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PROFESSOR INDUCTION
by Valery I. Rudnev, FASM, Inductoheat Group

Professor Induction welcomes

comments, questions, and
suggestions for future columns.
Since 1993, Dr. Rudnev has been
on the staff of Inductoheat Group,
where he currently serves as group
director science and technology.
In the past, he was an associate
professor at several universities. His expertise is in materials
science, metallurgy, heat treating, applied electromagnetics,
computer modeling, and process development. Dr. Rudnev
is a member of the editorial boards of several journals,
including Microstructure and Materials Properties and
Materials and Product Technology. He has 28 years of
experience in induction heating. Credits include 16 patents
and 128 scientific and engineering publications.
Contact Dr. Rudnev at Inductoheat Group
32251 North Avis Drive
Madison Heights, MI 48071
tel: 248/629-5055; fax: 248/589-1062
e-mail: rudnev@inductoheat.com
Web: www.inductoheat.com

Metallurgical insights
for induction heat treaters
PART 3: LIMITATIONS OF TTT AND CCT DIAGRAMS
This is the third part of the series that alternates with Systematic analysis of induction coil failures. The coil failures series will resume in the January/February
2008 Heat Treating Progress.

ime-temperature-transformation
(TTT) and continuous-coolingtransformation (CCT) diagrams
are widely used by heat treaters to determine the end products of austenite
transformation when steel is cooled
below the A1 critical temperature (Figures 1 and 2).15 Time is plotted on the
x axis (a logarithmic scale) versus temperature on the y axis.
A distinguishing feature of TTT diagrams (Fig. 1) is the presence of two
S-shaped curves (sometimes referred
to as C-shaped curves). The left solid
curve represents the beginning (start)
of the transformation process and the
right solid curve designates the end
of the isothermal transformation. Often
TTT diagrams show a curve between
the transformation start and end
curves that represents the completion
of 50% of the transformation of the
austenite.
In contrast to phase transformation
diagrams, and because there is no representation of carbon content or combination of alloying elements for the
steel under consideration, a different

Fig. 1 Isothermal transformation or time-temperature-transformation (TTT) diagram for AISI 1020 plain carbon steel, austenitized at 900C (1650F); grain size: 6 (Ref. 3 and
5). Legend: = austenite, = ferrite, M = martensite.

HEAT TREATING PROGRESS NOVEMBER/DECEMBER 2007

chart is required for each grade of

steel.
CCT diagrams (Fig. 2) allow prediction of the final microstructure of
the steel taking into account the continuous cooling of austenite. CCT diagrams are typically slightly shifted to
lower temperatures and longer times
compared with TTT diagrams.
Although TTT and CCT diagrams
are helpful, there are several limitations when trying to apply them to induction hardening.
The diagrams limitations
Both the TTT and CCT diagrams
were developed assuming homogeneous austenite, which is not always
the case in induction hardening. Rapid
induction heating appreciably affects
the kinetics of austenite formation and
carbon distribution within it.1,6
If heterogeneous austenite results,
it, among other factors, means that
there is a nonuniform distribution of
carbon. Upon quenching, decomposition of heterogeneous austenite first
begins in regions of lower carbon concentration. This results in a shift of the
CCT curve to the left and an increase in the Ms (martensite start) temperature. The CCT curve for regions
having excessive amounts of carbon
will be shifted in the opposite direction with a corresponding decrease in
the Ms temperature. Therefore, cooling
of high- and low-carbon concentration areas of heterogeneous austenite
would be represented by different critical cooling curves.
Non-isothermal process: TTT diagrams assume an isothermal process,
where the steel component upon
cooling is held at a fixed temperature
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PROFESSOR INDUCTION continued

below the A1 critical temperature,
which is never the case in induction
hardening. While CCT diagrams take
into consideration continuous cooling
during quenching, the cooling curve
assumes a particular (typically constant) cooling rate, which is often not a
valid assumption in spray quenching,
particularly in induction scan hardening applications.7
In addition, the samples used to develop these diagrams had small cross
sections. Therefore, there will be inherent errors in trying to apply the
curves to larger components and parts
having complex shapes (gears and
shafts, for example). Also note that
components having different surface
area-to-volume ratios have different
cooling characteristics.
Heat transfer: In induction hardening, the heat-exchange process between the surface of the heated component and the quenchant is a

Fig. 2 Continuous cooling-transformation (CCT) diagram for AISI 15B41 steel

(0.42 C, 1.61 Mn, 0.29 Si, 0.006 P, 0.019 S, 0.004 B), grain size: 78 (Ref. 4). Legend: A
= austenite, F = ferrite, P = pearlite, B = bainite, and M = martensite. Hardness values are
Rockwell C or B scale.
function, among other factors, of the
surface temperature, which is not constant. In addition, the workpiece temperature prior to quenching (the
austenitizing temperature) is typically
not identical to that in the materials
CCT diagram. Also, the temperature

distribution prior to quenching is

nonuniform.
The existence of a cold core that acts
as a heat sink has a marked effect on
the severity of the cooling rate during
quenching. In induction surface hardening (case hardening), the total

Fig. 3 Computer modeling results illustrate the dynamics of induction scan hardening as a sequence of process stages while a single-turn, MIQtype inductor moves along a carbon steel shaft. Frequency: 10 kHz. Presence of radial and longitudinal heat sink effects can clearly be observed.
To accommodate the shafts geometry, coil power and scan rate were varied at different process stages. To properly harden the shafts fillet area, a 3 second
dwell is incorporated at the beginning of the cycle. During the dwell, the inductor is energized but does not move, and no quenchant is applied.

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Page 3

quench severity is a product of the

severity of surface cooling by the
quenchant and internal cooling due to
thermal conduction of heat from the
surface toward the cold core (the socalled heat sink phenomenon).
To complicate matters further, in
induction scan hardening, there is
both radial cooling and axial (longitudinal) heat transfer. It is important
to take axial thermal conduction into
consideration when low and moderate scan rates are applied.
Process simulation: Computer
modeling can be used to dramatically
illustrate the dynamics of induction
scan hardening as a sequence of different process stages. The example
shown in Fig. 3 is for a single-turn
MIQ (machined integral quench)-type
inductor moving along a carbon steel
shaft. Frequency is 10 kHz. Both radial
cooling and longitudinal heat transfer
due to the heat sink effect can clearly
be seen. To accommodate the shafts
geometry, shown in Fig. 3(a), coil
power and scan rate were varied at
different process stages. To properly
harden the shafts fillet area, a 3 second
dwell was incorporated at the beginning of the scan, Fig. 3(b) and (c),
where the inductor was energized but
did not move. Quenching was not applied during this inductor dwell.
When higher frequencies and
shorter heating times are used for
larger parts (greater diameters or
thicknesses), the heat sink or cold core
effect is more pronounced, which increases overall cooling severity.
Use with care: Therefore, although
TTT and CCT diagrams can help heat
treaters understand the basic phenomena and principles of heat treatment, they have inherent limitations
when applied to induction hardening,
and should be applied with
care.

3. Induction Heat Treatment of Steel, by S. L.

Semiatin and D. E. Stutz: ASM International, Materials Park, Ohio, 1986, 308 p.
4. Atlas of Isothermal Transformation and
Cooling Transformation Diagrams, ASM International, Matls Park, Ohio, 1977, 422 p.
5. Atlas of Time-Temperature Diagrams for
Irons and Steels, George F. Vander Voort
(Ed.): ASM International, Materials Park,
Ohio, 1991, 766 p.

6. Metallurgical Insights for Induction

Heat Treaters, Part 1: Induction Hardening
Temperatures, by Valery I. Rudnev: Heat
Treating Progress, Vol. 7, No. 3, May/June
2007, p. 1517.
7. Metallurgical Insights for Induction
Heat Treaters, Part 2: Spray Quenching
Subtleties, by Valery I. Rudnev: Heat
Treating Progress, Vol. 7, No. 5, August
2007, p. 1920.

References
1. Handbook of Induction Heating, by V.
Rudnev, D. Loveless, R. Cook, and M.
Black: Marcel Dekker Inc., New York, 2003,
800 p.
2. Be aware of the Fine Print in the science of metallurgy of induction hardening:
Part 1, by V. Rudnev: Industrial Heating,
March 2005, p. 3742.

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