Biology Chapter 1 Federal Board

A Textbook of
BIOLOGY
11
National Curriculum 2006
A TEXTBOOK OF
BIOLOGY
11
Dr. Sarwat Jawaid

Prof. Wasiullah Khan
Prof. Jawaid Mohsin Malik
National Book Foundation
Islamabad
Lahore - Rawalpindi - Multan - Bahawalpur - Karachi - Sukkur
Hyderabad - Larkana - Peshawar - Abbottabad - Quetta
Mardan - Saidu Sharif - Bannu - Faisalabad - Kohat - Jakobabad
Dera Ismail Khan - Wah Cantt..
Textbook of Biology - 11
c 2009, National Book Foundation, Islamabad.
All rights reseved. This volume may not be reproduced
in whole or in part in any form without prior written
permission from the publisher.
First Edition: ..............................................
Quantity:................................
Price:.....................
ISBN:.................
For information about other National Book Foundation publications, visit
our web site http://www.nbf.org.pk. or call 92-51-9261125
or Email at: books@nbf.org.pk
Managing Author and Editor Prof. Jawaid Mohsin Malik
Written by Dr. Sarwat Jawaid, M.B.B.S, M.P.H
(Chapter 11,12,13)
Prof. Wasiullah Khan, M.Sc., M.Phil
(Chapter 10)
Prof. Jawaid Mohsin Malik, M.Sc
(Chapter 1,2,3,4,5,6,7,8,9)
Reviewed by: Prof Naubahar Bano, M.Sc
Members of the National Review Committee (NRC)
1.
Prof. Hamid Saeed

Department of Biologial Sciences,
Forman Christian College University
Lahore
2.
Mr. M. Nadeem Asghar

Subject Specialist (Biology)
Punjab Textbook Board, Lahore
3.
Shahnawaz Cheema
Professor, Department of Botany,
Forman Christian College University, Lahore
4.
Prof. Dr. Zaheer-ud-Din Khan

Professor of Botany,
Government College University, Lahore
5.
Mr. Farrukh Shahbaz Hussain

Associate Professor of Botany
Girls Primary Education Project-II, Lahore
6.
Prof. Mohammad Riaz Khan

Principal Government Degree College,
Baatgram
7.
Dr. Javed Kausar

Head Zoology Deptt.,
Islamabad College for Boys, Islamabad.
8.
Prof. Israr Ali

Vice Principal
Islamabad Model College for Boys, Islamabad
9.
Mr. Mohammad Hanif

Senior Research Officer,
Ministry of Education (CW), Islamabad.
Preface
With the advancement of science and technology the status, lifestyle and culture
of todays man have considerably changed during the last two decades. Due to which
the subject of biology has emerged as an integral part of education in general and
science education in particular. The teaching of biology at school and college levels
has become inevitable. Now, it holds prime importance in National Education Policy,
curriculum development and text book writing.
The textbook for class XI has been developed in accordance with the demands
of the National Curriculum 2006 which targets all students to develop their individual
capacities as successful learners, confident individuals, responsible citizens and
effective contributors of social development. The curriculum is based on attainment
of standard, benchmark and learning outcomes.
The standard includes higher thinking, deep knowledge, problem solving
substantive conversation and corrections to the world beyond the class room and
achieve the target set by the curriculum. The special features of the textbook are:
Each chapter begins with a brief recalling statement i.e. introduction to the
chapter.
The textbook has coloured illustrations to capture the students attention.

Where necessary, concept mapping has also been incorporated.
Necessary Tit Bits and Critical Thinking have been added in each chapter
for motivating the students to apply their intelligence and acquire more
knowledge.
The exercises include multiple choice questions, short answer questions and
extensive questions.
At the end of the book a glossary and an index have been annexed.
In each chapter Science, Technology and Society connections are explained in

accordance with the curriculum. These interventions will serve as a guide for
evaluating the students skills development through the chapter knowledge and their
abilities to apply knowledge to the scientific and social problems. The duration or
the number of periods is also allocated to complete each chapter, so that the teachers
can develop their teaching strategy and plans in an effective manner accordingly.
Aknowledgement and references are also included. Efforts have been made to
contact the holders of copyright but without success. To them the authors offer their
apologies hoping they will take our liberty in good faith. The authors would appreciate
information that will anable us to acknowledge the copyright holders in future
editions of this book.
September 2010
Authors
CONTENTS
Chapter
SECTION 1 Cell Biology

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
Techniques used in Cell Biology

Cell wall and Plasma Membrane
Cytoplasm and Organelles
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
BIOLOGICAL MOLECULES
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
Biological Molecules in Protoplasm

Importance of Water
Carbohydrates
Proteins
Lipids
Nucleic Acids
Conjugated Molecules
ENZYMES
3.1 Structure of Enzymes
3.2 Mechanism of Enzyme Action
3.3 Factors Affecting the Rate of
Enzymatic Action
3.4 Enzyme Inhibition
3.5 Classification of Enzymes
2
2
8
14
31
38
39
42
44
52
55
62
72
78
79
80
84
87
89
BIOENERGETICS
4.1 Photosynthesis
4.2 Cellular Respiration
4.3 Photorespirtion
95
96
110
123
SECTION 2 Biodiversity
ACELLULAR LIFE
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
Viruses: Discovery and Structure

Parasitic Nature of Virus
Life cycle of Bacteriophage
Life cycle of Human Immunodeficiency
Virus
5.5 Viral Diseases
5.6 Prions and Viroids
PROKARYOTES
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
Taxonomy of Prokaryotes
Archaea
Bacteria: Ecology and Diversity
Structure; Shape and Size of Bacteria
Modes of Nutrition in Bacteria
Growth and Reproduction in Bacteria
Importance of Bacteria
The Bacterial Flora of Human
Control of Harmful Bacteria
132
132
138
141
144
149
153
157
157
158
160
163
169
171
175
183
184
PROTISTS AND FUNGI

7.1 Protists The Evolutionary
Relationships
7.2 Major groups of Protists
7.3 General characteristics of Fungi
7.4 Diversity among Fungi
7.5 Importance of Fungi
DIVERSITY AMONG PLANTS

8.1
8.2
8.3
8.4
Evolutionary Origin of Plants

Non-Vascular Plants
Seedless Vascular Plants
Seed Plants
DIVERSITY AMONG ANIMALS

9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
Characteristics of Animals
Criteria of Animal Classification
Diversity in Animals
Chordates
190
190
192
201
203
209
220
220
222
227
236
251
251
253
260
278
SECTION 3 Life Processes
10
FORM AND FUNCTIONS IN PLANTS

10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
Nutrition in Plants
Gaseous Exchange in Plants
Transport in Plants
Homeostasis in Plants
Support in Plants
302
303
306
307
317
321
VII
11
10.6 Growth and Development in Plants

10.7 Growth Responses in Plants
DIGESTION
11.1 Digestive System of Man
11.2 Disorders: Digestive System and
Food Habits
12
CIRCULATION
13
IMMUNITY
12.1
12.2
12.3
12.4
12.5
Blood Circulatory System of Man

Blood Vessels
Blood Pressure and its Measurement
Cardiovascular Disorders
Lymphatic System of Man
13.1 First Line of Defence

13.2 Second Line of Defence The Non-specific Defence
13.3 Third Line of Defence The Specific Defences
323
327
339
339
358
366
367
376
385
388
394
405
406
408
414
Acknowledgement and References
430
Glossary
431
Index
443
SECTION
Cell Biology
CHAPTER
CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Major Concepts:
1.1
Techniques used in Cell Biology (2 Periods)
1.2
Cell wall and Plasma Membrane (2 Periods)
1.3
Cytoplasm and Organelles (10 Periods)
1.4
Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells (2 Periods)
Number of allotted
teaching periods: 16
You are quite familiar with the word cell. A cell is the smallest unit
of living matter. According to German biologist Rudolf Virchow
(pronunciation: Firkoh) every cell comes from a pre-existing cell. By the
middle of the nineteenth century, biologists clearly recognized that all living
things are composed of cells. This is known as cell theory. The cell theory is
one of the unifying concepts of biology. A cell is also the functional unit of
the organism. Cells can take in nutrients, break them down to release energy,
and get rid of wastes. They can reproduce, react to stimuli, and maintain
internal environment different from their surroundings. This chapter will help
you to become familiar with the structure of cells and how they work.
1.1 TECHNIQUES USED IN CELL BIOLOGY

How can you study the structure and functions of cell and its
organelles? To know the structure and functions etc. of cell and cell
organelles now different techniques are used. The techniques that will be
discussed here in brief are: cell fractionation, centrifugation, differential
staining, microdissection, tissue culture, chromatography, electrophoresis,
and spectrophotometry.
BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS
Cell Fractionation
A common approach for studying functions of a cell is to isolate a
particular cell organelle from other cell components and try to make it
perform its normal functions in a test tube. Generally cells are broken apart as
gently as possible. A common procedure is to grind up i.e. to homogenize
cells in a suitable medium (with correct pH, ionic composition and
temperature). This is done with a homogenizer (food mixer). The mixture is
then centrifuged.
Centrifugation
Centrifugation is the process
to separate substances on the basis
of their densities. It is done by the
machine called centrifuge (fig. 1.1)
This machine can spin the tubes.
Contents are kept in tubes that are
much like the test tubes. Spinning
the tubes exerts a centrifugal force
on the contents. As the number of
revolutions per minute increase so
does
the
centrifugal
force
(measured as G, which is equal to
the force of gravity) increase.
Fig: 1.1 A Centrifuge
Differential Staining
Most biological structures are transparent. To differentiate between
different structures some methods must be used. The most common method is
staining. Certain stains when used in low concentrations are non-toxic to
living tissues and can therefore be used on living material. These are called
vital stains e.g. methylene blue. When only one stain, such as borax carmine
is used it is called single staining. When two stains, one that will stain nucleus
e.g. haematoxylin and other that will stain cytoplasm e.g. eosin are used, the
process is called double staining or differential staining.
Microdissections
When dissection is made under microscope it is called
microdissection. It is done to remove tumour or granules from delicate tissue
or cells like, brain, heart and nerve cells. These days the image is seen on
large TV screen or monitor while dissecting.
Tissue Culture
Cell cultures are a suspension of cells in a liquid medium. Tissue cultures
are small pieces of plant or animal organ grown in liquid or on solid medium. In
plant tissue the root and shoot tips are taken and cultured in a suitable medium to
see any infection. Phloem tissue of plants is removed and placed in a germ free
medium containing adequate food supply, mineral salts and growth substances.
The cell will develop into a new plant, which will flower and produce seeds.
Animal tissue culture is usually set up by growing individual cells to form a
single layer of cells over the surface of a glass container. Tissue cultured cells are
used to see any abnormality in the cell e.g. cancer etc.
Chromatography
Chromatography is a
procedure
through
which
various substances in a mixture
are separated from each other
and
identified.
Separation
involves the use of two phases,
one of which is stationary and
the other is mobile. Separation
depends upon the differential
movement of the test substances
between two phases. Can you
find out names of seven types of
chromatography? You may
consult books or search on the
internet. Paper chromatography
is a simple and most widely
used technique.
Fig: 1.2 Chromatography Chamber
Electrophoresis
It is a laboratory procedure that separates molecules according to their
size, shape, molecular weight and surface charge whether (+) or ().
Macromolecules such as nucleic acids or proteins can be separated in a
mixture. Often the gel is sandwiched between glass or plastic plates to form a
viscous slab (fig. 1.3). The two ends of the slabs are suspended in two salt
solutions that are connected by electrodes to a power source. When voltage is
applied to the apparatus, the molecules present in the gel migrate through the
electric field according to their individual charge and they move away from
Spectrophotometry
Upper
buffersolution
Movement of proteins
one another in the gel. The

negative charged molecule will
move towards the positive pole
and the molecule having positive
charge will move towards the
negative pole. Later on the
molecules can be pin pointed by
staining the gel.
Electrode
Glass tube or plates
containing gel
Gel
Lower
buffer solution
Power supply
Fig: 1.4 Spectrophotometer
Electrode
Fig: 1.3 Gel Electrophoresis
A spectrophotometer (fig. 1.4) is an instrument that measures the

amount of light that passes through the sample and from this it can be
calculated how much light was absorbed. The amount of light absorbed at
each wavelength is plotted in a graph and the result is what we call the
absorption spectrum (fig. 4.6). The procedure is called spectrophotometry.
It can be used to determine the wavelengths of light that take part in
photosynthesis. It is also used to know the turbidity or cloudness. The more
cells e.g. microorganisms are in suspension the greater will be turbidity.
Resolution and Magnification in Microscopy
Most animal cells and plant cells are between 10 m and 30 m. is the
Greek letter mu. The unit of microscopic measurement is micrometre (preffered
to micron). The correct symbol is m (preferred to ) i.e. the m is the
abbreviation for micrometre (American spelling: micrometer). (1 m = 1/10000
mm). When two objects are closer together than about 100 micrometres, the two
light beams fall on the same detector cells at the rear of the eyes. When the two
dots are farther apart than 100 micrometres, the two beams fall on different cells,
only then our eyes resolve them i.e. tell that they are two objects and not one.
Resolution is the minimum distance that two points can be separated and be
distinguished as two separate points by an optical instrument.
One way to increase resolution, is to increase magnification to make small

object seen larger. The increase in the apparent size of an object is called
magnification. Robert Hooke was able to see small cell by magnifying i.e.
enlarging the size, so the cells appeared larger than 100m limit imposed by the
structure of human eye.
Graticule and Micrometre
Graticule is a photographically produced gird,
cemented between two glasses. In order to use the
graticule for measurement it must be calibrated so that we
know what each square represents when a particular object
is used. Measurement of microscopic objects is called
micrometry. This can be done using specially designed
scales or micrometre. There are two types of micrometres:
Ocular graticule or micrometer and stage micrometre.
Ocular Micrometre
Fig: 1.5 Graticule
Ocular micrometre is also known as eyepiece

micrometre (fig. 1.6). It is a circular glass piece. It can be
put between the two lenses of the eyepiece. A scale showing 100 arbitrary
divisions, have been photographically produced, cemented between two
glasses.
Fig: 1.6 Ocular Micrometre or Graticule
As this micrometre is put between the two lenses of the ocular so, it is
called ocular micrometre. The micrometre acts as ruler and its scale is used
for direct measurement of the object.
Stage Micrometre
As this scale is placed on the stage of the microscope, so it is called
stage micrometre. This is a plane slide. On the centre for the slide, a scale
has been produced photographically or engraving. This scale is usually 1 mm
having 100 divisions.
1 mm
100 divisions
100 division
1000 micrometres
1 division
20 Angstrom
1000
= 10 micrometres (0.01 mm)
100
1 Nanometre.
Fig: 1.7 Stage Micrometre, Total Length is 1mm
The resolution of an electron microscope is about 0.5 nm in practice, compared

with 200 nm for light microscope. Infact, the most powerful modern electron
microscope can distinguish objects as small as 0.2 nanometre (abbreviated nm,
1
1nm = 1,000,000 mm), a thousand fold improvements over the light microscope.
1.2 CELL WALL AND PLASMA MEMBRANE

The plasma membrane is the outer living boundary of the cell. Many
cells have an extracellular component that is formed exterior to the
membrane, which is called cell wall.
Cell Wall
The cell wall is present in plant cells, prokaryotes and fungi. Plant cell
walls differ in chemical composition from those of the prokaryotes and fungi.
Do you know the differences? We will discuss here only plant cell wall. The
cell wall is secreted by the cell. The structure, thickness and chemical nature
of the cell wall varies with type of cell and its function. The plant cell wall
consists of three main layers, primary cell wall, middle lamella and secondary
cell wall.
Primary cell wall is a true wall and develops in newly growing cell
i.e. during cell division. Each cell produces a primary cell wall. The young
growing cells, storage cell and photosynthesising cells of leaves have primary
cell wall. The cell wall surrounds the protoplast and plasma membrane. The
primary cell wall is thin i.e. 1-3 mm in thickness.
Not in
most
plant
cell
Fig: 1.8 Electron Microscopic Structure of an Animal Cell
Fig: 1.9 Electron Microscopic Structure of a Plant Cell
10
Fig: 1.10 Plant Cell Wall
The primary cell wall consists of cellulose microfibrils, running

through the matrix of other polysaccharides. The microfibrils show a
crisscross (fig. 1.11) arrangement. The primary cell wall is adapted to
growth. The wall stretches plastically i.e. irreversibly. The cell wall is porous
and allows free passage of water and dissolved material.
Secondary cell wall is formed between the primary cell wall and plasma
membrane. It is found in most of the cells specially that provide support for the
plant. The protoplast secretes extra layers of cellulose on the inner surface of the
primary cell wall i.e. outer surface of the plasma membrane. Its microfibrils also
show crisscross arrangement (fig. 1.11). The secondary cell wall develops only
when the cell has reached maximum size i.e. completes its growth.The secondary
cell wall consists of cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin. Lignin cements and
anchors cellulose fibres together.
Lignin is a complex polymer, not
a polysaccharide. Lignin is much
rigid than cellulose and cannot be
easily compressed and resists
changes in form. It provides the
cell wall extra tensile and
compressional strength. The
secondary cell wall provides
mechanical support to the cell
and those to the plant as it is
present
in
xylem
and
Fig: 1.11 Crisscross Arrangement of Microfibrils
sclerenchyma.
11
Middle Lamella is present between adjacent primary cell walls of two

cells. It is the first layer to be formed. It is formed of sticky, gel-like
magnesium and calcium salts (pectates) of proteins. The middle lamella holds
neighbouring cell walls together.
Q. Why cell wall is not present in animal cell?
Plasma Membrane
Every cell is bounded by plasma membrane. The membrane is also
called cell membrane or cell surface membrane. It gives shape and
mechanical support to the cell. Chemically cell membrane consists of proteins
60-80%, lipids 20-40% and small quantity of carbohydrates. The most
common lipids are phospholipids. Membranes also contain glycolipids,
cholesterols and glycoproteins. The membrane is about 7nm thick.
Fluid Mosaic Model of Plasma Membrane
In 1972 Sanger and Nicholson put forward the fluid mosaic model of
membrane structure. The model proposes that the membrane is a
phospholipids bilayer in which protein molecules are either partially or
wholly embedded. The protein are scattered throughout the membrane in an
irregular pattern that can vary from membrane to membrane. The mosaic
distribution of protein is supported especially by electron micrograph of
freeze fractured membrane (see Glossary).
Fig: 1.12 Fluid Mosaic Model of Plasma Membrane
12
At body temperature, the phospholipid

bilayer of the plasma membrane has the
consistency of olive oil.
When the
concentration of unsaturated fatty acid residues
becomes greater, the bilayer becomes more
fluid. The fluidity of a phospholipid bilayer
means that the cells are pliable i.e. flexible.
In general most membrane proteins are
observed to drift sideway in the fluid bilayer.
Many plasma membrane proteins are
glycoproteins (see page 72), which have an
attached carbohydrate chain. The proteins
within a membrane determine most of the
functions. The proteins form different patterns
according to the particular membrane and also
within the same membrane at different times,
i.e. the membrane is a mosaic.
Science Titbits
The fluidity of membrane
is dependent on its lipid
components,
including
phospholipids, glycolipids
and cholesterol.
Critical Thinking
Why the cell surface
membrane is described
as fluid mosaic?
The head of the lipid has a variety of sugars (glycolipids) joined to

form a straight or branching carbohydrate chain. Glycolipids have protective
function (see page 72).
The steroid, cholesterol (see page 62), wedged into the bilayer, helps
stabilize the phospholipids at a body temperature but helps keep the
membrane fluid at lower temperature. The plasma membrane is asymmetrical
i.e. the two surfaces and the two halves are not identical.
Functions of Plasma Membrane Protein
The phospholipids bilayer provides the basic structure of membrane. It
also restricts entry and exit of polar molecules and ions. The other molecules
specially variety of protein have various function.
1. Channel Proteins and Carrier Proteins: Certain plasma membrane
proteins are involved in the passage of molecules through the membrane.
Some of those have a channel through which a substance simply can move
across the membrane, other are carriers that combine with a substance and
help it to move across the membrane.
2. Enzymes: Some plasma membrane proteins have enzymatic functions.
They perform metabolic reactions directly, for example the membrane
protein, adenylate cyclase, is involved in ATP metabolism.
13
Fig: 1.13 Some of the Functions Performed by Protein in the Plasma Membrane
3. Receptor Molecules: Some proteins in the plasma membrane are

receptors. Each type of receptor has a shape that allows a specific charge
to bind it. The binding of a molecule can cause the proteins to change its
shape and bring about an intracellular response. For example, hormones
circulate in the blood, but bind to specific target cells, which have the
correct receptor sites. Neurotransmitters the chemicals that enable nerve
impulses to pass from one nerve cell to the next also fit into specific
proteins in nerve cells.
4. Antigens: Antigens are glycoproteins. The glycoproteins have an
enormous number of possible shapes, so each type of cell can have its own
specific markers. This enables cells to recognize other cells and to behave
in an organized way, for example during development of tissues and
organs in multicellular organisms. It also means that the foreign antigens
can be recognized and attacked by immune system.
Role of Glycolipids and Glycolproteins as Cell Surface Markers
Glycolproteins, are proteins with branching carbohydrate side chain
work like antennae. They act as cell identity markers or same tags.
Glycolipids have also branching carbohydrate side chains and are involved in
cell to cell recognition. They may act as receptor sites for chemical signals.
With glycolproteins they are also involved in sticking the correct cells
together in tissues.
14
Role of Plasma Membrane in Regulating Cells Interaction with its

Environment
Transport across plasma membrane occurs to: (1) obtain nutrient
(2) excrete waste substances (3) secrete useful substances (4) generate ionic
gradients essential for nervous and muscular activity (5) maintain a suitable
pH and ionic concentration within the cell for enzyme activity.
For movement across the cell surface membrane there are four basic
mechanisms. Diffusion and osmosis are passive processes i.e. they do not
require the expenditure of energy. Active transport and bulk transport
(endocytosis and exocytosis) are energy consuming processes.
Skills: Analyzing, Interpreting and Communication
1. Draw and label fluid mosaic model of plasma membrane.
1.3 CYTOPLASM AND ORGANELLES

The living contents of eukaryotic cells are divided into cytoplasm and
nucleus, the two forming the protoplasm (Greek: protos, first plasm, form).
Cytoplasm is an aqueous (water containing) substance containing a variety of
cell organelles and other structures such as insoluble waste or storage
products. The soluble part of the cytoplasm forms the background material or
ground substance between the cell organelles. It contains a skeleton of very
fine fibres but otherwise appears transparent and structureless in the electron
microscope.
The chemical nature of cytoplasm is about 90% water and form a
solution that contains all the fundamental biochemicals of life. Some of these
are ions and small molecules in true solution, such as salts, sugars, amino
acids, fatty acids, nucleotides, vitamins and dissolved gases. Others are large
molecules, such as proteins, which form the colloidal solutions. A colloidal
solution is one in which the solute molecules are relatively large. It occurs in
two forms, sol or plasmasol which are non-viscous fluid like and gel or
plasma gel which are viscous and jelly like. The two forms are
interchangeable and help in cytoplasmic movement. Often the ectoplasm is
formed of gel and endoplasm is formed of sol. The outer regions of cytoplasm
are more gel-like. The metabolic role of cytoplasm is that the ground
substance of the cytoplasm is the site of certain metabolic pathways e.g.
glycolysis
15
Cell Organelles
The highly organized cellular bodies are called organelles. Specific
roles e.g., heat production, cellular maintenance, repair, storage and protein
synthesis are carried out within the organelles. The organelles in the
cytoplasmic matrix of a cell are: endoplasmic reticulum, ribosomes, Golgi
complex, peroxysomes and glyoxysomes, lysosomes, mitochondria,
chloroplast etc.
Endoplasmic Reticulum
It is the system of membranes running through the cytoplasm of all
eukaryotic cells. This network or reticulum of membrane is called
endoplasmic reticulum (ER). It can be seen only with an electron microscope.
The ER consists of membranous tubes, sacs and flattened channels called
cisternae. The ER forms a distinct compartment within the cytoplasm. It is
composed of double layer of lipids with various enzymes attached to its
surface. The ER is continuous with plasma membrane, nuclear membrane and
Golgi complex or apparatus. In terms of appearance and functions there are
two type of ER, rough ER and smooth ER. Most cells contain both types of
ER although the relative proportions vary considerably among different cells.
Rough ER has ribosomes attached to the sides facing the cytoplasm and has
rough appearance under electron microscope. Rough ER provides mechanical
support to the cell. RER is concerned with the transport of proteins. Proteins are
formed at ribosomes. A receptor in the membrane of the ER provides a channel
through which a protein can pass into the ER. For example, secretory proteins is an
antibody, a defensive molecule made and synthesized by white blood cells. Inside
the ER short chains of sugars are then linked to the polypeptide making the
Rough ER
Smooth ER
Fig: 1.14 Rough ER and Smooth ER
16
molecule a glycolprotein. The ER packages the glycolprotein into a tiny sac called
transport vesicle. Then the vesicles buds from the ER membrane. The secretory
proteins will now travel to the Golgi apparatus for further processing. From there a
transport vesicle containing the finished molecule will make its way to plasma
membrane and its contents from the cell. The enzymes in lysosomes also follow this
route. Other vesicles formed at RER function as storage vessels in the cytoplasm.
Some vesicles merge with the smooth ER.
Smooth ER is continuous with the RER and is a network of
interconnected tubules. Ribosomes are not attached to it. In muscle cells a
specialized form of smooth ER called sarcoplasmic reticulum is present.
One of the chief functions of smooth ER is lipid synthesis. For example in
the epithelium of the intestine the smooth ER makes lipids from the fatty acids
and glycerol absorbed from the gut and passes them to Golgi complex for export.
Smooth ER also makes steroids. Some smooth ER transport proteins from rough
ER. Also, enzymes within the smooth ER of liver cells inactivate or detoxify a
variety of chemicals. The function of some ER is to breakdown energy rich
glycogen or fat molecules.
Ribosomes
Ribosomes are among the smallest structures suspended in the
cytoplasm found in large number of living cells both prokaryotic and
eukaryotic. They can be seen only under the electron microscope. They are
roughly spherical granular bodies about 17 to 21 nm in diameter in prokaryotic
cells of bacteria and about 20- to 24 nm in diameter in eukaryotic cells. They
remain attached with RER or freely dispersed in the cytoplasm. Ribosomes are
numerous in actively synthesizing cells e.g., endocrine cells and meristimatic
cells. A eukaryotic cell may contain about half a million ribosomes.
Ribosomes are made of almost an equal amount of RNA and protein so
they are ribonucleoprotein. Being so small they are the last organelle to be
sedimented in centrifuge. The 70S ribosomes are found in prokaryotes
chloroplasts and mitochondria.
All ribosomes in eukaryotes are
composed of two subunits
(particles) of different sizes, the The S unit has been named after
large and the small. The larger Svedberg. When the speed of
one is 60S particles and the centrifugation is more than the speed of
smaller one is 40S particles. The gravity, it is called ultra centrifugation.
two subunits on attachment form The larger sedimentation unit S, the
80S particles. The attachment is larger are the particles.
Science Titbits
17
Large subunit
of ribosome
small subunit
of ribosome
Fig: 1.15 Polysome
controlled by presence of magnesium ions concentration or forming salt

bonds between phosphate group of RNA and amino group of amino acid or
both by magnesium ions and salt bonds.
When several ribosomes are attached to one mRNA strip it is called
polysome. (poly = many and soma = body) or poly ribosomes.
Ribosomes are formed in the nucleolus. Then these are transported to
the cytoplasm through the nuclear pore. The ribosomes are the sites of
synthesis of proteins from amino acids.
Golgi Complex
It is also known as Golgi bodies or Golgi apparatus. It was discovered
by Italian biologist Camillo Golgi in 1898 for which he was awarded Nobel
Prize. However its structure was only revealed by electron microscope. It is
found in all eukaryotic cells.
Golgi complex consists of a stack of flattened, membrane bound sacs
called cisternae, together with system of associated vesicles (small sacs)
called Golgi vesicles (fig: 1.16). It is believed that a complex system of
interconnected tubules is formed around the central stack. At one end of the
stack a new cisternae are constantly being formed by vesicles from the
smooth ER. This outer or forming, face is convex, while the inner end is the
concave inner or maturing face where the cisternae break up into vesicles
again. The whole stack consists of a number of cisternae moving from the
outer face to the inner face.
The function of Golgi complex is to transport and chemically modify
the materials contained within it. It is particularly important in secretory cells.
For example in pancreas specialized cells secrete digestive enzymes of the
18
(Outer surface)
complex
Golgi complex
(inner surface)
Fig: 1.16 Golgi Complex
pancreatic juice into the pancreatic duct, which pass to the duodenum. After
concentration in the Golgi complex the protein is carried in Golgi vesicles to
the cell surface membrane. The final stage in the pathway is secretion of the
inactive enzyme by exocytosis.
In general, proteins received by the Golgi complex from the ER have
short carbohydrate chains added to make them glycolproteins. These
carbohydrate antennae can be remodelled in the Golgi complex, possibly to
become markers that direct the protein to correct their destination.
The Golgi complex is also sometimes involved in the secretion of
carbohydrates, an example being provided by the synthesis of new cell walls
by plants. The membrane of the vesicle becomes new cell surface membrane
of the daughter cells, while their contents contribute to the middle lamella and
new cell walls. Cellulose is added separately and involves microtubules, not
the Golgi complex. In addition to secretion, the second important function of the
Golgi apparatus is the formation of lysosomes.
Peroxisomes and Glyoxisomes
Microbodies are similar to lysosomes and are a single membrane
enclosed cytoplasmic organelle. Microbodies include peroxisomes and
glyoxisomes.
Peroxisomes
In 1965 De Duve and his coworkers isolated particles from liver cells
19
and other tissues. These particles were enriched with some oxidative enzymes
such as peroxidase, catalase, glycolic acid oxidase and some other enzymes.
As this organelle is specifically involved in the formation and decomposition
of hydrogen peroxide so they were named peroxisomes. These are found both
in animal and plant cells. These are also present in protozoa, and yeast.
Peroxisomes are opproximetely 0.5 to 1 micrometre in diameter.
The enzymes oxidize certain organic substances with the formation of
hydrogen peroxide (H2O2). Hydrogen peroxide is a toxic molecule, which is
immediately broken down to water and oxygen by another enzyme called
catalase. Peroxisomes are abundant is cells that metabolise lipids and in liver
cells that metabolise alcohol. They help to detoxify alcohol, and convert fats
to carbohydrates.
Glyoxisomes
These organelles are found in plants. These have in addition to
glycolic acid oxidases and catalases, a number of enzymes that are not found
in animal cells.
These organelles are more abundant in plant seedlings, which rely
upon saturated fatty acids to provide them with energy and material to begin
the formation of a new plant. The germinating seedlings convert stored fatty
acids to carbohydrates. This is achieved through a cycle called glyoxylate
cycle, the enzymes of which are located in the glyoxisomes.
Lysosomes
Lyso means splitting and soma means body. So lysosomes are structures
that break down other major macromolecules in the cell. De Duve discovered it in
1949. Almost all animal cells contain lysosomes. The lysosomal enzymes are
manufactured on the RER. Then these enzymes are transported to Golgi
apparatus. Here the enzymes are enclosed in membrane. The enclosed enzymes
are pinched off as Golgi vesicles. These vesicles are called primary lysosomes.
Once a lysosome has fused with a vesicle containing material to be digested, the
structure is called secondary lysosomes. Lysosomes are roughly spherical
structures bounded by a single membrane. They vary in size, and usually 0.2-0.5
m in diameter. In plant cells large central vacuole may act as lysosome.
Lysosomes are sacs or vesicles that contain various hydrolytic
enzymes. Such as proteases, nucleases and lipases. The content of the
lysosome is acidic. The enzymes have to be kept apart from the rest of the cell
or they would destroy it. These enzymes breakdown every major
macromolecule of cell, e.g. proteins, nucleic acids, lipids and carbohydrates.
20
Functions of Lysosomes
The functions of lysosomes includes phagocytosis, autophagy,
autolysis, exocytosis (fig: 1.17). When the material taken in by endocytosis is
large, such as a food particle or another cell, the process is called
phagocytosis (Gk. Phagein, to eat, and kytos, cell). When the endocytic
vesicle fuses with a lysosome digestion occurs. This is how mammalian white
blood cells engulf and destroy bacteria and other cells. The process by which
unwanted structures within the cell are engulfed and digested within the
lysosomes is called autophagy and the structure in which it occurs is called
an autophagic vacuole or secondary lysosomes. This is the part of the
normal turnover of cytoplasmic organelles, old ones being replaced by new
ones e.g. digestion of mitochondria.
Fig: 1.17 Lysosomes: Formation and Functions
21
Autolysis is the self digestion of a cell by releasing the contents of

lysosomes within the cell. In such circumstances lysosomes have been named
as suicidal bags. Autolysis is a normal event in some differential process and
may occur throughout a tissue. e.g. reabsorption of tadpole tail during
metamorphosis. Autolysis also occurs in muscles, which are not exercised.
Sometimes the enzymes of lysosomes are released from the cell by
exocytosis. This occurs during the replacement of cartilage by bone during
development. Similarly remodelling of bone that can occur in response to
injury, new stress and so on. Sperm contains special lysosome called the
acrosome. This releases its enzymes to digest path through the layers of cells
surrounding the egg just before fertilization.
The importance of lysosomes to cell function and human health is
made strikingly clear by the serious hereditary disorders called lysosomal
storage diseases. These are a group of disorders characterised by deficiency
of a specific single lysosomal enzyme, resulting in an accumulation of
abnormal metabolic products. Most of these diseases are fatal in early child
hood. There are many lysosomal diseases but we will discuss here only Taysachs disease, Niemann-pick disease and Pompe disease.
Tay-Sachs disease is a most common form of gangliosidosis. It is
caused by a deficiency of hexosaminidase A, with consequent accumulation
of GM2 ganglioside, especially in neurons. It is characterised by central
nervous system degeneration severe mental and motor deterioration,
blindness, and death before four years of age.
Niemann-Pick disease is most often caused by a deficiency of
sphingomyelinase, with consequent sphingomyelin accumulation in
phagocytes. It is characterised by anaemia, fever, neuralgic deterioration and
death occurs by three years of age.
Pompe disease is caused by a deficiency of alpha-1,4-glucosidase (a
lysosomal enzyme) with the consequent accumulation of glycogen, especially
in the liver, heart and skeletal muscle. It is characterised by muscle hypotonia
and splenomegaly. Death occurs from cardiorespiratory failure before three
years of age.
Q. Why are lysosomes sometimes referred to as the self destruct system of
the cell?
22
Mitochondrion
Mitochondrion
(plural:
mitochondria) is present in all
eukaryotic cells. The number of
mitochondria per cell varies form
500 to 1000 in vertebrates and
depends on the type of the
organism and nature of cell. The
shape of mitochondria may be
spiral, spherical, elongated, cup
shaped even branched and are
usually larger in active cells than
Fig: 1.18 Mitochondrion
in less active ones. Their length
ranges form 1.5 to 10 m and width from 0.25-1.00m, but their diameter
does not exceed 1 m. Mitochondria are able to change shape and some are
able to move to area in the cell where a lot of activities are taking place.
Mitochondria are semiautonomous, colourless organelle. It is a double
membrane structure, the outer membrane and the inner membrane. The two
membranes are separated by a narrow space the intermembranal space,
which is homogeneous. Mitochondrial membranes are composed of lipids and
proteins. The outer membrane is smooth and somewhat like a sieve. Outer
membrane is rich in lipids but poor in proteins. The inner membrane is folded
inwards. The folds are called cristae (singular: crista). The region of the
mitochondrion enclosed by membrane is called matrix. Mitochondrial matrix
is a jelly like material that contains DNA, RNA, ribosomes and enzymes. In
1960, E. Rocker discovered that inner mtiochondrial membrane is provided
with lollipop like structures called mitochondrial particles or elementary
particles or oxysomes. The particles function in ATP synthesis, so it is called
ATP-ase complex. Enzymes, coenzymes, organic and inorganic salts present
in the mitochondrial matrix help in several processes like Krebs cycle,
aerobic respiration, fatty acid metabolism.
Science Titbits
Mitochondria divide and in this way their number doubles before cell
division. Lysosomes regulate the number of mitochondria. Excess of
mitochondria are digested by lysosomes. Because mitochondria are
contained within ova (egg cells) but not within the heads of sperm cells, all
the mitochondria in a fertilized egg are derived from mother.
23
Chloroplast
Chloroplasts are green in colour and are found in green parts of the
plants. Chloroplasts vary greatly in shape and size. These may be spheroid,
ovoid or discoid. Generally their number ranges between 20-40 per cell. Their
average size is 4 to 10 micrometre in diameter and 1-3 micrometre in thickness.
A chloroplast consists of three parts i.e. envelope, matrix and thylakoids.
Each chloroplast is bounded by a smooth double membrane
(envelope). Between the two intermembrane space is 25-75 angstrom ()
wide. The outer membrane is smooth and permeable to small molecules.
The inner membrane is semipermeable and rich in protein. The matrix is
called stroma. It is the colourless proteinaceous ground substance that
fills the chloroplast. It contains, proteins, lipids, small (70S) ribosomes,
DNA, RNAs, ions and enzymes. The chloroplast is semiautonomous
because its DNA can replicate and transcribe to form RNA. With the help
of ribosomes chlorplast is able to synthesize most of its enzymes.
Fig: 1.19 Chloroplast
The stroma contains a system of chlorophyll bearing double membrane

lamellae that form flattened sac-like structures called thylakoids. There are
two types of thylakoids: smaller thylakoids and the larger thylakoids.
Smaller thylakoids are disc like and are piled over one another like
piles of coins and each stack of grana lamellae is called granum. Thus each
granum (plural: grana) is formed of a column of grana lamellae or
24
thylakoids. There may be as many as 40-60

grana per chloroplast. Larger thylakoids
connect the grana and are called
intergranal lamellae or stromal lamellae.
These may form an interconnectd network
or may be simple parallel sacs running
lengthwise. Thylakoids membranes possess
photosynthetic pigments.
Science Titbits
New chloroplasts arise either

by the division of pre-existing
chloroplasts or by the division
of their precursor proplastids.
The functions of chloroplasts
are photosynthesis, oxygen
supply, storage of starch, fixa
Centrioles
tion of carbon dioxide and to
Centrioles are non-membranous provide greenary.
cell organelles found mainly in animal
cells. Centrioles commonly occur in pairs and a pair of centrioles is called
diplosome. These occur at right angle to each other near one pole of the
nucleus. These lie in a distinctly, staining region of the cytoplasm known
as centrosphere. The centrioles and centrosphere are together referred to
as centrosome.
A centriole looks like
rounded cylinder about 0.15-0.25
m in diameter and 0.3-2 m in
length. Just before the cell division,
the centriole duplicates and the
pairs migrate to the opposite sides
of the nucleus. The spindle fibres
are then formed between the two
pairs of centrioles. Each centriole
is formed of nine groups of triplet
microtubules or fibres. Each
microtubule is formed of three
subtubules or subfibres.
Fig: 1.20 Centrioles
The functions of centroles are:

(a) The centrioles play an important role in cell division by forming
spindle and providing a mechanism for the alignment and dragging of
chromatids.
(b) Centrioles give rise to basal bodies or kinetosome of cilia and
flagella.
(c) The centrioles are present in the spermatid. The distal centriole
forms the axial filament of the flagellum of sperm.
25
Cytoskeleton
The cytoskeleton (Gk: Kytos,
cell and skeleton, dried body) is a
network
of
interconnected
filaments and tubules that extends
from the nucleus to the plasma
membrane in eukaryotic cell. The
cytoskeleton maintains cell shape
and causes the cell and its
organelles to move. There are three
types of cytoskeleton elements of
proteinous fibres.
Microfilaments: Presently
microfilaments are known as
Fig: 1.21 Cytoskeleton
actin filaments. These are
extremely thin fibres about 7 nm in diameter that occur in bundles or mesh
like networks. The actin filament contains two chains of globular actin
monomers twisted about one another in a helical manner. Threads of
tropomyosin wind about an actin filament and troponin occur at intervals
along the thread. Actin filaments play a structural role when they form a
dense complex web just under the plasma membrane to which they are
anchored by special proteins. In plant cells, they apparently form the tracks
along which chloroplasts circulate in a particular direction.
Microtubules (Gk: micros, small, little and L. tubus, pipe): These are
small hollow cylinders about 25nm in diameter and 0.2-25m in length. Its
basic protein subunit is tubulin, which occurs as alpha and beta tubule. The
two form tubulin dimer. Microtubules have 13 rows of tubulin dimer
surrounding what appear in electron micrograph to be an empty central case.
Microtubules radiate from centrosome, helping to maintain the shape of the
cell and acting as tracks along which organelles can move.
Intermediate Filaments: The protein fibres are wrapped around one
another. They are 8 to 10 nanometers in diameter, intermediate in size
between actin filaments and microtubules, this is why they are called
intermediate filaments. The basic protein subunit of the filament is vimentin.
Some intermediate filaments support nuclear envelope, and others support
plasma membrane.
Q. How cytoskeleton is important to eukaryotic cells?
26
Cilia and Flagella

Cilia (L. cilium, eyelash, hair) and flagella (L. flagella, whip) are hair like
projection on the surface of the cells. These are cytoplasmic processes and create
water currents, food currents act as sensory organs and perform several other
functions of the cell. There is no clear morphological or physiological difference
Fig: 1.22 Structure of a Eukaryotic Flagellum or Cilium
27
between cilia and flagella except that of size. Flagella are few in number i.e. 1, 2
or 4 and longer, exhibit undulating motion and beat independently.
Cilia are numerous and relatively short and beat perpendicularly in
metachronous (cilia of a row beating one after the other) or in synchronous
rhythm (all cilia of a row beating simultaneously). Cilia and flagella originate
from their basal bodies embedded in the cytoplasm. Each cilium and flagellum
consists of a longitudinal axoneme enclosed in a spiral sheath of cytoplasm and a
plasma membrane continuous with the cell membrane. Axoneme is made up of a
bundle of eleven longitudinal fibrils or microtubules. Of them 9 are peripheral
microfibrils and the two are central microfibrils. These are arranged in 9 + 2
pattern. The central fibrils are enclosed in a central sheath. The nine peripheral
microfibrils form a ring around the central sheath. Each peripheral microfibrils is
composed of two subfibres forming a doublet. The inner subfiber of the doublet
is complete and the outer subfiber is C-shaped.
Each inner subfibre has two arms composed of
Critical Thinking
dynein protein and a radial spoke extends from it
What will happen if all
to the central sheath. Each cilium and a flagellum
dynein of a cilium is
has a basal body lying in the cytoplasm at its base.
removed?
Basal bodies have the same circular arrangement
of microtubule triplets as centrioles.
Mechanism of Movement: Figure 1.23 shows the position of two
microtubule doublets in a flagellum that is stationary (left) and in the process
of bending (right). Bending involves protein knobs attached to each
microtubule doublet --- the dynein arms. Using energy from ATP, the dynein
arms grab an adjacent doublet and exert a sliding force as they start to walk
along it. The doublets are held together by cross-links (not illustrated), if they
were not held in place, the walking action would make one doublet slide past
the other. Instead, the microtubules (and consequently the flagellum or
cilium) bend.
In 1955 Bradford suggested that the movement of cilia is due to
sliding of double fibrils in two groups one after the other. Five out of nine
double fibrils contract simultaneously. As a result cilium bends or shortens. It
is called effective stroke. Four out of nine double fibrils contract and cilium
becomes straight. It is called recovery stroke. A flagellum causes movement
by the passage of rapid successive waves of bending from the attached to the
free end. Flagellar movement of human sperms propel them forward within
the fluid medium of the female reproductive tract.
28
Fig: 1.23 The Mechanism of Microtubules Bending in Cilia and Flagella
Power stroke
or Effective stroke
or Recovery stroke
Fig: 1.24 Characteristic Movement Patterns of Cilia and Flagella. (a) Cilia usually row
along, providing a force of movement parallel to the plasma membrane, just as oars provide
movement parallel to sides of a rowboat. (b) Flagella often move in a wave like motion with
a continuous bending that starts at the base and move up to the tip. This motion provides
a force of movements perpendicular to the plasma membrane. In this way a flagellum
attached to a sperm can move the sperm straight ahead.
29
Nucleus
The largest and most
easily seen of all the
organelleles
within
a
eukaryotic cell is the
nucleus. A cell may be
mononucleate, binucleate or
multinucleate. In animal
cells the nucleus is typically
located in the central region.
It controls all the activities
of the cell. Nucleus consists
of
nuclear
membrance,
nucleoplasm, nucleolus and
Fig: 1.25 Nucleus
chromosomes. A double
membrane called nuclear
envelope or nuclear membrane, bounds the surface of the nucleus. The two
membranes are separated by a fluid-filled perinuclear space. These are
connected at nuclear pores. It consists of protein and lipid bilayer. The outer
membrane is covered with ribosomes and is connected with the membranes
of ER. The perinuclear space is continuous with the lumen of ER. The inner
membrane is smooth. The nuclear membrane is perforated by numerous
pores. The pores regulate the nucleo-cytoplasmic exchange of materials.
Science Titbits
The structures and molecules which can cross the nuclear envelops are
ions, micromolecules, macromolecules, tRNA, mRNA, ribosomal RNA,
proteins, nucleotides, and some hormones for regulation of DNA.
Nucleoplasm is the transparent semifluid ground substance formed of
a mixture of proteins, enzymes (DNA and RNA polymerase), phosphorus,
nucleotide, some nucleic acids and metal ions (Mg) for the synthesis of DNA
and RNAs. It also contains histone and non-histone protein. Whereas
cytoplasm contains amino acids, carbohydrates, proteins, enzymes, vitamins,
nucleotides, tRNA etc. Proteins occur as colloidal particles.
The dark staining region in the nucleus is called nucleolus, (plural:
nucleoli). A cell may have one or more nucleoli. Nucleolus appears during
30
interphase and disappears during cell division. The nucleolus is associated

with a specific region of a particular chromosome. Nucleolus consists of a
ribosomal ribonucleic acid and some ribosomal proteins.
The highly stained thread like chromatin (chroma colour, teino strech)
fibres form a chromatin network in the nucleoplasm. During cell division
chromatin fibre condenses and coils up into structures called chromosomes
(Gk: chroma, colour, soma, body), which are thick enough to be seen with a
light microscope.
Chromosomes are separate thread like
structures, which stain heavily during cell division so
they are visible only during cell division. At other
times they lose their ability to stain. Each chromosome
is bounded by delicate membrane. The centromere is
a constriction functionally related to the movement of
chromosomes during cell division. Each centromere
had two plaques of protein called kinetochores that
are oriented on the opposite sides of the constriction.
Each kinetochore forms the site of attachment for a
single microtubule during cell division. Each specie
has a characteristic number of chromosome e.g.
human 46, frog 26, chimpanzee 48 etc. Individual
chromosmes can be identified by their size and shape.
Chromosomes contain DNA, which is the hereditary
material.
Fig: 1.26 Chromosome
Skills: Analyzing, Interpreting and Communication

1. Compare and contrast the structure and function of mitochondria with
those of chloroplasts.
2. Compare in tabular form, the functions of organelles with the processes
occurring in animals and plants.
3. List the structure and molecules, which can cross the nuclear envelope.
Q. What are the differences between microfilaments and microtubules?
Q. What is the difference between: (a) cytoplasm and nucleoplasm
(b) chromatin and chromosomes. (d) nucleolus and nucleosome
(e) centromere and kinetochores.
31
1.4 PROKARYOTIC AND EUKARYOTIC CELLS

Two kinds of structurally different cells have evolved overtime.
Prokaryotic cells i.e. bacteria and cyanobacteria, whereas all other forms of
life are composed of eukaryotic cells. A prokaryotic cell (Greek pro: before
and karyon: kernel) lacks a nucleus, its DNA is coiled into a nucleoid
(nucleus like) region.
Structures Missing in a Prokaryotic Cell
The structures that are present in eukaryotic cells but are missing in
prokaryotic cells are: nucleus, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi complex,
mitochondrion, lysosomes, microvilli, nucleolus, chloroplast , microtubule,
80S ribosomes (larger), flagella lacking 9+2 arrangement of microtubules,
cellulose is absent in cell wall.
Chemical Composition of Prokaryotic Cell Wall
The cell wall is composed of an inner layer of peptidoglycan (see
section 6.3) and an outer membrane that varies in thickness and chemical
composition depending upon the type of bacteria. Peptidoglycan is also
known as murein. This substance is found only in prokaryotes.
Pattern of Cell Division in Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells
In eukaryotes somatic cells divide by mitosis and gametes are
produced by the cell division called meiosis. Whereas prokaryotic cells divide
by binary fission. In binary fission the bacterium cell divides to form two
identical sister cells. During this process, the single circular chromosome
duplicates itself. Along with DNA duplication the cytoplasm divides into two
halves, each having its own nuclear material. Then wall is formed and two
daughter cells are produced (see fig. 6.11). Under ideal conditions bacterial
cell divides every 20-30 minutes.
A Model Prokaryotic Cell Bacteria
The bacterial cell is surrounded by cell wall. The cell wall gives shape
and protection to cell. Bacterial cell wall has no cellulose. The cell
membrane or plasma membrane lies beneath the cell wall. Bacterial cell
membrane differs from eukaryotic membrane in lacking sterols such as
cholesterol. Plasma membrane contains enzymes for respiratory metabolism.
A slimy capsule, secreted in the cell, envelops a bacterium. Many bacteria
have fine thread like outgrowth called flagella (singular: flagellum). The
flagella are anchored in the cell membrane and project out through the cell
32
Fig: 1.27 A Bacterium
wall. The flagellum is a structure for movement. Pili (singular: pilus) are
hollow protein filaments that are anchored in the membrane and project
through the cell wall. They can be observed only by electron microscope and
are found only on certain species of Gram negative bacteria. Pili are used to
transfer genetic material during conjugation. The other function of pili is
attachment on the surface of tissues of an infected person. Pili are also known
as fimbriae.
The glycocalyx (slime layer) is a polysaccharide coating that is secreted
by many bacteria. In some bacteria there is an infolding of the cell membrane into
the cytoplasm. This is called mesosome. Mesosomes are in the form of vesicles,
tubules or lamellae. The functions of mesosomes are: (a) increase membrane
surface area, allowing the cell greater activity in respiration and active transport
(b) the formation of new cross wall occurs with the help of mesosomes during
cell division (c) photosynthesis.
The cytoplasm is dense. Small vacuoles and granules of stored food
e.g. glycogen, proteins, fats, are present in bacteria. About 90% of the cell is
water. Ribosomes are large in number and occur free in the cytoplasm.
Bacterial ribosomes are the site of protein synthesis as in eukaryotic cells.
33
Plasmids are small circular pieces of double stranded DNA. They

replicate when the cell replicates. Plasmids can replicate independent of the
chromosomes. They often contain drug resistant, heavy metals, disease and insect
resistant genes on them. Transposons are pieces of DNA that move readily
from one site to another, either within or between the DNAs of bacteria,
plasmids and becteriophages.
Science Titbits
Plasmids are important vectors in modern genetic engineering techniques.
Plasmids also occur in lower eukaryotes e.g. yeast. Several different types of
plasmids can exist in one cell. Transmissible plasmids can be transferred from
cell to cell by conjugation. Nontrasmissible plasmids are small, they are
frequently present in many copies per cell.
The cytoplasm contains several different types of granules that serve
storage areas for nutrients and stain characteristically with certain dyes. The
nuclear region of bacteria is not separated from the cytoplasm by nuclear
membrane. It is seen in the electron microscope as an area lighter than the
cytoplasmic contents called nucleoid. Bacteria are haploid organisms. The
nucleoid contains a single chromosome. The DNA that is tightly folded so as to fit
inside the cell component. The nucleoid contains no nuclear membrane,
nucleolus, no mitotic spindle and no histones, so there is little resemblance to the
eukaryotic nucleus. The bacterial DNA has no introns (see glossary)whereas it is
present in eukaryotic DNA.
SECTION I : MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS

Select the correct answer
1. Which of the following is the major advantage of using a light microscope
instead of an electron microscope?
A)
superior resolving power
B)
constant depth of focus
C)
observation of living matter
D)
use of very thin sections
34
2. Which technique provided the primary evidence for the fluid mosaic model
of the cell membrane?
A) cell fractionation
B)
chemical analysis of membrane proteins
C) freeze-fracture
D)
chemical analysis, microscopic staining
3. Some cellular organelles are bound by a single membrane, while other

organelles have two membranes (envelopes) around them. Which one of
the folowing is correct?
single membrane
two membranes
A. peroxysomes lysosome
nucleus
chloroplast
B. chloroplast
lysosome
nucleus
peroxysomes
C. nucleus
chloroplast
lysosome
peroxysomes
D. nucleus
lysosome
chloroplast
peroxysomes
4. Which of the following cell structures contains the highest concentration

of RNA?
A)
centriole
B)
lysosome
C)
chromosome
D)
nucleolus
5. A tadpoles tail is grdually broken down during metaporphosis into an

adult frog. Which organelle increases in number in the cells of the tail at
this time?
A)
centriole
B)
endoplasmic reticulum
C)
Golgi complex
D)
lysosomes
6. The diagram shows the fluid-mosaic model of membrane structure?

What are X, Y and Z?
X
Z
Z
X

A
lipid
carbohydrate
protein
B.
lipid
protein
carbohydrate
C.
protein
carbohydrate
lipid
D.
protein
lipid
carbohydrate
35
7. Which of the following organelles always contains DNA?

A)
centriole
B)
Golgi complex
C)
lysosome
D)
mitochondria
8. Which distinguishes a prokaryotic cell from a eukaryotic cell?

A)
prokaryotic cell have a cell wall and a nucleus
B)
prokaryotic cells have no membrane bound organelles
C)
prokaryotic cells have a centriole
D)
prokaryotic cells have no ribosomes
9. The elasticity of the plasma membrane demonstrates that it is made up in

part of:
A)
lipids
B)
nucleic acids
C)
carbohydrates
D)
proteins
10. The name of the structure where photosynthesis takes place begins with
the letter?
A)
C-Z
B)
L-Z
C)
F-K
D)
O-R
11. Filaments present in flagella and cilia are

A)
microfibrils
B)
microtubules
C)
microfilaments
D)
microvilli
1) Why are the following scientists famous for? : (a) Rudolf Virchow,
36
SECTION II : SHORT QUESTIONS

(b) Robert Hooke, (c) Sanger and Nicholson, (d)
De Duve
2) Write the difference between: (a)resolution and magnification, (b) stage

micrometre and ocular micrometre, (c) plant cell wall and bacterial cell
wall, (d) cytoplasm of eukaryotic and prokaryotic cell, (e) rough ER and
smooth ER, (f) centrifugation and differential centrifugation, (g) primary
lysosomes and secondary lysosomes.
3) Name three organelles revealed by an electron microscope.
4) What holds the ribosomes together in a polysome?
5) Why lysososmes are called suicide bags?
6) How and where lysosomes are formed in the cell?
7) Why ER is present in all eukaryotic cells but not in prokaryotic cells?
8) Name the structures and organelles which are common in plant cell,
animal cell and a prokarytic cell.
9) How is a chloroplast similar to a bacterium?
10)What would happen if there are no lysosomes in human cells?
11) Draw a labelled diagram of a section through: (a) mitochondrion
(b) bacterium (c) chloroplast.
12. What are lysosomal storage diseases? Give examples.
13. Name the organelles of cells that are highly speciallized to do (a) protein
synthesis of (b) actively transport substances into the cell (c) synthesis of
lipids (d) phagocytize foreign substances.
14. Why does a eukaryotic cell need both membranous organelles and
cytoskeleton?
15. What are the applications of chromatography and electrophoresis?
1. Explain briefly: (a) Fractionation, (b) Microdissection, (c) Tissue culture
37
SECTION III : EXTENSIVE QUESTIONS

(d) Differential staining, (e) Centrifugation, (f) Chromatography,
(g) Electrophoresis, (h) Spectrophotometry
2) How the size of a cell is measured under microscope?
3) Describe the structure and roles of plant cell wall.
4) What are the functions of the plasma membrane proteins?
5) What is the chemical nature of cytoplasm? Explain the metabolic roles of
cytoplasm.
6) Discuss the structure and functions of:
(a) Endoplasmic reticulum, (b) Mitochondrion, (c) Chloroplast
7) What are the types of cytoskeleton elements of proteinous fibres? Write
the structure composition and functions of each.
8) Explain the structure of cilia and flagella and the mechanism of their
movement.
9) Compare and contrast the structure and functions of mitochondria and
chloroplasts.
10)Describe the structure of typical prokaryotic cell?
ANSWER MCQS
1. C
2. D 3. A 4. D 5. D 6. D
7. D 8. B
9. D 10. A 11. B
SUPPLEMENTARY READING MATERIAL

1. Campbell N.A. Mhchell, L.G. & Reece J.B., Biology Concepts and
connections, 2nd edition Benjamin/Cummings Company California, 2003
USEFUL WEBSITES
2. Madar, S.S., Biology, 6th edition, WCB, McGraw-Hill, USA, 1998
1) en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biological_tissue

Biology Chapter 1 Federal Board

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Biology Chapter 1 Federal Board

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

A Textbook of

National Curriculum 2006

Dr. Sarwat Jawaid

National Book Foundation

Members of the National Review Committee (NRC)

Prof. Hamid Saeed

Mr. M. Nadeem Asghar

Prof. Dr. Zaheer-ud-Din Khan

Mr. Farrukh Shahbaz Hussain

Prof. Mohammad Riaz Khan

Dr. Javed Kausar

Prof. Israr Ali

Mr. Mohammad Hanif

The textbook has coloured illustrations to capture the students attention.

In each chapter Science, Technology and Society connections are explained in

SECTION 1 Cell Biology

Techniques used in Cell Biology

Biological Molecules in Protoplasm

Viruses: Discovery and Structure

PROTISTS AND FUNGI

DIVERSITY AMONG PLANTS

Evolutionary Origin of Plants

DIVERSITY AMONG ANIMALS

SECTION 3 Life Processes

FORM AND FUNCTIONS IN PLANTS

10.6 Growth and Development in Plants

Blood Circulatory System of Man

13.1 First Line of Defence

Acknowledgement and References

CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Techniques used in Cell Biology (2 Periods)

Cell wall and Plasma Membrane (2 Periods)

Cytoplasm and Organelles (10 Periods)

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells (2 Periods)

1.1 TECHNIQUES USED IN CELL BIOLOGY

BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Fig: 1.1 A Centrifuge

BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Fig: 1.2 Chromatography Chamber

BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

one another in the gel. The

A spectrophotometer (fig. 1.4) is an instrument that measures the

BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

One way to increase resolution, is to increase magnification to make small

Ocular micrometre is also known as eyepiece

Fig: 1.6 Ocular Micrometre or Graticule

BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Fig: 1.7 Stage Micrometre, Total Length is 1mm

The resolution of an electron microscope is about 0.5 nm in practice, compared

BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

1.2 CELL WALL AND PLASMA MEMBRANE

BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Fig: 1.8 Electron Microscopic Structure of an Animal Cell

Fig: 1.9 Electron Microscopic Structure of a Plant Cell

BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Fig: 1.10 Plant Cell Wall

The primary cell wall consists of cellulose microfibrils, running

BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

Middle Lamella is present between adjacent primary cell walls of two

Fig: 1.12 Fluid Mosaic Model of Plasma Membrane

BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS

At body temperature, the phospholipid

The head of the lipid has a variety of sugars (glycolipids) joined to

BIOLOGY XI: CHAPTER 1 , CELL STRUCTURE AND FUNCTIONS