)"
vx

= vz
fx / m

vz fz / m

x
z
vx
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0
1
0
0
0
0

0
+ 0
1/ m
0
1/ m
vz 0
x
z
vx
Assume point mass location

coincides with center of mass"
f
x
fz
Longitudinal Point-Mass
Equations of Motion"
Transform Velocity
from Cartesian to
Polar Coordinates"
Equations of motion, assuming mass is fixed, thrust is

aligned with the velocity vector, and windspeed = 0"
Inertial axes -> wind axes and back"

x vx V cos
=
=
z vz V sin
x 2 + z2
V

=
sin 1 z

vx2 + vz2

=
v
sin 1 z
V

Rates of change of velocity and flight path angle"
vx2 + vz2
V d
=
v
dt sin 1 z
V
d v2 + v2
z
dt x
=
d sin 1 vz

dt
V
= x(t)
= vx = V (t)cos (t)
r(t)
= z(t) = vz = V (t)sin (t)
h(t)
r = range
h = height (altitude)
V = velocity
= flight path angle
1
(CT CD ) (h)V 2 (t)S mg (h) sin (t)
Thrust
Drag
mg
h
sin
(t)
(
)
2
V (t) =
=
m
m
1
2
Lift mg ( h ) cos (t) C L 2 ( h ) V (t)S mg ( h ) cos (t)
(t) =
=
mV (t)
mV (t)
In steady, level flight"
Thrust = Drag"
Lift = Weight"
Reciprocating (Internal Combustion)

Engine (1860s)"
Introduction to
Propulsion
Linear motion of pistons converted

to rotary motion to drive propeller"
Single Cylinder"
Turbo-Charger (1920s)"
Increases pressure of incoming air"
Axial-flow Turbojet (von Ohain, Germany)!
Turbojet
Engines
(1930s)"
Turboprop
Engines
(1940s)"
Centrifugal-flow Turbojet (Whittle, UK)!
Thrust
produced
directly by
exhaust gas"
Turbojet + Afterburner (1950s)"
Exhaust gas drives a

propeller to produce
thrust"
Typically uses a
centrifugal-flow
compressor"
Turbofan Engine (1960s)"
Dual rotation rates, N1 and N2, typical"
Fuel added to exhaust"

Additional air may be introduced"
Dual or triple rotation rates"
High Bypass Ratio Turbofan"
Ramjet and Scramjet"

Ramjet (1940s)"
Scramjet (1950s)"
Propfan Engine!
Talos!
Aft-fan Engine!
Thrust and Thrust Coefficient"

1
Thrust CT V 2 S
2
Non-dimensional thrust coefficient,
CT!
CT is a function of power/throttle
setting, fuel flow rate, blade angle,
Mach number, ..."
Reference area, S, may be aircraft

wing area, propeller disk area, or
jet exhaust area"
X-43!
Hyper-X!
Thrust and Specific Impulse"

Thrust
m/s
Specific Impulse, Units =
= sec
m go
m/s 2
m Mass flow rate of on board propellant
I sp =
go Gravitational acceleration at earth' s surface
Sensitivity of Thrust to Airspeed"

1 2
VN S
2
(.)N = Nominal ( or reference) value
Nominal Thrust = TN CTN
Turbojet thrust is independent of airspeed over a

wide range"
Power"
Assuming thrust is aligned with airspeed vector"
Power = P = Thrust Velocity CT
If power is independent of velocity (= constant)"

P
C 1
3
= 0 = T VN3S + CTN VN2 S
V
V 2
2
CT
= 3CTN / VN
V
If thrust is independent of velocity (= constant)"

T
C 1
= 0 = T VN2 S + CTN VN S
V
V 2
CT
= CTN / VN
V
Next Time:
Aviation History
Reading
Airplane Stability and Control, Ch. 1!
1 3
V S
2
Velocity-independent power is typical of propellerdriven propulsion (reciprocating or turbine engine,

with constant RPM or variable-pitch prop)"
Supplementary
Material
Early Reciprocating Engines"
Reciprocating Engines"
Rotary Engine:"
Air-cooled"
Crankshaft fixed"
Cylinders turn with propeller"
On/off control: No throttle"
Rotary"
Sopwith Triplane!
In-Line"
Radial"
V-8 Engine:"
Water-cooled"
Crankshaft turns with propeller"
SPAD S.VII!
Turbo-compound
Reciprocating Engine"
Exhaust gas drives the turbo-compressor"
Napier Nomad II shown (1949)"
V-12"
Jet Engine Nacelles"
Opposed"
Pulsejet"
Flapper-valved motor (1940s)"
Dynajet Red Head (1950s)"
Fighter Aircraft and Engines"

Lockheed P-38!
Convair/GD F-102!
V-1 Motor!
Pulse Detonation Engine"

on Long EZ (1981)"
http://airplanesandrockets.com/motors/dynajet-engine.htm!
SR-71: P&W J58

Variable-Cycle
Engine (Late 1950s)"
Hybrid Turbojet/
Ramjet"
Allison V-1710!
Turbocharged Reciprocating Engine!
P&W J57!
Axial-Flow Turbojet Engine!
MD F/A-18!
GE F404!
Afterburning Turbofan Engine!
Flying Qualities Criteria

Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics
MAE 331, 2012"
MIL-F-8785C criteria!
CAP, C*, and other longitudinal
criteria"
/, / , and other lateraldirectional criteria"
Pilot-vehicle interactions"
Flight control system design"
Design for Satisfactory Flying Qualities"

Satisfy procurement requirement (e.g., Mil
Standard)"
Satisfy test pilots (e.g., Cooper-Harper ratings)"
Avoid pilot-induced oscillations (PIO)"
Minimize time-delay effects"
Time- and frequency-domain criteria"
MIL-F-8785C Identifies Satisfactory, Acceptable,

and Unacceptable Response Characteristics"
Damping Ratio"
Short-period angle-of-attack
response to elevator input!
Longitudinal Criteria
Frequency Response"
Step Response"
Long-Period Flying Qualities Criteria

(MIL-F-8785C)!
Flight path stability [Phase C]"
(MIL-F-8785C)!
Flight Phase!
A.
B.
C.
1. (/V)SS < 0.06 deg/kt"

2. (/V)SS < 0.15 deg/kt"
3. (/V)SS < 0.24 deg/kt"
Level of Performance!
Non-terminal flight requiring rapid

maneuvering"
Non-terminal flight requiring gradual
maneuvering"
Terminal flight"
1.
2.
3.
Clearly adequate for the mission"

Adequate to accomplish the mission, with
some increase in workload"
Aircraft can be controlled safely, but
workload is excessive"
Lecture 19"
VSS = a ESS + ( 0 ) TSS + b FSS

SS = c ESS + d TSS + e FSS
Static speed stability"
From 4th-order model"
No tendency for aperiodic divergence"

Phugoid oscillation -> 2 real roots, 1 that is unstable"
SS c
=
VSS a
Stable control stick position and force gradients"

e.g., Increasing pull position and force with decreasing speed"

(MIL-F-8785C)!
Phugoid stability"
1.Damping ratio 0.04"
2.Damping ratio 0"
3. Time to double , T2 55 sec"
Time to Double!
T2 Ph = 0.693/ Ph n Ph
(with appropriate scaling)
Short Period Criteria"

Important parameters"
Short-period natural frequency"

Damping ratio"
Lift slope"
Step response"
Space Shuttle Pitch-Response Criterion"
Over-/under-shoot"
Rise time"
Settling time"
Pure time delay"
Pitch angle response"

Normal load factor response"
Flight path angle response (landing)"
Short-Period Approximation
Transfer Functions"
Elevator to pitch rate"
Short-Period Approximation
Transfer Functions"
(
+
kq * s + 1 T2 ,
k q ( s zq )
q(s)
)
= 2
E(s) s + 2 SP nSP s + n2SP s 2 + 2 SP nSP s + n2SP
Elevator to pitch angle"

Integral of prior example"
k q ( s zq )
(s)
=
E(s) s ( s 2 + 2 SP nSP s + n2SP)
Bode Plot!
Nichols Chart!
Nichols Chart!
Bode Plot!
Pure gain or phase change in feedback

control cannot produce instability"
Pure gain or phase change in feedback

control cannot produce instability"
Root Locus!
Root Locus!
Control
Anticipation
Parameter, CAP"
Normal Load Factor"

nz =
(
VN
V %L
L
( q ) = N ' + E E *
g
g & VN
VN
)
positive down!
Therefore, with negligible LE (aft tail/canard effect)"
( % L ( (s)
nz (s) 1 % (s)
= ' L
+ L E * ' *
E(s) g & E(s)
) & g ) E(s)
positive up!
Elevator to angle of attack (LE = 0)"
k
(s)
E(s) s 2 + 2 SP nSP s + n2SP

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xFemVFgsJAw!
Inner ear senses angular acceleration about 3 axes"

&
)
M
Initial Angular
q (0) = ( ME
LE +E SS
Acceleration!
VN + L
'
*
&
L
LE )+
& VN ) (' ME VN M
Desired
VN *
VN
n SS =
qSS = ( +
E SS
Normal Load
&
)
L
g
g
'
*
Factor!
( Mq
+ M +
VN
'
*
Inner ear cue should aid pilot in anticipating
commanded normal acceleration"
Control
Anticipation
Factor!
%
(
M
' M E
L E * M q L + M
VN
VN + L
q(0)
&
)
=
CAP =
nSS
( L M E LE M ) g
with LE = 0!
Mq
CAP =
VN + M
L g
MIL-F-8785C
Short-Period
Flying
Qualities
Criterion"
CAP!
n2SP
nz /
n SP vs.
nz
Control Anticipation Parameter vs.

Short-Period Damping Ratio"
(MIL-F-8785C, Category A)"
CAP = constant
along Level
Boundaries"
M q L
CAP =
Level of
Performance!
1. Clearly adequate for the mission"
2. Adequate to accomplish the
mission, with some increase in
workload"
3. Aircraft can be controlled safely,
but workload is excessive"
C* Criterion"
Hypothesis"
C* blends normal load factor at pilot s location and pitch rate"
Step response of C* should lie within acceptable envelope"
Vcrossover
q
g
V
= (l pilot q + ncm ) + crossover q
g
$
' V
V
= &l pilot q + N ( q )) + crossover q
g
g
%
(
C* = n pilot +
! Below Vcrossover, q is pilot s primary control objective"

! Above Vcrossover, npilot is the primary control objective"
Fighter Aircraft: Vcrossover 125 m / s
VN
L g
+ M
n2SP
nz /
Gibson Dropback Criterion

for Pitch Angle Control"
Step response of pitch rate
should have overshoot for
satisfactory pitch and flight
path angle response!
$
1 '
kq && s + ))
q(s)
% T2 (
= 2
E(s) s + 2 SP nSP s + n2SP
$
'
kq & s + nSP
)
SP (
%
= 2
s + 2 SP nSP s + n2SP
Criterion is satisfied when!
zq
%
(
1
= ' nSP
SP *)
&
T2
Gibson, 1997!
Lateral-Directional
Flying Qualities
Parameters"
Lateral-Directional Criteria
Lateral Control Divergence

Parameter (LCDP)"
/d Effect!
Aileron deflection produces yawing as well as rolling moment"
Favorable yaw aids the turn command"

Adverse yaw opposes it"
Aileron-to-roll-angle transfer function "
Equilibrium response to constant aileron input "
%
(
%
(
Y
Y
' N + N r V * L A ' L + Lr V * N A
S &
&
N)
N)
=
g
AS
L N Lr N )
VN ( r
k ( s 2 + 2 s + 2 )
(s)
=
A(s) ( s S ) ( s R ) ( s 2 + 2 DR nDR s + n2DR )
Large-enough NA effect can reverse the sign of the response"

Can occur at high angle of attack "
Can cause departure from controlled flight "
Lateral Control Divergence Parameter provides simplified criterion"
(N )L
( )
L N A
L A
= N
N A
L
L A
LCDP Cn
Lateral Control Divergence Parameter,

LCDP!
/ Effect"
/ Effect!
Cn A
Cl A
C l
is the natural frequency of the complex zeros"

d = nDR is the natural frequency of the Dutch roll mode"
Conditional instability may occur with closedloop control of roll angle, even with a perfect pilot"
/ Effect"
/ Effect"
k ( s 2 + 2 s + 2 )
(s)
=
A(s) ( s S ) ( s R ) ( s 2 + 2 DR nDR s + n2DR )
As feedback gain increases, Dutch roll roots go to numerator zeros"

If zeros are over poles, conditional instability results"
/ measures the degree of rolling response in the

Dutch roll mode"
Large /: Dutch roll is primarily a rolling motion"
Small /: Dutch roll is primarily a yawing motion"
Eigenvectors, ei, indicate the degree of participation

of the state component in the ith mode of motion"
det ( sI F ) = ( s 1 ) ( s 2 ) ...( s n )
( i I F ) ei = 0
/ Effect"
Eigenvectors!
Eigenvectors, ei, are solutions to the equation"
( i I F ) ei = 0,
With i chosen as a complex root of the Dutch roll mode,

the corresponding eigenvector is"
i = 1, n
or
i ei = Fei , i = 1, n
e DR+
For each eigenvalue, the corresponding eigenvector

can be found (within an arbitrary constant) from"
Adj ( i I F ) =
( ae
1 i
a2 ei an ei
MATLAB
(V,D) = eig (F)

V: Modal Matrix (i.e., Matrix of Eigenvectors)
D: Diagonal Matrix of Corresponding Eigenvalues
),
#
%
%
=%
%
%
$
# ( +
er &
%
(
% ( +
e (
=%
(
ep (
% ( +
%
e (
' DR+ %$ ( +
# AR e j
j )r &
%
(
% AR e j
j ) (
%
(
=%
j
j ) p (
% AR e
(
%
j
j ) (
' DR+ % AR e
$
(
(
(
(
)
)
)
)
&
(
(
(
(
(
(
(
' DR+
/ is the magnitude of the ratio of the and eigenvectors"
i = 1, n
( AR)
( AR)
2
/
# VN &,#
Y L &
2
1
= % (.% DR nDR + + ( + nDR 1 DR
VN Lr '
10
$ g '.-$
/ Effect for the Business

Jet Example!
e DR+
#
%
%
=%
%
%
%
%$
Early Lateral-Directional
Flying Qualities Criteria!
er &
(
# 0.525 &
e (
%
(
0.416 (
(
=%
% 0.603 (
ep (
(
% 0.433 (
$
' DR+
e (
(' DR+
= 1.04
Roll/Sideslip Angle ratio in the Dutch roll mode!
Criteria for Lateral-Directional

Modes (MIL-F-8785C)"
Maximum RollMode Time
Constant"
Minimum
Spiral-Mode
Time to Double"
O Hara, via Etkin!
T1 = 0.693 / n
2
v = VN
Ashkenas, via Etkin!
Time to Half!
Minimum Dutch Roll Natural

Frequency and Damping (MIL-F-8785C)"
YF-16!
Pilot-Induced Roll Oscillation"

Pilot Transfer Function!
Aircraft Transfer Function!
$ K p / Tp ' .
k s 2 + 2 s + 2
(s)
0
=&
A(s) pilot in loop % s + 1 / T p )( 0 ( s S ) ( s R ) s 2 + 2 DR nDR s + n2DR
/
Pilot-Vehicle Interactions
YF-17 Landing
Approach Simulation"
80
Phase
Margin!
Elevator-to-pitch angle Nichols

chart (gain vs. phase angle)"
Original design"
13 dB
Gain
Margin!
Gibson, 1997!
Pilot-Aircraft Nichols Chart!
H ( s ) pilot =
u ( s )
= K P e s
( s )
H ( j ) pilot = K P e j K P e j = K P ( K P e j ) = j
Revised DFCS design"

Higher short-period natural
frequency"
Lower short-period damping"
Reduced time delay in DFCS"
CHR = 2"
But Stability Margins Were Large

How Could CHR = 10?"
Alternative pilot transfer function:

gain plus pure time delay"
Low short-period natural

frequency"
Overdamped short period"
Rapid roll-off of phase angle"
PIO tendency, CHR = 10"
Aileron-to-Roll Angle
Root Locus!
1
3
32
Input frequency,
rad/s"
Gain = constant"
Phase angle linear in frequency"
As input frequency increases, ()
eventually > 180!
Yaw Angle"
Inverse
Problem of
Lateral Control!
Given a flight path, what

is the control history that
generates it? "
Lateral-Stick
Command"
Angle of attack () =
10 deg; ARI off"
= 30 deg; ARI off"
Necessary piloting
actions "
Control-law design"
Roll Angle"
Flight Control System

Design
Aileron-rudder
interconnect (ARI)
simplifies pilot input"
= 30 deg; ARI on"
Grumman F-14 Tomcat!
Stengel, Broussard, 1978!
Control System
Design Methods!
Linear-quadratic (LQ) regulator"

Pole placement"
Parametric optimization"
Nonlinear inverse dynamics"
Neural networks"
Noisy, incomplete measurements"

State observer"
Kalman filter (optimal estimator)"
Assume Gaussian errors"
Combine with LQ regulator"
LQG regulator"
Control at all points in flight envelope"

Robustness"
Gain scheduling"
Adaptive control"
Proportional Stability Augmentation

with Command Input!
Full state feedback"

Command = desired output"
r ( m) components"
Cannot have more independent command inputs,
yC(t), than independent control inputs, u(t)"
u ( t ) = C F y C ( t ) C B x ( t )
Section 4.7, Flight Dynamics"
dim "# u ( t ) $% = m 1; dim "# x ( t ) $% = n 1

dim "# y C ( t ) $% = r 1, r m
dim [ C F ] = m r; dim [ C B ] = m n
Proportional Stability Augmentation

with Command Input!
Next Time:
Maneuvering and Aeroelasticity
x ( t ) = Fx ( t ) + Gu ( t )
x ( t ) = Fx ( t ) + G #$C F y C ( t ) C B x ( t ) %&
y ( t ) = H x x ( t ); H u 0
= #$ F GC B x ( t ) %& x ( t ) + GC F y C ( t )
u ( t ) = C F y C ( t ) C B x ( t )
= FCL x ( t ) + GCL y C ( t )
Reading
Substitute Control in Dynamic Equation!
Dynamics and Control!
Satisfy flying qualities criteria by adjusting

gains of the closed-loop command/stability
augmentation system"
Eigenvalues"
Root loci"
Transfer functions"
Bode plots"
Nichols charts"
..."
Large Aircraft Flying Qualities"
Supplemental
Material
High wing loading, W/S"

Distance from pilot to rotational center"
Slosh susceptibility of large tanks"
High wing span -> short relative tail length"
Higher trim drag"
Increased yaw due to roll, need for rudder
coordination"
Reduced rudder effect"
Altitude response during approach"

Increased non-minimum-phase delay in
response to elevator"
Potential improvement from canard"
Longitudinal dynamics"
Rolling response (e.g., time to bank)"

Reduced static stability"
Off-axis passenger comfort in BWB turns"
Phugoid/short-period resonance"
Criteria for Oscillations and Excursions

(MIL-F-8785C)"
Criteria for Oscillations and Excursions
Proportional-Integral Command and

Stability Augmentation!
Proportional-Integral Command and

Stability Augmentation!
(MIL-F-8785C)!
Full state feedback"

Command = desired output"
r ( m) components"
Integral compensation eliminates long-term (bias) errors"
Dynamics and Control!
x ( t ) = Fx ( t ) + Gu ( t )
y ( t ) = H x x ( t ); H u 0
u ( t ) = C F y C ( t ) C I #$ y ( t ) y C ( t ) %& dt C B x ( t )
Substitute Control in Dynamic Equation!
x ( t ) = Fx ( t ) + G C F y C ( t ) + C I #$ y ( t ) y C ( t ) %& dt C B x ( t )
u ( t ) = C F y C ( t ) C I #$ y ( t ) y C ( t ) %& dt C B x ( t )
= [ F GC B ] x ( t ) + G C F y C ( t ) + C I #$ y C ( t ) H x x ( t ) %& dt

Proportional-Integral
Command and Stability
Augmentation!
Proportional-Integral
Command and Stability
Augmentation!
y ( t ) = H x x ( t ); H u 0
Define integral state, (t)"

dim[(t)] = dim[y(t)]"
( t ) $% y C ( t ) y ( t ) &' dt
Define augmented
state vector"
= $% y C ( t ) H x x ( t ) &' dt
( t ) y C ( t ) H x x ( t )
x ( t ) = FCL x ( t ) + GC F y C ( t ) + GC I ( t )
Standard form
dynamic equation"
$ x ( t )
( t ) &
& ( t )
%
'
) ; dim $% ( t ) '( = ( n + r ) 1
)
(
( t ) = FCL ' ( t ) + GCL ' y C ( t )
Augmented dynamic equation"
# x ( t )
%
% ( t )
$
& # F
( = % CL
( % H x
' $
GC I & # x ( t )
(%
0 ( % ( t )
'$
& # G
( + % CL
( %$ I
'
&
( y C ( t )
('
Satisfy flying qualities criteria by adjusting gains of the

closed-loop command/stability augmentation system"
New modes of motion in augmented system"
Proportional-Filter Stability
Augmentation with Command Input!
Flight Testing Videos!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GXdJxjvQZW4!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t6DdlPoPOE4!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=j85jlc1Zfk4!
u ( t ) = + #$C F y C ( t ) C B x ( t ) C I u ( t ) %& dt
Eigenvalues"
Root loci"
Transfer functions"
Bode plots"
Nichols charts"
..."
Frames of Reference"
Atmospheric Hazards to Flight
Robert Stengel,
Aircraft Flight Dynamics, MAE 331, 2012"
!
!
!
!
Microbursts"
Wind Rotors"
Wake Vortices"
Clear Air
Turbulence"
! Inertial Frames"
Pitch Angle,
! Earth-Relative"
! Wind-Relative (Constant Wind)"
Angle of Attack,
! Non-Inertial Frames"
Flight Path Angle,
! Body-Relative"
! Wind-Relative (Varying Wind)"
Earth-Relative Velocity
Wind Velocity
Air-Relative Velocity
Pitch Angle and Normal Velocity

Frequency Response to Axial Wind"
! Pitch angle resonance at phugoid natural frequency"
! Normal velocity (~ angle of attack) resonance at phugoid and
short period natural frequencies"
( j )
Vwind ( j )
VN
Pitch Angle and Normal Velocity

Frequency Response to Vertical Wind"
! Pitch angle resonance at phugoid and short period natural frequencies"
! Normal velocity (~ angle of attack) resonance at short period natural frequency"
( j )
Vwind ( j )
MacRuer, Ashkenas, and Graham, 1973!
( j )
VN wind ( j )
( j )
wind ( j )
Sideslip and Roll Angle Frequency

Response to Vortical Wind"
Sideslip and Roll Angle

Frequency Response to Side Wind"
! Sideslip angle resonance at Dutch roll natural frequency"

! Roll angle is integral of vortical wind input"
=
! Sideslip and roll angle resonance at Dutch roll natural frequency"
( j )
pwind ( j )
( j )
wind ( j )
( j )
wind ( j )
( j )
pwind ( j )
The Insidious Nature of

Microburst Encounter"
Microbursts"
1/2-3-km-wide
Jet impinges on surface"
High-speed outflow
from jet core"
! The wavelength of the phugoid mode and the disturbance

input are comparable"
DELTA 191 (Lockheed L-1011)!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BxxxevZ0IbQ&NR=1!
Outflow strong enough to

knock down trees"
Ring vortex
forms in
outlow"
Headwind!
Downdraft!
Landing Approach!
Tailwind!
Optimal Flight Path

Through Worst JAWS Profile"
Importance of Proper Response

to Microburst Encounter"
!
!
!
!
!
Stormy evening July 2, 1994"

USAir Flight 1016, Douglas DC-9, Charlotte"
Windshear alert issued as 1016 began descent along glideslope"
DC-9 encountered 61-kt windshear, executed missed approach"
Plane continued to descend, striking trees and telephone poles
before impact"
! Go-around procedure was begun correctly -- aircraft's nose rotated
up -- but power was not advanced"
! That, together with increasing tailwind, caused the aircraft to stall "
! Crew lowered nose to eliminate stall, but descent rate increased,
causing ground impact"
! Graduate research of Mark Psiaki"

! Joint Aviation Weather Study (JAWS)
measurements of microbursts (Colorado
High Plains, 1983)"
! Negligible deviation from intended path
using available controllability"
! Aircraft has sufficient performance
margins to stay on the flight path"
Downdraft!
Headwind!
Airspeed!
Angle of Attack!
Pitch Angle!
Throttle Setting!
Optimal and 15 Pitch

Angle Recovery during
Microburst Encounter"
! Graduate Research of Sandeep Mulgund!
! Altitude vs. Time!
! Airspeed vs. Time!
Encountering
outflow!
! Angle of Attack vs. Time!

Rapid arrest of
descent!
FAA Windshear Training Aid, 1987, addresses proper

operating procedures for suspected windshear "
Wind Rotors"
Aircraft Encounters with

a Wind Rotor"
! Graduate research
of Darin Spilman"
! Flight Condition"
Tangential
Velocity,
ft/s
h [ft]
h [ft]
i = 0
500
i = 60
-100
ground
flight path
rotor core
radius
-500
-300
-400
0
-300
-200
-100
0
100
y [ft]
200
300
10
400
15
Time [sec]
20
25
30
15
Time [sec]
20
25
30
250
20
200
10
[deg]
[deg]
=0
i
i = 60
150
0
-10
-20
100
50
-30
i = 0
-40
i = 60
-50
-50
-60
0
10
15
Time [sec]
20
25
30
35
35
1000
200
initial entry point
35
1500
100
nd
wi
x
te
! Maximum Tangential
Velocity = 125 ft/s"
! Core Radius = 200 ft"
Typical Flight Paths in

Wind Rotor Encounter"
300
vortex
a) co-axial, = 0
! Wind Rotor"
! Tangential velocity vs. radius for

Lamb-Oseen Vortex"
! from Spilman"
True Airspeed = 160 kt"

Altitude = 1000 ft AGL"
Flight Path Angle = -3"
Weight = 76,000 lb""
Flaps = 30"
Open-Loop Control"
r
vo
!
!
!
!
!
!
Radius, ft
-200
Geometry and Flight Condition of Jet

Transport Encounters with Wind Rotor"
10
b) 0
Linear-Quadratic/Proportional-
Integral Filter (LQ/PIF) Regulator"
LQ/PIF Regulation of
Wind Rotor Encounter"
Wake Vortices"
! from Spilman"
200
1200
1000
800
LQR-PIF control
no control input
100
h (AGL) [ft]
[deg]
150
50
600
LQR-PIF control
no control input
400
0
-50
0
200
0
2
10
Time [sec]
10
Time [sec]
C-5A Wing Tip Vortex Flight Test"

http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/gallery/movie/C-5A/480x/EM-0085-01.mov"
L-1011 Wing Tip Vortex Flight Test"
http://www.dfrc.nasa.gov/gallery/movie/L-1011/480x/EM-0085-01.mov"
Models of Single and Dual

Wake Vortices"
Tangential
Velocity,
ft/s
Wake Vortex
Tangential
Velocity,
ft/s
Radius, ft
Radius, ft
Wind Rotor
Wake Vortex Descent and

Downwash"
Wake Vortex Descent and

Effect of Crosswind"
! from FAA Wake Turbulence Training Aid, 1995!
NTSB Simulation of US Air 427

and FAA Wake Vortex Flight Test"
Magnitude and Decay of

B-757 Wake Vortex "
! from Richard Page et al, FAA Technical Center"
Causes of
Clear Air Turbulence"
! from Bedard"
! B-737 behind B-727 in FAA flight test"

! Control actions subsequent to wake vortex
encounter may be problematical"
! US427 rudder known to be hard-over from DFDR"
DC-10 Encounter with VortexInduced Clear Air Turbulence"
DC-8 and B-52H Encounters

with Clear Air Turbulence"
! from Parks, Bach, Wingrove, and Mehta!

! DC-8: One engine and 12 ft of
wing missing after CAT encounter
over Rockies"
! B-52 specially instrumented for
air turbulence research after
some operational B-52s were lost"
! Vertical tail lost after a severe and
sustained burst (+5 sec) of clear
air turbulence violently buffeted
the aircraft"
! The Boeing test crew flew aircraft
to Blytheville AFB, Arkansas and
landed safely"
Conclusions"
! Critical role of decision-making, alerting, and
intelligence"
! Reliance on human factors and counterintuitive strategies"
! Need to review certification procedures"
! Opportunity to reduce hazard through flight
control system design"
! Disturbance rejection"
! Failure Accommodation"
! Importance of Eternal vigilance"
Supplemental
Material
Alternative Reference Frames

for Translational Dynamics"
!
Earth-relative velocity in earthfixed polar coordinates:"

!
Earth-relative velocity in
aircraft-fixed polar coordinates
(zero wind):"
# VE
%
vE = %
%
$
&
(
(
(
'
# VE
%
v E = % E
%
$ E
&
(
(
(
'
" (u u )
w
$
v A = $ ( v vw )
$
$ ( w ww )
#
Body-frame air-mass-relative
velocity:"
Airspeed, sideslip angle, angle
of attack"
# VA
%
% A
%
$ A
% "
' $ uA
' = $ vA
' $
' # wA
&
#
& % u A2 + vA2 + wA2
( %
1
( = % sin ( vA / VA )
( %
1
tan
( wA / VA )
' $
Rigid-Body Equations of Motion"

!
! Gradient of wind
produces different
relative airspeeds
over the surface of
an aircraft "
! Wind gradient
expressed in body
axes "
WB = H EB WE H EB
! w ( x, y, z,t )
# x
w E ( x,t ) = # wy ( x, y, z,t )
#
#" wz ( x, y, z,t )
$
&
&
&
&%
E
" wx x wx y wx z %
'
$
WE = $ wy x wy y wy z '
'
$
$# wz x wz y wz z '&
w
v
Cl p fin
y
x
w
Cmshear Cmqwing ,body,stab
x
v
Cnshear Cnrfin ,body
x
Clshear Cl pwing
rI = H IB v B
= LI
B B
Rate of change of Angular

Position "
! Aerodynamic forces and moments depend on air-relative velocity

vector, not the earth-relative velocity vector"
%
'
'
'
&
Rate of change of
Translational Velocity "
Rate of change of
Angular Velocity "
v B =
1
FB ( v A ) + H BI g I B v B
m
B = I B1 #$ M B ( v A ) B I B B %&
&
(
(
(
(
'
Pitch Angle,
Angle of Attack,
Flight Path Angle,
Wind Shear Distributions Exert Moments

on Aircraft Through Damping Derivatives"
! 3-dimensional wind
field changes in
space and time "
Rate of change of
Translational Position "
Aircraft Modes of Motion"

! Longitudinal Motions"
Lon (s) = s2 + 2 n s + n
) (s
Ph
+ 2 n s + n
SP
! Lateral-Directional Motions"
LD (s) = ( s S )( s R ) s2 + 2 n s + n
! Wind inputs that

resonate with modes of
motion are especially
hazardous"
DR
Natural frequency : n , rad / s

2
, sec
n
Natural Wavelength : Ln = VN T p , m
Natural Period : Tn =
Landing Abort using NonlinearInverse-Dynamic Control"
Nonlinear-Inverse-Dynamic Control"
U = 60 ft/sec
max
900
y ( t ) = h !" x ( t ) #$
250
= 80 ft/sec
= 90 ft/sec
= 100 ft/sec
= 110 ft/sec
max
max
200
max
-7500 -5000 -2500
0
2500
Range (ft)
5000
7500
U = 90 ft/sec
max
15
Umax = 60 ft/sec
Angle of Attack Limit
600
U = 100 ft/sec
U = 110 ft/sec
10
max
Alpha (deg)
Altitude (ft)
100
max
700
400
max
max
max
AIRCRAFT
SYSTEMS
ON-BOARD DATA
Reactive sensors
Weather radar
Forward-looking
Lightning sensors
Future products
= 90 ft/sec
Umax = 100 ft/sec

U
0 2500 5000 7500

Range (ft)
= 70 ft/sec
Umax = 80 ft/sec
-7500 -5000 -2500
! Graduate research of Alexander Stratton!

! LISP-based expert system"
Interface
ADVISORY
SYSTEM
LOGIC
= 70 ft/sec
max
150
U = 80 ft/sec
max
Wind Shear Safety Advisor"
LLWAS
TDWR
PIREPS
Forecasts
Weather data
Future products
800
500
! Inverting control law:"

u ( t ) = G * !" x ( t ) #$ !" v command f * !" x ( t ) #$ #$
CREW
= 60 ft/sec
max
(t ) = f * !" x (t )#$ + G * !" x (t )#$ u (t ) v (t )
GROUND-BASED
DATA
U = 70 ft/sec
max
! Differentiate output until control appears in

each element of the derivative output:"
y
max
300
1 103
! Output vector:"
(d )
350
! from Mulgund"
Airspeed (ft/sec)
! Nonlinear system with additive control:"

x ( t ) = f !" x ( t ) #$ + G !" x ( t ) #$ u ( t )
= 110 ft/sec
-5
-7500 -5000 -2500
2500
5000
7500
Range (ft)
Estimating the Probability of

Hazardous Microburst Encounter"
! Bayesian Belief Network"

! Infer probability of hazardous
encounter from "
pilot/control tower
reports "
measurements"
location"
time of day"
Geographical
Location
Time of Day
Surface Humidity
Lightning
Lightning
Detection
Convective
Weather
Precipitation
Weather
Radar
Mod/Heavy
Turbulence
Probability of
Microburst Wind Shear
Turbulence
Detection
Reactive Wind Shear

Alert System
Pilot
Report
Low-Level
Wind Shear Advisory
System
Airborne
Forward-Looking
Doppler Radar
Terminal Doppler
Weather Radar
NTSB Simulation of American 587"
Digital Flight Data Recorder

Data for American 587"
! Flight simulation obtained from digital flight data recorder (DFDR)

tape"
American 587 (Airbus A-300-600)

Encounter with B-747 Wake"
Aircraft as Wake Vortex

Generators and Receivers"
! Vorticity, , generated by lift in 1-g flight"
! PIO and/or
aggressive use of
rudder seen as
possible cause"
! Aviation Daily, 5/22/02"
! Boeing Issues Detailed
Guidance On Rudder
Use For Roll Control"
K generatorW
VN b
K generator
! Rolling acceleration response to vortex

aligned with the aircraft's longitudinal axis"
p =
K receiver
1 2
VN Sb
2
I xx
K receiver
C L
2 VN b
Rolling Response vs. VortexGenerating Strength for 125 Aircraft"

! Undergraduate summer project of James Nichols"
0.1
0.01
Rolling
Response
0.001
0.0001
1
10
Vortex Generating Strength
100
Configuration and Power Effects

on Flight Stability
Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics, MAE 331,
2012"
Wing design"
Empennage design"
Aerodynamic coefficient
estimation and measurement"
Power Effects"
Loss of Engine"
Loss of engine produces large yawing

(and sometimes rolling) moment(s),
requiring major application of controls "
Engine-out training can be as hazardous,
especially during takeoff, for both
propeller and jet aircraft"
Acute problem for general-aviation pilots
graduating from single-engine aircraft"
Learjet 60!
Beechcraft Baron!
Solutions to the
Engine-Out Problem"
Engines on the centerline (Cessna

337 Skymaster)"
More engines (B-36)"
Cross-shafting of engines (V-22)"
Large vertical tail (Boeing 737)"
Airplane Balance"
Cessna 337!
Conventional aft-tail configuration "

c.m. near wing's aerodynamic center (point at which wing's
pitching moment coefficient is invariant with angle of attack
~25% mac)"
Convair B-36!
Tailless airplane: c.m. ahead of the neutral point"
NASA TCV (Boeing 737)!

Northrop N-9M!
Boeing/Bell V-22!
Douglas DC-3!
Configuration Effects Can Be Evaluated

via Approximate Dynamic Models"
Airplane Balance"
Canard configuration: "
Neutral point moved forward by canard surfaces"
Center of mass may be behind the neutral point, requiring
closed-loop stabilization"
Fly-by-wire feedback control can expand envelope

of allowable center-of-mass locations (e.g., openloop instability"
Phugoid Mode"
n gLV / VN ;
Short-Period Mode"
Dutch Roll Mode"
Grumman X-29!
%
L (
n ' M + M q * ;
V )
&
McDonnell-Douglas X-36!
nDR N 1
DR
Yr
VN + N r
Y
&
)
( Nr + V +
'
N*
Roll Mode"
DV
2 gLV / VN
% L
(
'& V M q *)
N
%
L (
2 ' M + M q *
VN )
&
VN
2 N 1
Yr
VN + N r
VN
$ V '
Roll L p Cl p & N ) Sb 2
% 4I xx (
Spiral Mode"
Spiral 0
However, important mode-coupling terms, e.g., MV and L!,

are neglected"
Planform Effect on Center of

Pressure Variation with Mach
Number"
Sweep Reduces Subsonic Lift Slope"

Swept Wing"
C L =
Straight Wing"
AR
2
+
$ AR '
2
-1 + 1 +
& 2 cos ) 1 M cos 1 4
%
(
14
-,
Subsonic center of
pressure (c.p.) at ~1/4
mean aerodynamic
chord (m.a.c.)"
Transonic-supersonic
c.p. at ~1/2 m.a.c."
AR
2
+
$ AR ' .
-1 + 1 +
0
& 2 cos ) 0
%
14(
-,
0/
) 00
0/
[Incompressible flow]
Triangular Wing"
Delta Wing"
Subsonic-supersonic
c.p. at ~2/3 m.a.c."
C L =
2 2 cot LE
( + )
where = m 0.38 + 2.26m 0.86m 2
Mach number "

increases the static margin of conventional configurations -> Short Period"
Has less effect on delta wing static margin"
Cm
m = cot LE cot
LE , : measured from y axis
Effects of Wing Aspect Ratio"

Wing lift slope has direct effect on"
Phugoid damping"
Short period natural frequency and damping"
Roll damping"
Phugoid"
1
n 2 gV ;
N
2 ( L / D )N
Short Period"
$
L '
n = & M + M q ) ; =
VN (
%
$ L
'
&% V M q )(
N
$
L '
2 & M + M q )
VN (
%
Roll"
$ V '
Roll L p Cl p & N ) Sb 2
% 4I xx (
Sweep Effect on
Lift Distribution"
Effects of Wing Aspect Ratio and

Sweep Angle"
Lift slope"
Pitching moment slope"
Lift-to-drag ratio"
All contribute to"
Phugoid damping"
Short period natural frequency and
damping"
Roll damping"
C L ,Cm ,Cl p ,Cl
Wing Location and Angle Effects"

Vertical location of the wing,
dihedral angle, and sweep"
!c/4 = sweep
angle of quarterchord"
Sweep moves lift
distribution
toward wing tips"
Sideslip induces yawing motion"

Unequal lift on left and right
wings induces rolling motion"
Lateral-directional (spiral mode)

stability effect (TBD)" Cl
Roll damping"
Static margin"
Sweep increases
dihedral effect of
wing!
C L ,Cm ,Cl p ,Cl
Twin and Triple Vertical Tails"
Modes Strongly Affected

By The Empennage"
Increased tail area with no increase in vertical height"

End-plate effect for horizontal tail improves effectiveness"
Proximity to propeller slipstream
"
Short-Period Mode (horizontal tail)"

%
L (
n ' M + M q *
VN )
&
%L
(
' Mq*
& VN
)
Consolidated B-24!
%
L (
2 ' M + M q *
VN )
&
Cm ,Cmq ,Cm ,Cn ,Cnr ,Cn
Dutch Roll Mode (vertical tail)"

nDR N + N r
Lockheed C-69!
VN
Y
&
)
DR ( N r + V +
'
N*
North American B-25!
Fairchild-Republic A-10!
2 N + Nr
VN
Weathervane and damping effects"
Ventral Fin Effects"

Increase directional stability"
Counter roll due to sideslip of the dorsal fin
""
C ,C ,C ,C
n
LTV F8U-3!
Learjet 60!
nr
North American X-15!
Beechcraft 1900D!
Ground Attack Aircraft"
Maneuverability, payload, low-speed/subsonic performance, ruggedness"
General Aviation Aircraft"
Approaches to Stealth"
Low radar cross-section"
Low cost, safety, comfort, ease of handling"
Open-loop instability"
Need for closed-loop control"
Supersonic Flight"
Low parasitic drag, high supersonic L/D"
Hypersonic Flight"
Transient vs. cruising flight"

Hypersonic performance"
Resistance to aerodynamic
heating"
Commercial Transport"
Business Aircraft"
Segment between personal and commercial transport"
Safety, fuel economy, cost/passenger-mile,

maintenance factors"
Regional vs. long-haul flight segments"
Long-Range/-Endurance
Surveillance Aircraft"
Propeller Effects"
Slipstream over wing, tail, and fuselage"

Increased dynamic pressure"
Swirl of flow"
Downwash and sidewash at the tail"
Subsonic performance"
DH-2 unstable with engine out"

Single- and multi-engine effects"
Design factors: fin offset (correct at one
airspeed only), c.m. offset"
Propeller fin effect: Visualize lateral/
horizontal projections of the propeller
as forward surfaces"
Counter-rotating propellers minimize
torque and swirl"
Cm ,Cmq ,Cm ,Clo ,Cno ,Cn ,Cnr ,Cn
DeHavilland DH-2!
DeHavilland DHC-6!
Westland Wyvern!
Jet Effects on Rigid-Body Motion"
Normal force at intake (analogous to propeller fin effect) (F-86)"

Deflection of airflow past tail due to entrainment in exhaust (F/A-18)"
Pitch and yaw damping due to internal exhaust flow"
Angular momentum of rotating machinery"
North American F-86!
McDonnell Douglas F/A-18!
Next Time:
Problems of High Speed
and Altitude
Reading
Flight Dynamics,
Aircraft Stability and Control,
Cmo ,Cm ,Cmq ,Cno ,Cn ,Cnr ,Cn
Aviation History:
Mythology to 1990
"
Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics, MAE 331, 2012

Greek mythology: Daedalus and Icarus!
Attempt to escape from Crete!
863 BC: Bladud (King Lear s father)!
Antiquity
9th king of England !

First tower-jumper!
Wings of feathers!
Died of a broken neck!
Experimentalists"
Henri Pitot: Pitot tube (1732)!
Sir George Cayley!
Benjamin Robins: Whirling

arm "wind tunnel (1742)!
Visionaries and Theorists!
Sketches "modern" airplane

configuration (1799)!
Hand-launched glider (1804)!
Papers on applied
aerodynamics (1809-1810)!
Triplane glider carrying 10-yrold boy (1849)!
Monoplane glider carrying
coachman (1853)!
Cayley's coachman had a steering

oar with cruciform blades!
Modern reconstruction (right)!
1831: Thomas Walker!

Various glider concepts!
Tandem-wing design influenced Langley!
1843: William Henson & John Stringfellow !

Aerial steam carriage concept!
Vision of commercial air transportation (with
Marriott and Columbine, The Aerial Transit
Company)!
1860-1900: Theoretical aerodynamic

contributions!
Helmholtz!
Kirchhoff!
Lord Rayleigh!
Reynolds!
Lanchester, and others
19th Century Flyers"
1868: Jean Marie Le Bris!
1874: Felix du Temple's hot-air engine

manned monoplane!
Flies down a ramp
1891-96: Hang-glider flights!

Otto Lilienthal!
Chanute, Pilcher, ...!
Artificial Albatross glides a short distance!
1890: Clement Ader!

Steam-powered Eole hops!
Early 20th Century
1884: Alexander Mozhaisky's

steam-powered manned airplane!
brief hop off the ground!
flat-plate wings
1894: Sir Hiram Maxim!

Steam-powered biplane hops!
Vertical gyro/servo control of the
elevator!
The Wright Brothers"
Samuel Pierpoint Langley"
Astronomer supported by Smithsonian Institution!

Whirling-arm experiments!
1896: Langley's steam-powered Aerodrome model
flies 3/4 mile!
1903: Manned aircraft flight ends in failure!
Wilbur and Orville were bicycle mechanics

from Dayton, OH!
Self-taught, empirical approach to flight!
Wind-tunnel, kite, and glider experiments!
1903: Powered, manned aircraft

flight ends in success!
Wright Brothers
Technical Contributions"
After Kitty Hawk!
1906: 2nd successful aviator: Alberto

Santos-Dumont, standing!!
Wrights secretive about results until

1908; few further technical contributions
1908: Glenn Curtiss et al incorporate

ailerons!
Recognized importance of
balance and steering!
Bank to turn preferable to
skid turn !
Roll control induced yaw!
Too much stability!
hinders control!
increases response to gusts!
Wings can stall!
Experimental gliders!
High dihedral, forward control surface!
Wright brothers sue for infringement

of 1906 US patent (and win)
Wing warp controlled roll!

Foreplanes controlled pitch!
1909: Louis Bleriot's flight

across the English Channel
2nd glider!
Vertical tail !
Coupled to the wing warp to
suppress adverse yaw!
Glenn Curtiss"
1908: Glenn Curtiss becomes dominant US aviation inventor!

1914: Langley s Aerodrome finally flies!
Curtiss et al modify and fly Langley Aerodrome!
Unsuccessful effort to discredit Wright patent!
Alexander Graham Bell s support!
Stability vs. Control

OR
Stability and Control?!
Prior to 1903, it was thought that an airplane
should hold its course alone!
Pilot could steer by deflecting the rudder !
This suggested:!
Aft-mounted tail!
Wing dihedral or high wing!
Proper center-of-mass location
Pilot Inputs to Control:

the Wright Approach"
Early Aircraft Control"
Lillienthal shifted center of mass in

hang gliders!
Langley's plane had movable

cruciform tail!
1903 Wright Flyer!

Prone pilot !
Stick for pitch control!
Hip cradle for wing-warping roll
control!
Aileron-rudder interconnect (ARI)!
http://www.airspacemag.com/howthings-work/1903-flyer.html!
Wright brothers used wing warping

and movable rudder and elevator
surfaces!
Upright pilot !
Left lever for pitch!
Right lever for roll and yaw with ARI!
Right lever later modified to separate
roll (left-right) and yaw (fore-aft)
control) w/o ARI!
Feet not used for control!
http://wright.nasa.gov/airplane/
air1905.html!
Glenn Curtiss invented aileron

surfaces!
Control Linkages:
the Bleriot Approach"
Aviation in The Great War"
1914-18: World War I changes the

complexion of flying!
Louis Bleriot introduced:!

Rudder bar controlled by feet!
Center stick for pitch and roll control!
1905 Wright Flyer !
Bleriot XI!
Reconnaissance!
Air superiority (dog fights) !
Bombing!
Personal transport!
Wrights US monopoly broken by

licensing for war effort!
Aircraft Design!
Biplanes, a few mono- and
triplanes!
Design for practical functions!
Multiple engines, larger aircraft!
Aft tails!
Increased maneuverability,
speed, g-loads, altitude!
Improved piston engines!
Tractor propellers!
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Blriot_XI!
http://ohtm.org/blg/collections/aircraft/1909-bleriot-xi-representation/!
SPAD S.VII!
World War I fighter replicas in flight!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JsT_rgScrg0!
Maneuvering World War I Aircraft"
Sopwith Camel"
Maneuverable aircraft with

idiosyncrasies!
Rotary engine!
Small tail surfaces!
Reliability issues!
Maneuvering to stalls and spins!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OBH_Mb0Kj2s!
Snap roll: rudder and elevator!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6ETc1mNNQg8!
Barrel roll : aileron !
Cross-control (e.g., right rudder, left
stick)!
glide path control during landing !
good view of landing point!
Unintended snap rolls led to spins and

accidents during takeoff or landing!
Rotary engine induced gyroscopic coupling!

Highly maneuverable!
Aft fuel tank; when full, center of mass was too far aft
for stability!
Vertical tail too small, spin recovery not automatic
with centering of controls!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3ApowyEXSXM!
S.E.-5 vs. Fokker D.VII"
RAF S.E.-5: theoretical approach to design!
The Correct Answer:

Stability AND Control"
Best WWI design from the Royal Aircraft

Factory !
Stationary engine!
High dihedral!
Stable spiral mode!
High control forces!
Poor maneuverability!
Relatively safe and effective!
Fokker D.VII: empirical approach to

design!
Horn balances to reduce control forces!

Stationary engine!
Neutral-to-negative stability!
Good maneuverability!
Relatively dangerous!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kwXcwu6JQk8!
Need for better understanding of Flying (or

Handling) Qualities !
Stability and controllability characteristics as perceived
by the pilot!
Desired attributes: Stability of the S.E.-5 and

controllability of the D.VII!
Aviation Between the Wars"
1918-38: !
Birth of airlines!
Trophy races
http://www.youtube.com/watch?
v=R3AROX6OO88!
Aviation firsts (Lindbergh crosses the
Atlantic, 1927)
v=uIUL_qUJUOo&feature=related!
Flying boats !
Sport aviation!
Between the Wars
Ryan NYP!
Gee-Bee R-1!
Curtiss R3C-2!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DwqYh995YhU!
Commercial Aircraft of the 1930s!
Air Commerce Act of 1926"

Airlines formed to carry mail and passengers: !
Northwest (1926)!
Eastern (1927), bankruptcy!
Pan Am (1927), bankruptcy!
Boeing Air Transport (1927), became United (1931)!
Delta (1928), consolidated with Northwest, 2010!
American (1930)!
TWA (1930), acquired by American!
Continental (1934), consolidated with United, 2010!
Ford Tri-Motor!
Boeing 40!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3a8G87qnZz4!
Lockheed Vega !
Streamlining, engine cowlings!

Douglas DC-1, DC-2, DC-3!
Lockheed 14 Super Electra,

Boeing 247, exterior and interior!
1930s Air Racers Presage

Fighters of World War II"
Seaplanes Became the First

TransOceanic Air Transports!
PanAm led the way!
Macchi MC72!
Aircraft Design !
1st scheduled TransPacific flights(1935)!

1st scheduled TransAtlantic flights(1938)!
1st scheduled non-stop Trans-Atlantic flights (VS-44, 1939)!
Transition to
monoplanes!
Metal skins and
structure!
Semi-monocoque design!
Improved aerodynamics!
Improved in-line, V, and
radial engines !
Increased
maneuverability, speed,
altitude!
Seaplanes faster than
landplanes (why?)
Boeing B-314, Vought-Sikorsky VS-44, Shorts Solent!

Superseded by more efficient landplanes (lighter, less drag)!
V = 709 km/hr!
Supermarine S.6B!
V = 547 km/hr!
Hughes H-1 (replica)!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x8SkeE1h_-A!
V = 566 km/hr!
Technology of World War II Aviation"
World War II
1938-45: Analytical and experimental

approach to design!
Spitfire!
Many configurations designed and

flight-tested !
Increased specialization; radar,
navigation, and communication!
Approaching the "sonic barrier !
Aircraft Design! !
Large, powerful, high-flying aircraft!
Turbocharged engines!
Oxygen and Pressurization
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=stKz-elSYy0!
B-17!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hgyFzUVtDOY&feature=related!
P-51D!
Gee Bee R1 Racer: an engine with

wings and almost no tail"
During W.W.II, the size of fighters
remained about the same, but
installed horsepower doubled (F4F
vs. F8F)!
Use of flaps means high power at
low speed, increasing relative
significance of thrust effects"
Short-Takeoff-and-Landing (STOL)
aircraft augment takeoff/landing lift in
many ways, e.g.,"
GB R1!
Grumman F4F!
Full-span flaps"
Deflected thrust"
Douglas TBD!
World War II CarrierBased Airplanes!
Power Effects on Stability and Control!
Takeoff without catapult, relatively

low landing speed
v=4dySbhK1vNk!
Tailhook and arresting gear!
Carrier steams into wind!
Design for storage (short tail length,
folding wings) affects stability and
control!
Grumman TBF!
Grumman TBF !
F4U!
Chance-Vought F4U Corsair!
Grumman F8F!
CTo ,CTV ,CTT ,C LT
F4U flight"
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JANR0XPtVzw!
SBD Dauntless Flight"
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aiJhcKgg4eE&feature=related!
Carrier Crash Landings!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H8Bim7-hZfg!
Multi-Engine Aircraft of World War II!

Boeing B-17!
Consolidated B-24!
Boeing B-29!
WW II Military Flying Boats!

Seaplanes proved useful during World War II!
Martin PB2M Mars!
Lockheed PBY Catalina!
Douglas A-26!
Large W.W.II aircraft had

unpowered controls:!
High foot-pedal force!
Rudder stability problems
arising from balancing to
reduce pedal force!
Severe engine-out problem

for twin-engine aircraft!
Martin PBM Mariner !
Boeing XPBB Sea Ranger!
Grumman JRF-1 Goose!

Saunders-Roe SR.36 Lerwick!
Martin B-26!
Birth of the Jet Airplane"

Heinkel He. 178 (1939)!
Gloster Meteor (1943)!
Early Jet Aircraft
Gloster E/28/39 (1941)!
Bell P-59A (1942)!

Messerschitt Me 262 (1942)!
From Propellers to Jets!

Douglas XB-43!
Douglas XB-42 Mixmaster!
Northrop YB-35!
Convair B-36!
Northrop XB-49!
Convair YB-60!
Jets at an Awkward Age!

Performance of the first jet aircraft
outstripped stability and control
technology!
Lacked satisfactory actuators,
sensors, and control electronics!
Transistor: 1947, integrated circuit:
1958!
Dramatic dynamic variations over

larger flight envelope!
Control mechanisms designed to
lighten pilot loads were subject to
instability!
Reluctance of designers to
embrace change, fearing decreased
reliability, increased cost, and
higher weight !
Lockheed P-80!
Douglas F3D!
Convair XF-81!
From Straight to Swept Wings!

Straight-wing models were redesigned with swept wings to
reduce compressibility effects on drag!
Dramatic change in stability, control, and flying qualities!
North American FJ-1

and FJ-4 Fury!
Republic F-84B Thunderbird

and F-84F Thunderstreak!
Grumman F9F-2 Panther

and F9F-6 Cougar!
Fighter Jets of the 1950s!

Emphasis on mission!
Emphasis on supersonic speed!

North American F-100!
Toward Supersonic
Flight and Stealth
McDonnell F-101!
Convair F-106!
Grumman A-6!
Convair F-102!
Republic F-105!
Lockheed F-104!
Dassault Mirage F1!
McDonnell F-4!

Emphasis on performance!
BAE/McDonnell-Douglas AV-8B!
Panavia Tornado!
Personal and
Business Aircraft
Lockheed-Martin F-117!
Repbulic F-105!
Mig-31A!
Early Concepts for Safe

Personal Aircraft!
Less-Safe Personal Airplanes!

Curtiss Tanager!
Low takeoff and landing speeds!

Benign flying qualities!
Stall/spin-proof designs!
Ercoupe!
Limited control authority!

Control wheel, ARI, no rudder pedals!
Limited center-of-mass travel!
Limited speed range!
Wing leveling and lateral stability!
Fixed, tricycle landing gear!
Ercoupe!
Piper J-3 Cub!
Mignet Flying Flea (Homebuilt, pivoting main wing, no ailerons, unrecoverable dive)!
V-tail Beechcraft Bonanza Model 35 (10,000 built, 250 in-flight structural failures) !
American Yankee AA-1 (BD-1, hot , stalls and spins) !
Bede BD-5 (Home-built, unforgiving flying qualities)!
Propeller-Driven Personal Aircraft!
Business Jets!
Single reciprocating engine, mechanical controls, fixed or

retracting gear, high price!
Cirrus SR-20/22 has a recovery parachute (used 13 times
Twin turbojet/fan engines!
through 2008, saved 24 lives; 2 parachute failures)!
Learjet 24!
Cirrus SR20/22!
Beech Bonanza A36!
Cessna 172!
North American Sabreliner!
Gulfstream II!
Cessna Citation I!
Piper Malibu!
Mooney M20!
Commercial Aircraft of the 1940s!
Commercial
Transport Aircraft
Pre-WWII designs!
Derivatives of military transport and
bomber aircraft of WWII!
Convair 240 (> C-131, T-29)!

Douglas DC-4 (> C-54)!
Boeing Stratoliner 377 (from B-29, C-97)!
Lockheed Constellation 749 (from C-69)!
Commercial Jets of the 1950s!
Commercial Propeller-Driven Aircraft of the 1950s!
Introduction of the turboprop engine!

Douglas DC-6, DC-7, Lockheed Starliner 1649, Vickers Viscount, Bristol
Britannia, Lockheed Electra 188!
Low-bypass ratio turbojet

engines!
deHavilland Comet (1954)!
1st commercial jet transport!
engines buried in wings!
Boeing 707 (1957)!

derived from USAF KC-135!
engines on pylons below wings!
largest aircraft of its time!
Sud-Aviation Caravelle (1959)!

1st aircraft with twin aftmounted engines!
Small Commercial Jets of the 1960s!
Large Commercial Jets of the 1960s!
Preponderance of aft-mounted 2and 3-engine configurations (BAC

1-11, Douglas DC-9)!
Boeing 727 (1963)!
1st with 3 aft-mounted engines!
Hawker-Siddeley Trident (1964)!

Boeing 737 (1967)!
Pylon-mounted 4-engine configurations

(Convair 880, DC-8, Stretched DC-8, Boeing 747)!
DC-8 design was well-suited to a stretch
(fuselage plugs fore and aft of wing!
B-707 was not!
High-bypass turbofan engines!

Introduction of the 2/3-engine
jumbo jets!
Airbus A300!
Lockheed L-1011!
Douglas DC-10!
Airbus A300!
Derivatives of 1980s designs

(McDonnell-Douglas MD-11, Boeing
747-400, Airbus A330)!
First Boeing fly-by-wire design (B-777)!
First 4-engine Airbus (A340)!
Airbus A330!
Supersonic transports!
Boeing 777!
BAC/SA Concorde (1972)!

Tupolev Tu-144 (1977)!
McDonnell-Douglas MD-11!
BAC/SA Concorde!
Lockheed L-1011!
Boeing 247!
Boeing 747-400!
Douglas DC-10!
Airbus A340!
Tupolev Tu-144!
Daedalus and Icarus Revisited,

23 April 1988
Human-powered airplane, MIT Daedalus, flies 115 km
from Crete to the mainland (Santorini) in 3 hr, 54 min
Empty mass = 31 kg
Next Time:
Configuration Aerodynamics
Reading
Flight Dynamics, 65-84!
Virtual Textbook, Part 4,5
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/MIT_Daedalus
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l131fSveof8!
Natural Philosophers and Theorists"

350 BC: Aristotle!
Supplemental
Material
1669-87: Newton!
Continuum model!
Suggests that a body
moving through continuum
would encounter resistance !
250 BC: Archimedes!

Fluid set in motion by
pressure differential!
1490: Da Vinci
!!
Cross-sectional area times

Velocity = constant
(continuity)!
Sketches of flow patterns!
Ornithopter and helicopter
concepts
Newton's Laws!
Newtonian flow, sin2 !
force dependency!
1738: Bernoulli!
Pressure-velocity
relationship!
1752: Euler !
Equations for fluid flow!
1788: Lagrange!
Velocity potential and
stream function!
Those Magnificent Men in

Their Flying Machines"
The Early Wright Flyers"

1903 Wright Flyer was
very unstable, almost
unmanageable !
In 1904-5:!
Removed wing anhedral
(negative dihedral)!
Increased rudder and
elevator area!
Rudder controlled by
separate lever!
Center of mass moved
forward
Aircraft Design!
Biplanes and monoplanes !

Thin, cambered wings!
Fore and aft horizontal tails!
Aft vertical tails
Wooden frames and struts,

wire bracing, canvas covering!
Gasoline engines, improved
efficiency!
Invention of rotary engine
Stability and Control Analysts"
Comfort and Elegance by the End of the Decade!
Frederick Lanchester (1868-1946)!

Model gliders!
Two books, Aerial Flight and
Aerodynetics, 1907!
Identified the phugoid mode!
Mechanical engineer, built
innovative motor cars!
Operations research!
Boeing 307, 1st pressurized cabin (1936), flight engineer, B-17 pre-cursor, large
dorsal fin (exterior and interior)!
Sleeping bunks on transcontinental planes (e.g., DC-3)!

Full-size dining rooms on flying boats!
Lanchester s Power Laws!
George H. Bryan (1864-1928)!

Longitudinal equations of motion
(with W.E. Williams, 1903)!
Full equations of motion and
linearized equations (1911)
Early Carrier Jets!
Problems exacerbated for jet

aircraft!
slower thrust response!

higher approach speeds!
reduced phugoid damping!
lower lift-slope wings!
higher angles for trim!
Vought F7U Cutlass!
Jet-Powered Sea Planes!
McDonnell FH-1 Banshee!
Primarily experimental aircraft!

Overtaken by events!
Saunders-Roe SR.A/1!
Convair XF2Y Sea Dart !
McDonnell F3H-1 Demon !
Martin XP6M Seamaster!
... but perhaps the Be-200 (2004) may

change that!
Beriev Be-200!
North American FJ-2 Fury!
Grumman F9F Panther !
Emphasis on agility and attack!
Northrop F-5E!
Extensions of the 1970s transports (Boeing

757, 767, Airbus A310, A320)!
Introduction of fly-by-wire control, side-stick
hand controllers, glass cockpit (A320)!
Cockpit commonality!
Airbus A310!
Grumman F-14!
Boeing 757!
Airbus A320!
Republic A-10!
McDonnell-Douglas F/A-18!
McDonnell-Douglas F-15!
Boeing 767!
General Dynamics F-16!
Development of Commercial Jets Over

52 Years!
Aerobatics"
Flat Spins Upright Spins and Snap Roll Spins!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pdPBiy0niAc!
Boeing 707-120B
Airbus A340-300
1958
3
Boeing 787-3
Date of Service Entry

Cockpit crew
Passengers
Length
Wingspan
110 (2 class)
145 ft 1 in (44.07 m)
145 ft 9 in (44.42 m)
335 (2-class, typical)

63.60metres (208ft8in)
290-330
186ft (56.7 m)
170ft6in (52.0 m)
Wing Sweep Angle

Wing Area
37.5 deg
3,010 square feet (280 m2)
32.2 deg
3,501sqft (325 m2)
Tail height
Fuselage width
Maximum Takeoff Weight
(MTOW)
Empty weight
42 ft 5 in (12.93 m)
12ft 4 in (3.76 m)
257,000 lb (116,570 kg)
Runway needed at MTOW

Fuel Capacity
11,000 ft (3,330 m)
17,330 US gal (65,590 l)
30 deg
361.6square metres (3,892
sqft)
276,500kilograms (610,000
lb)
130,200kilograms (287,000
lb)
2,990metres (9,810 ft)
147,850litres (39,060US
gal)
7,400nautical miles
(13,700 km; 8,500 mi)
122,533 lb (55,580 kg)
Range at MTOW (max fuel) 4,700 nmi (8,704 km)

Cruising speed
Powerplants
Mach 0.82
17,000lbf (75.6kN) x 4
1991
2
Mach 0.82
139151 kilonewtons
(31,00034,000 lbf) x 4
2011
2
55ft6in (16.9 m)
18ft11in (5.77 m)
375,000lb (170,000
kg)
223,000lb (101,000
kg)
TBD
12,830USgal
(48,567 L)
2,5003,050 nmi
(4,6305,650 km;
2,8803,510 mi)
Mach 0.85
53,000lbf (240kN) x
2
Barrel Roll, Aileron Roll, Loop, Hammerhead!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=84A6cDlSKzY!
Bob Hoover in his Aero Commander Shrike!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tOZEgKXJMCE!
Bob Hoover in his F-86 Sabre!

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TRt6UnNzR6I&feature=related!
Learjet!
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uRmX3pixfj4!
Cruising Flight Performance
U.S. Standard Atmosphere, 1976"

MAE 331, 2012
U.S. Standard Atmosphere"

Airspeed definitions"
Steady, level flight"
Simplified power and thrust models"
Back side of the power/thrust curve"
Performance parameters"
Breguet range equation"
Jet engine"
Propeller-driven (Supplement)"
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/U.S._Standard_Atmosphere!
Definitions of Airspeed"
Dynamic Pressure and Mach Number"
Airspeed is speed of aircraft measured with respect to air mass"

Airspeed = Inertial speed if wind speed = 0"
= air density, function of height

= sealevel e
Indicated Airspeed (IAS)"
a = speed of sound
= linear function of height
IAS = 2 ( pstagnation pambient ) SL =

=
Dynamic pressure = q V 2 2
Mach number = V a
2 ( ptotal pstatic )
SL
2qc
, with qc impact pressure
SL
Calibrated Airspeed (CAS)*"
CAS = IAS corrected for instrument and position errors

=
2 ( qc )corr1
SL
* Kayton & Fried, 1969; NASA TN-D-822, 1961!
Air Data System"
Definitions of Airspeed"
Airspeed is speed of aircraft measured with respect to air mass"
Airspeed = Inertial speed if wind speed = 0"
Equivalent Airspeed (EAS)*"
2 ( qc )corr2
EAS = CAS corrected for compressibility effects =

True Airspeed (TAS)*"
SL
Mach number"
SL
SL
V TAS = EAS
= IAScorrected
(z)
(z)
M=
TAS
a
* Kayton & Fried, 1969; NASA TN-D-822, 1961!
Dynamic and Impact Pressure"

q V 2 2 : Dynamic pressure
qc = ptotal pstatic : Impact pressure
Dynamic pressure also can be expressed in terms of Mach
number and static (ambient) pressure"
pstat ( z ) = amb ( z ) RT ( z ) [Ideal gas law, R = 287.05 J/kg-K]

a ( z ) = RT ( z ) [Speed of sound, T = absolute temperature, K, = 1.4]
M = V a [Mach number]
Substituting!
q amb ( z ) V 2
2 = pstat ( z ) M 2
2
In incompressible flow, dynamic pressure = impact pressure"
Air Speed Indicator!

Altimeter!
Vertical Speed Indicator!
Kayton & Fried, 1969!
Subsonic speed: no shock wave ahead of pitot tube"

Supersonic speed: normal shock wave ahead of pitot tube"
Compressibility Effects on
Impact Pressure"
In subsonic, isentropic compressible flow"
( 1)
ptotal ( z ) # 1 2 &
= %1+
M (
'
pstatic ( z ) $
2
Impact pressure is"
3.5
qc "# ptotal ( z ) pstatic ( z )$% = pstatic ( z ) "&(1+ 0.2M 2 ) 1$'
#
%
In supersonic, isentropic compressible flow, impact

pressure is"
1 1
)
#
&( ) +
+
2
(
+1+ 2 % ( +1)
+
qc = pstatic ( z ) *
M %
1.
(
% 4 2 ( 1) (
+ 2
+
%$
+,
+/
M 2 ('
Longitudinal Variables!
Flight in the
Vertical Plane
Longitudinal Point-Mass
Equations of Motion"
Steady, Level Flight"
Assume thrust is aligned with the velocity

vector (small-angle approximation for )"
Mass = constant"
1 2
1
V S mg sin (CT C D ) V 2 S mg sin
2
2
V =
m
m
1 2
1 2
(CT sin + CL ) V S mg cos CL V S mg cos
2
2
=
mV
mV
h = z = vz = V sin
V = velocity
r = x = vx = V cos
= flight path angle
(CT cos CD )
h = height (altitude)
r = range
Flight path angle = 0"

Altitude = constant"
Airspeed = constant"
Dynamic pressure = constant"
0=
(CT CD ) 2 V 2 S
m
CL
0=
h = 0
r = V
1 2
V S mg
2
mV
Thrust = Drag"
Lift = Weight"
Subsonic Lift and Drag

Coefficients"
Lift coefficient"
Propeller"
Power = P = T V = CT
C L = C Lo + C L
Drag coefficient"
1 3
V S independent of airspeed
2
Turbojet"
C D = C Do + C L2
Thrust = T = CT
Subsonic flight, below

critical Mach number "
C Lo , C L , C Do , constant
Power and Thrust"
1 2
V S independent of airspeed
2
Throttle Effect"
Subsonic!
Incompressible!
Typical Effects of Altitude and

Velocity on Power and Thrust"
T = Tmax T = CTmax TqS, 0 T 1
Thrust of a PropellerDriven Aircraft"

With constant rpm, variable-pitch propeller"
Propeller"
Turbojet"
T = PI
Pengine
V
= net
Pengine
V
where
P = propeller efficiency
I = ideal propulsive efficiency
netmax 0.85 0.9
Efficiencies decrease with airspeed"
Engine power decreases with altitude"
Proportional to air density, w/o supercharger"
Propeller Efficiency, P,
and Advance Ratio, J"
Thrust of a
Turbojet
Engine"
Effect of propeller-blade pitch angle!
1/2
02*#
42
&# &
1,% o (% t ( ( c 1) + t / 15
T = mV
o c .
23+$ o 1 '$ t 1 '
26
Advance Ratio"
J=
where
m = m air + m fuel
V
nD
( 1)/
" p
%
o = $ stag '
; = ratio of specific heats 1.4
# pambient &
"
%
turbine inlet temperature
t = $
'
# freestream ambient temperature &
" compressor outlet temperature %
from Kerrebrock!
c =$
'
# compressor inlet temperature &
where
V = airspeed, m / s
n = rotation rate, revolutions / s
D = propeller diameter, m
from McCormick!
Little change in thrust with airspeed below Mcrit"

Decrease with increasing altitude"
Performance Parameters"
L
Lift-to-Drag Ratio"
Load Factor"
CL
CD
n = L W = L mg ,"g"s
Thrust-to-Weight Ratio"
Wing Loading"
D=
T
W = mg ,"g"s
W , N m 2 or lb ft 2
S
Steady, Level Flight
Trimmed CL and "
Thrust Required for

Trimmed lift
coefficient, CL"
W = C Ltrim qS
Proportional to
# 2 e h &
weight"
1
2
C Ltrim = (W S ) =
W
S
=
W S)
(
)
%
2
2 ((
Decrease with V "
q
V 2
$ 0V '
At constant
airspeed, increases
with altitude"
2
Trimmed angle of attack, "
trim =
Constant if dynamic pressure

and weight are constant"
If dynamic pressure decreases,
angle of attack must increase"
Parasitic Drag!
C L
Necessary and Sufficient

Conditions for Minimum
Required Thrust"
Necessary Condition = Zero Slope!
Ttrim
4 W 2
= C Do ( VS )
=0
V
V 3S
Sufficient Condition for a Minimum = Positive Curvature when slope = 0!
"1 2 %
2W 2
Ttrim = Dcruise = C Do $ V S ' +
#2
& V 2 S
Minimum required thrust conditions"
Necessary Condition
= Zero Slope!
Ttrim
4 W 2
= C Do ( VS )
=0
V
V 3S
Airspeed for
Minimum Thrust in
Ttrim
4 W 2
= C Do ( VS )
=0
V
V 3S
Satisfy necessary
condition"
# 4 &
2
( W S)
V 4 = %%
2 ((
$ C Do '
Fourth-order equation for velocity"

Choose the positive root"
Ttrim
12W
= C Do ( S ) +
>0
2
V
V 4 S
(+)"
(+)"
Induced Drag!
2W V S C Lo
1
(W S ) CLo
q
=
C L
Trimmed thrust"
VMT =
2 "W %
$ '
# S & C Do
Lift Coefficient in
Minimum-Thrust
Cruising Flight"
P-51 Mustang
Minimum-Thrust
Example"
Airspeed for minimum thrust"
Wing Span = 37 ft (9.83 m)

Wing Area = 235 ft 2 (21.83 m 2 )
Loaded Weight = 9, 200 lb (3, 465 kg)
C Do = 0.0163
2 "W %
$ '
# S & C Do
VMT =
= 0.0576
W / S = 39.3 lb / ft 2 (1555.7 N / m 2 )
Corresponding lift coefficient"
Airspeed for minimum thrust!

VMT
2 "W %
2
0.947
76.49
=
=
=
m/s
$ '
(1555.7)
# S & C Do
0.0163
Altitude, m
0
2,500
5,000
10,000
Air Density,
kg/m^3
1.23
0.96
0.74
0.41
VMT, m/s
69.11
78.20
89.15
118.87
Power Required for

Trimmed power"
Parasitic Drag!
Induced Drag!
) "1
% 2W 2 ,
Ptrim = TtrimV = DcruiseV = +C Do $ V 2 S ' +
.V
& V 2 S * #2
Minimum required power conditions"
Ptrim
3
2W 2
2
= C Do ( V S )
=0
V
2
V 2 S
C LMT =
2
2
VMT
C Do
"W %
$ '=
#S&
Airspeed for Minimum

Power in Steady,
Level Flight"
Satisfy necessary condition"
Ptrim
3
2W 2
= C Do ( V 2 S )
=0
V
2
V 2 S
Fourth-order equation for velocity"
Choose the positive root"
VMP =
2 "W %
$ '
# S & 3C Do
Corresponding lift and

drag coefficients"
C LMP =
3C Do
C DMP = 4C Do
Achievable Airspeeds in Cruising Flight"

Back Side of the
Thrust Curve"
Achievable Airspeeds
for Jet in Cruising Flight"
Thrust = constant#
"1
% 2W 2
Tavail = C Do $ V 2 S ' +
#2
& V 2 S
"1
%
2W 2
C Do $ V 4 S ' TavailV 2 +
=0
#2
&
S
V4
4th-order algebraic
equation for V#
Solutions for V can be put in quadratic form and solved easily#
Two equilibrium airspeeds for a given thrust or power setting"
x V 2; V = x
Low speed, high CL, high #

High speed, low CL, low #
TavailV 2
4W 2
+
=0
C Do S C Do ( S )2
ax 2 + bx + c = 0
Achievable airspeeds between minimum and maximum values

with maximum thrust or power#
$ b '2
b
x = & ) c, a = 1
%2(
2
Thrust Required and Thrust

Available for a Typical Bizjet"
Thrust Required and Thrust

Available for a Typical Bizjet"
With increasing altitude, available thrust decreases, and range of

achievable airspeeds decreases"
Stall limitation at low speed"
Mach number effect on lift and drag increases thrust required at high speed"
Typical Simplified Jet Thrust Model!
Tmax (h) = Tmax (SL)
nh
, n <1
(SL)
x
$ h '
x
= Tmax (SL) &
) Tmax (SL)
(SL)
%
(
where
h
, n or x is an empirical constant
(SL)
Typical Stall!
Limit!
Airspeed, Drag Coefficient, and

Lift-to-Drag Ratio for L/Dmax"
Maximum Lift-to-Drag Ratio"

Lift-to-drag ratio"
D=
CL
CL
CD = C + C 2
Do
L
Airspeed!
VL / Dmax = VMT =
2 "W %
$ '
# S & C Do
Satisfy necessary condition for a maximum"
CL
CD
1
2 C L2
=
2
CL
C Do + C L
C Do + C L2
=0
Lift coefficient for maximum L/D

and minimum thrust are the same"
( C L )L / D
max
C Do
= C LMT
Drag !
Coefficient!
Maximum !
L/D!
( C D )L / D
max
= C Do + C Do = 2C Do
( L / D )max =
C Do
2C Do
1
2 C Do
Maximum L/D depends only on induced drag factor

and zero- drag coefficient"
Lift-Drag Polar for a

Typical Bizjet"
P-51 Mustang
Maximum L/D
Example"
L/D equals slope of line drawn from the origin"

Single maximum for a given polar"
Two solutions for lower L/D (high and low airspeed)"
Available L/D decreases with Mach number"
( C D )L / D
max
Intercept for L/Dmax depends only on and zero-lift drag"
( C L )L / D
max
= 2C Do = 0.0326
Wing Span = 37 ft (9.83 m)

Note different scales
for lift and drag!
Wing Area = 235 ft (21.83 m 2 )

Loaded Weight = 9, 200 lb (3, 465 kg)
C Do = 0.0163
( L / D )max =
C Do
= C LMT = 0.531
1
= 16.31
2 C Do
VL / Dmax = VMT =
76.49
m/s
= 0.0576
W / S = 1555.7 N / m 2
Altitude, m
0
2,500
5,000
10,000
Air Density,
kg/m^3
1.23
0.96
0.74
0.41
VMT, m/s
69.11
78.20
89.15
118.87
Cruising Range and

Specific Fuel Consumption"
1
0=
(CT CD ) 2 V 2 S
m
CL
Optimal Cruising Flight
0=
h = 0
r = V
1 2
V S mg
2
mV
Thrust = Drag"
Lift = Weight"
Specific fuel consumption, SFC = cP or cT"

Propeller aircraft"
w f = cP P
Jet aircraft"
w f = cT T
[ proportional to power ]
[ proportional to thrust ]
kg s
or
kW
kg s
cT :
or
kN
where
w f = fuel weight
cP :
Louis Breguet,
1880-1955!
Breguet Range Equation

for Jet Aircraft"
Rate of change of range with respect to weight of fuel burned"
"L% V
dr dr dt r
V
V
=
= =
=
= $ '
# D & cT W
dw dw dt w (cT T )
cT D
"L% V
dr = $ '
dw
# D & cT W
Dassault !
Etendard IV!
For constant true airspeed, V = Vcruise!
%
" L %" V
Wf
R = $ '$ cruise ' ln ( w ) W
i
# D &# cT &
Range traveled"
R
Range = R =
Breguet Range
Equation for Jet Aircraft"
Wf
# L &# V & dw
(
T ' w
Wi
dr = %$ D ('%$ c
0
% "W
" L %" V
= $ '$ cruise ' ln $$ i
# D &# cT & # W f
% " C %" V
% "W
'' = $ L '$ cruise ' ln $$ i
& # C D &# cT & # W f
%
''
&
lb s
HP
lb s
lbf
Maximum Range of a
Jet Aircraft Flying at
Constant True Airspeed"
Maximum Range of a Jet Aircraft

Flying at Constant True Airspeed"
Breguet range equation for constant V = Vcruise"
!
C $! 1 $ ! W $
R = #Vcruise L &# & ln ## i &&
C D %" cT % " W f %
"
!Vcruise as fast as possible"

! as small as possible"
!h as high as possible"
For given initial and final weight, range is maximized when

product of V and L/D is maximized"
C Do
R (VC L C D )
=
= 0 leading to C LMR =
CL
CL
3
C LMR =
C Do
3
: Lift Coefficient for Maximum Range
Maximum Range of a
Jet Aircraft Flying at
Constant Altitude"
At constant altitude"
Vcruise ( t ) =
2W ( t )
C L h fixed S
! Cruise-climb usually violates air

traffic control rules"
! Constant-altitude cruise does not"
! Compromise: Step climb from
one allowed altitude to the next"
Wf
" C %" 1 %
2 dw
Range = $ L '$ '
12
C
c
C
L S w
Wi # D & # T &
" C %" 2 % 2
= $$ L ''$ '
(Wi1 2 W f1 2 )
# C D &# cT & S
Range is maximized when "
(* = minimum
! C $
## L && = maximum and )
*+ h = maximum
" CD %
Because weight decreases as fuel burns, and V is

assumed constant, altitude must increase to hold CL
constant at its best value ( cruise-climb )"
C LMR q ( t ) S = W ( t )
q (t ) =
1
" W ( t ) % 3
2
( t )Vcruise
=$
'
2
# S & C Do
(t) = o e h(t ) =
2 $ W (t) ' 3
&% S )( C
V
Do
2
cruise
h !"W ( t ) ,Vcruise #$
Next Time:
Gliding, Climbing, and
Turning Flight
Reading
Flight Dynamics, 130-141, 147-155
Virtual Textbook, Parts 6,7
Air Data Probes"

Stagnation/static pressure probe"
Redundant pitot tubes on F-117"
Supplemental Material

Cessna 172 pitot tube"
Total and static temperature probe"
Redundant pitot
tubes on Fouga
Magister"
Total and static pressure ports
on Concorde"
X-15 Q Ball "
Flight Testing Instrumentation"

Air data measurement far from
disturbing effects of the aircraft"
# pstagnation ,Tstagnation
%
pstatic ,Tstatic
%
z=%
B
%
%
B
$
& # Stagnation pressure and temperature

( %
Static pressure and temperature
( %
(=%
Angle of attack
( %
( %
Sideslip angle
' $
Trailing Tail Cones for Accurate

Static Pressure Measurement"
&
(
(
(
(
('
Air data measurement far from disturbing

effects of the aircraft"
Air Data Instruments

( Steam Gauges )"
Modern Aircraft Cockpit Panels"

Cirrus SR-22 Panel"
Boeing 777 Glass Cockpit "
Calibrated Airspeed Indicator"
Altimeter"
1 knot = 1 nm / hr
= 1.151 st. mi. / hr = 1.852 km / hr
Air Data Computation for

Subsonic Aircraft"
Air Data Computation for

Supersonic Aircraft"
The Mysterious Disappearance of

Air France Flight 447 (Airbus A330-200)"
Back Side of
the Power
Curve"
Achievable Airspeeds
in Propeller-Driven
Cruising Flight"
Power = constant#
Pavail = TavailV
V4
PavailV
4 W 2
+
=0
C Do S C Do ( S )2
Solutions for V cannot be put in quadratic form; solution is

more difficult, e.g., Ferrari s method#
aV 4 + ( 0 )V 3 + ( 0 )V 2 + dV + e = 0
Visual examination showed that the airplane
was not destroyed in flight; it appears to have
struck the surface of the sea in level flight with
high vertical acceleration. !
Suspected Failure of
Thales Heated Pitot Probe!
BEA Interim Reports, 7/2/2009 & 11/30/2009!

http://www.bea.aero/en/enquetes/flight.af.447/flight.af.447.php!
Best bet: roots in MATLAB#
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/AF_447!

for Propeller-Driven
Aircraft"
Breguet 890 Mercure!

for Propeller-Driven
Aircraft"
Rate of change of range with respect to weight of fuel burned"
" L %" 1 %
Wf
R = $ '$ ' ln ( w ) W
i
# D & # cP &
"L% 1
dr r
V
V
V
= =
=
=
= $ '
# D & cPW
dw w (cP P )
cPTV
cP DV
" C %" 1 % " W

= $ L '$ ' ln $$ i
# C D & # cP & # W f
Range traveled"
R
Range = R =
Wf
# L &# 1 & dw
(
P' w
Wi
dr = %$ D ('%$ c
0
For constant true airspeed, V = Vcruise!
%
''
&
Range is maximized when "
! CL $
# & = maximum = L D
" CD %
( )
max
Breguet Atlantique!
P-51 Mustang
Maximum Range
(Internal Tanks only)"
W = C Ltrim qS
C Ltrim =
# 2 e h &
1
2
(W S ) = 2 (W S ) = % 2 ( (W S )
q
V
$ 0V '
!C $ ! 1 $ !W
R = # L & # & ln ## i
" C D %max " cP % " W f
$
&&
%
! 1 $ ! 3, 465 + 600 $
= (16.31) #
& ln #
&
" 0.0017 % " 3, 465 %
= 1,530 km ((825 nm )
Gliding, Climbing, and Turning

Flight Performance
MAE 331, 2012
The Flight Envelope
Flight envelope"
Minimum glide angle/rate"
Maximum climb angle/rate"
V-n diagram"
Energy climb"
Corner velocity turn"
Herbst maneuver"
Flight Envelope Determined by

Available Thrust"
Flight Envelope: Encompasses all altitudes

and airspeeds at which an aircraft can fly "
Additional Factors Define the

Flight Envelope"
in steady, level flight "

at fixed weight"
Piper Dakota Stall Buffet"
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mCCjGAtbZ4g!
Flight ceiling defined by

available climb rate"
Absolute: 0 ft/min"
Service: 100 ft/min"
Performance: 200 ft/min"
Excess thrust provides the

ability to accelerate or climb"
Maximum Mach number"

Maximum allowable
aerodynamic heating"
Maximum thrust"
Maximum dynamic
pressure"
Performance ceiling"
Wing stall"
Flow-separation buffet"
Angle of attack"
Local shock waves"
Boeing 787 Flight

Envelope (HW #5, 2008)"
Best
Cruise
Region"
Gliding Flight
Equilibrium Gliding Flight"
Gliding Flight"
Thrust = 0"
Flight path angle < 0 in gliding flight"
Altitude is decreasing"
Airspeed ~ constant"
Air density ~ constant "
Gliding flight path angle "
D = CD
1 2
V S = W sin
2
1 2
V S = W cos
2
h = V sin
r = V cos
CL
tan =
#D&
#L&
D
C
h dh
= D = = ; = tan 1 % ( = cot 1 % (
$L'
$D'
L
C L r dr
Corresponding airspeed"
Vglide =
2W
S C D2 + C L2
Maximum Steady
Gliding Range"
Maximum Steady Gliding Range"
Glide range is maximum when is least negative,

i.e., most positive"
This occurs at (L/D)max "
#D&
#L&
max = tan 1 % ( = cot 1 % (
$ L 'min
$ D 'max
tan =
Glide range is maximum when is least negative, i.e.,
most positive"
This occurs at (L/D)max "
Sink Rate"
Lift and drag define and V in gliding equilibrium"
1
1
L = C L V 2 S = W cos
D = C D V 2 S = W sin
2
2
2W cos
D
V=
sin =
C L S
W
Sink rate = altitude rate, dh/dt (negative)"
h = V sin
=
2W cos $ D '
2W cos $ L '$ D '
& )=
& )& )
CL S % W (
C L S % W (% L (
$ 1 '
2W cos
cos &
=
)
CL S
%L D(
r =
h
(h ho )
= negative constant =
r
(r ro )
h
h
L
=
= maximum when = maximum
tan tan
D
Conditions for Minimum

Steady Sink Rate"
Minimum sink rate provides maximum endurance"
Minimize sink rate by setting (dh/dt)/dCL = 0 (cos ~1)"
$C '
2W cos
cos & D )
h =
CL S
% CL (
2 $ W ' $ CD '
2W cos 3 $ C D '
=
& )&
& 3/2 )
)
S
% S ( % C L3/2 (
% CL (
C LME =
3C Do
and C DME = 4C Do
L/D for Minimum Sink Rate"

L/D and VME for Minimum Sink Rate"
( L D)
ME
VME =
3
1
3 L
=
D
2
4 C Do
( )
2W
2
DME
S C + C
2
LME
max
( )
0.86 L D
( )
max
2 (W S )
0.76VL Dmax
3C Do
Gliding Flight of the

P-51 Mustang"
Maximum Range Glide"
Loaded Weight = 9,200 lb (3, 465 kg)
( L / D )max =
1
= 16.31
2 C Do
$L'
MR = cot 1 & ) = cot 1 (16.31) = 3.51
% D (max
(CD ) L/D
= 2C Do = 0.0326
(CL ) L/D
max
max
VL/Dmax =
C Do
= 0.531
76.49
m/s
4.68
m/s
hL/Dmax = V sin =
Rho =10 km = (16.31) (10 ) = 163.1 km
Maximum Endurance Glide"
Loaded Weight = 9,200 lb (3, 465 kg)

S = 21.83 m 2
C DME = 4C Do = 4 ( 0.0163) = 0.0652
C LME =
( L D ) ME
3C Do
= 14.13
3 ( 0.0163)
= 0.921
0.0576
2 $ W ' $ C DME '

4.11
)=
m/s
hME =
& )&
% S ( &% C L3/2ME )(
ME = 4.05
58.12
m/s
VME =
( )
L
L
For L/D < L/Dmax, there are two solutions"
D ME 0.86 D
Which one produces minimum sink rate?" V 0.76V
ME
L Dmax
Climbing Flight
max
Climbing Flight"
Flight path angle "
Climb rate "
Required lift"
(T D W sin )
V = 0 =
m
T
D
(
) ; = sin1 (T D )
sin =
W
W
= 0 =
( L W cos )
mV
L = W cos
L = CL q S = W cos
# W & cos
CL = % (
$S' q
# W & cos
V = 2% (
$ S ' CL
2 *
h = V ,!# T $& C Do q (W S ) cos /
q
+" W % (W S )
.
Pthrust Pdrag
Excess Power
Specific Excess Power (SEP) =
W
Unit Weight
*
C + C L2 ) q h = V sin = V ,"$ T %' ( Do
/
(W S ) /.
,+# W &
Note significance of thrust-to-weight ratio and wing loading"
Rate of climb, dh/dt = Specific Excess Power "
(T D ) = Pthrust Pdrag
h = V sin = V
W
W
Steady Rate of Climb"
! T ( h ) $ C Do ( h ) V 3 2 (W S ) cos 2
=V#
&
(h)V
2 (W S )
" W %
Maximum Steady"
Rate of Climb:"
Propeller-Driven Aircraft"
Condition for Maximum

Steady Rate of Climb"
! T $ C V 3 2 (W S ) cos 2
h = V # & Do
" W % 2 (W S )
V
At constant power"
With cos2 ~ 1, optimality condition reduces to"
3C V 2 2 (W S )
h
= 0 = Do
+
V
2 (W S )
V 2
Necessary condition for a maximum with

respect to airspeed"
(" T %
" T / V %+ 3C Do V 2 2 (W S ) cos 2
h
= 0 = *$ ' +V $
+
'-
# W &, 2 (W S )
V 2
V
)# W &
(" T %
" T / V %+
Pthrust
= 0 = *$ ' +V $
'#
# W &,
&
V
) W
Airspeed for maximum rate of climb at maximum power, Pmax"

2
! 4 $ (W S )
(W S ) = V
V =# &
; V= 2
ME
2
" 3 % C Do
3C Do
4
Maximum Steady Rate

of Climb:"
Jet-Driven Aircraft"
Condition for a maximum at constant thrust and cos2 ~ 1"
h
=0
V
=
=
#T &
2 (W S )
V 4 + % (V 2 +
$
'
W
2 (W S )
3C Do
3C Do
2 2
(V )
2 (W S )
Optimal Climbing Flight
#T &
2 (W S )
+ % ( (V 2 ) +
$W '
Airspeed for maximum rate of climb at maximum thrust, Tmax"
0 = ax 2 + bx + c and V = + x
What is the Fastest Way to Climb from

One Flight Condition to Another?"
Energy Height"
Specific Energy "
= (Potential + Kinetic Energy) per Unit Weight"
= Energy Height"
Total Energy
mgh + mV 2 2
V2
Specific Energy =
=h+
Unit Weight
mg
2g
Energy Height, Eh , ft or m
Could trade altitude with airspeed with no change in energy

height if thrust and drag were zero"
Specific Excess Power"

Rate of change of Specific Energy "
dEh d ! V 2 $ dh ! V $ dV
= #h + & = + # &
dt dt " 2g % dt " g % dt
Contours of Constant
Specific Excess Power"
Specific Excess Power is a function of altitude and airspeed"
SEP is maximized at each altitude, h, when" d [ SEP(h)]
=0
dV
1
(CT CD ) (h)V 2 S
" V %" T D mgsin %
T D)
(
2
= V sin + $ '$
=V
'=V
&
W
m
W
# g &#
= Specific Excess Power (SEP) =
Excess Power ( Pthrust Pdrag )
Unit Weight
W
Subsonic Energy Climb"

Objective: Minimize time or fuel to climb to desired altitude
and airspeed"
Supersonic Energy Climb"

Objective: Minimize time or fuel to climb to desired altitude
and airspeed"
Typical Maneuvering Envelope:

V-n Diagram"
The Maneuvering Envelope
Maneuvering envelope: limits

on normal load factor and
allowable equivalent airspeed"
Structural factors"
Maximum and minimum
achievable lift coefficients"
Maximum and minimum
airspeeds"
Protection against
overstressing due to gusts"
Corner Velocity: Intersection
of maximum lift coefficient
and maximum load factor"
Typical positive load factor limits"
Transport: > 2.5"

Utility: > 4.4"
Aerobatic: > 6.3"
Fighter: > 9"
Typical negative load factor limits"
Transport: < 1"

Others: < 1 to 3"
C-130 exceeds maneuvering envelope"

http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4bDNCac2N1o&feature=related!
Maneuvering Envelopes (V-n Diagrams)

for Three Fighters of the Korean War Era"
Republic F-84"
Lockheed F-94"
North American F-86"
Turning Flight
Level Turning Flight"
: Bank Angle
Maximum Bank Angle in

Level Flight"
Level flight = constant altitude"

Sideslip angle = 0"
Vertical force equilibrium"
L cos = W
Load factor"
cos =
n = L W = L mg = sec ,"g"s
= Do +
) 12 V S = D
2
o +
W
1
= =W
C L qS n
2 # W &
V 2 S %$ cos ('
2
( nW )2
V 2 S
Turning Rate and Radius in Level Flight"
C qS sin W tan g tan

= L
=
=
=
mV
mV
V
W n2 1
=
mV
(T
req
C Lmax or Tmax or nmax
Maximum Turn Rates"
L2 W 2
mV
Do V 2 S 2 W 2
mV
Turning rate is limited by "
C Lmax or Tmax or nmax

Turning radius "
V
V2
Rturn = =
g n2 1
2
/
2
(Treq Do ) V S /.
Bank angle is limited by "
Turning rate"
2
2
D
req
o ) V S
(T
*
$ W '
1 $ 1 '
1
= cos1 &
) = cos & ) = cos ,W
%n(
,+
% C L qS (
Thrust required to maintain level flight"
Treq = C Do + C L2
Bank angle"
: Bank Angle
Wind-up
turns"
Corner Velocity Turn"
Corner Velocity Turn"

Corner velocity"
Turning rate "

2nmaxW
C Lmas S
Vcorner =
For steady climbing or diving flight"

T D
sin = max
W
Rturn =
V cos
V cos
2
g nmax
cos 2
Altitude gain/loss "
V 2 cos 2
2
max
Time to complete a full circle "

t2 =
Turning radius "
2
cos 2
g nmax
g n cos
h2 = t 2 V sin
Not a turning rate comparison "
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=z5aUGum2EiM!
Herbst Maneuver"
Minimum-time reversal of direction"

Kinetic-/potential-energy exchange"
Yaw maneuver at low airspeed"
X-31 performing the maneuver"
Next Time:
Aircraft Equations of Motion
Reading
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Aircraft Control Devices

Design for Control"

Robert Stengel, Aircraft Flight Dynamics, MAE 331,

Elevator/stabilator: pitch control"

Leading-edge flaps/slats: High-angle

Mechanical, Power-Boosted System"

Critical Issues for Control"

Control Surface Dynamics

Aerodynamic and Mechanical

C H surface = C H + C H + C H + C H command + ...

Angle of Attack and

Floating and Restoring

Positive angle of attack produces negative moment on the elevator"

Horizontal tail with

Horizontal tail with

Dynamic Model of a Control

Positive elevator deflection produces a negative ( restoring )

Dynamic Model of a Control

mechanism dynamics = external forcing

Bring all torques and inertias to right side"

I elevator = effective inertia of surface, linkages, etc.

= $%C HE E + C H E E + C H + C H command + ...&' 2

Coupling of System Model and Control

Short Period Model Augmented by

Command input from cockpit"

Augmented dynamic equation"

Control surface deflection"

Short period approximation"

Coupling of the modes

Roots of the Augmented Short

Characteristic equation for short-period/elevator dynamics"

Augmented stability and control matrices"

Roots of the Augmented Short

Desirable for mechanical natural

Inertial and aerodynamic

improves pitch stability, to a

Too much horn area"

Degradesrestoring moment "

C H < 0 : reduces short-period stability

All-Moving Control Surfaces"

Area in front of the

Particularly effective at supersonic speed (Boeing

North American X-15!

Control Surface Types

Cross-coupling effects can be adverse or

Abzug & Larrabee, 2002!

Spoiler reduces lift, increases drag"

Combined pitch and roll control

General Dynamics F-106!

Plug-slot spoiler on P-61 Black

Abzug & Larrabee, 2002!

North American P-61!

Yaw Control of Tailless Configurations"

Typically unstable in pitch and yaw"

McDonnell Douglas X-36!

Rudder Has Mechanical As Well as

Rudder provides yaw control"

Strong rolling effect, particularly at high "

NTSB Simulation of American

Control Mechanization Effects"

Nonlinear Control Mechanism Effects"

Control Mechanization Effects"

B-52 Control Compromises to

Limited-authority rudder, allowed by "