ED 302. Design For X Jan - Apr 2012: DFSS-Phases

2/1/2012
ED 302. Design for X

Jan Apr 2012
Instructor: Palani Ramu
ED 302. palramu@gmail.com
2/1/2012
DFSS- Phases
P1: Identify requirements
P2: Characterize design
Translate customer requirements, design alternatives: DFX, DFMEA,

CAD/CAE
Optimize the design
Project charter, Customer requirements
DOE, Simulation tools, Taguchi method, tolerance design, robust- reliability

based design
Validate the design
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DOE, Reliability testing, confidence analysis
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Experiments (DOE)
DOE serve two purpose:
Get the statistics of a response ( how the product or

process performs)
Come up with a Transfer function that can be used

for further engineering analysis like parameter
optimization or tolerance analysis ( What are the
parameters that influence the outcome)
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Language of experiments
Factor (inputs, causes, parameters, ingredients)
Level
Anything that is suspected to have an influence on the performance

of the product. Can control/adjust
Continuous factor (ex: temperature, time)
Discrete factor (ex: machine brand, tool type, material)
Value or status that factor holds within an experiment

Temperature factor, 200deg, 300 deg Levels
Result
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Response. Quantity of interest.

Quality characteristic Ntype, Stype etc.
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An example
Manufacturing process air bubbles are identified. So rejection.

Hoping to determine experimentally some way to fix the problem
engineers identified 2 types of resins and 3 amts of prepolymers
(100, 200, 300 gms)
How would performance be measured

QC of the result
What are the first 2 factors to be identified and what are their levels
Result can be measured by counting number of bubbles (no units) or

size
i off the
h b
bubbles
bbl ((mm))
QC smaller the better
F1- resin: two levels types 1 and 2
F2- prepolymer: 3 levels 100, 200, 300 gms
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Investigating one factor at a time
Quick, cost effective, no complex formulas

For 1 factor,, levels are changed
g while rest all factors are frozen.
Atleast 2 experiments at 2 different levels (not at each level) is
necessary
Previous example to study the effect of resin:
Sample1: resin type 1, result =7

Sample 2: resin type 2, result =3
What if need to know the result for another

type of resin?
Since discrete, cant really interpolate/extrapolate
without knowledge on physiscs
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One factor at a time
Consider the prepolymer with 3 levels
100 gms -2 bubbles

300 gms- 6 bubbles
The result for 200 gms can be interpolated. But what if
the trend is not linear..?
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What do we know until now
Experiments on atleast 2 levels are necessary to learn

about a factor
factors
s behavior
For cont factors, atleast 3 levels when nlin behavior is
suspected
Extreme nlin 4 levels is desirable
No idea on the physics, time constraint 2 level
experiments
Nlin applies only when continuous factors are
considered
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Several factors at a time
One factor at a time minimum two experiments

When multiple factors are present
present, it is possible to run
N+1 experiments and get the same information of 2N
experiments effect
Technically, I need to run two experiments for each factor (23=6

experiments)
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A smarter way to experiment
Only 4 experiments (N+1) in the place of 6 experiments (N2)

Can get the same result that is effect of a is: subtract row 2 from
row 1
Though all factors are considered, its still one factor at a time.
The way you conduct the experiment is different
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Experiments with multiple factors
Unfortunately, most real life problems have > 1 factor

that influence the result and there is interaction
interaction
among the factors.
Ex: Painkiller suppress pain for x hrs
1,1
1,0
0,1
0,0
Additive
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Interaction plots
Synergistic interaction
Antisynergistic interaction
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Factorial Design
Factorial design All factor combinations
Total number of combination = (number of levels)number of factors

For a 7 factor case: 27=128 experiments
Full factorial designs are too numerous!
Some books use 1,-1 and 0,1 instead of 1,2
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Shortcuts to DOE
Orthogonal array
Many possible OA are available
available. We choose based on
our needs
What are these orthogonal arrays..?
Fractional factorial designs

Example L-4(23)
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3 Factor 2 level design

4 refers to the number of experiments (actually 8 experiments)
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Orthogonal array
Feature of the orthogonal property columns are balanced
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Each column is balanced within itself (number of times each level

occurs))
Any two column will be balanced ( 4 diff combinations are
possible. L4 only 4 is possible. L8 repeated twice)
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Result analysis
Based on a OA DOE - you get response values
Average effects of factor levels:

Ave effect of factor A at level 1: corresponding responses are average
A1 bar, A2 bar. Effect of A = A1bar-A2bar
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Why use OA..?
L4 is not any diff from a 3-2 level factor exp using the one factor
at a time - then why use OA?
Influence of A = 60-30 =30. But no information on what happens

when B and C take level 2.
But for OA based study, we saw how an average effect is computed
for a factor. So, OA accounts for interaction
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Example L8
Plastic molding experiment
QC tensile strength
Factors:
A: Temp (0c )
B: Pressure(Kgcm2)
C: Time(mins)
Ao=200
Bo=500
Co=30
A1=2200c
B1=700
C1=40
D: Additive(%)
( )
Do=3
D1=5
4 Factors
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6 combinations. Interest only in A-B

interaction
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Factors and Interaction in L8
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Anova Table..
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10
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LHS designs 2 factor, 5 realization
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When to choose which DOE..?
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11
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ANOVA - Analysis of Variance
Once some responses are recorded based on a DOE how do we go about making conclusions about the
system or the behavior?
We are interested in
knowing which level or factor has the major influence on the

final response
Comparing two columns in performance
Consider a 1 factor multiple level problem with multiple

experiments
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Anova
We are interested in the mean of the observations within each

level of our factor. The residuals will tell us about the variation
within each level.
We can also average the means of each level to obtain a grand
mean. We can then look at the deviation of the mean of each
level from the grand mean to understand something about the
level effects.
Finally, we can compare the variation within levels to the variation
between levels.
This can be easily modelled as:
y(ij) = m + a(i) + e(ij)
The jth data value from level i. m is the grand mean, a - the level effect and
e - the residue
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12
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An example of value splitting

Machine Level Means
.1206
.1246
.1272
.123
Residual error (each column deviation)
Machine
1
1
.1262
.125
.118
.123
.126
.118
.127
.122
.125
.128
.129
.125
.120
.125
.126
.126
.124
.124
.128
.119
.126
-.0012
-.0026
-.0016
-.0012
-.005
.006
.0008
.0014
.0004
.0008
-.0012
-.0006
.0004
-.0012
.004
.127
-.0002
.0034
-.0006
-.0002
-.003
.127
.120
.0018
-.0016
.0014
.0018
-.002
.129
.121
Grand Mean
.12432
LevelEffect (Grand Mean-Level mean)
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.00188
-.00372
.00028
.00288
-.00132
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Anova: errors
Variability between the groups and variability within the groups.
Variability between the groups is calculated by first obtaining the
sums of squares between groups (SSb), or the sum of the squared
differences between each individual group mean from the grand
mean.
Variability within the group is calculated by first obtaining the sums
of squares within groups (SSw) or the sum of the squared differences
between each individual score and that individuals group mean
SSt = SSb + SSw

Note that this is a simple linear model that partitions the
systematic or explainable deviation (between) and
unexplainable (within)
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13
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ANOVA Concepts
Variance is expressed as:
( x - x )
N 1
why N-1..?
Numerator is squared sum and denominator is just DOF
SS
df
Deviations known to us as variance is referred as mean squares or

average of sum of squares while doing ANOVA
MSb
SSb
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df b
MSw
SS w
df w
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F statistic
F is a statistical distribution used for testing like t distribution in

statistics
F (comes from R.A.Fisher) allows you to compare the ratio of

variances
Here, we compare:
F=
MS
MS
A F statistic is obtained from the table with n (numerator) and m

(denominator) dof . If computed > actual, then reject hypotheses
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14
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ANOVA TABLE
What happens when there are two factors..?
SS-residual (Res Error)2 =0.00132. DOF 20
SS-Level (Level Effect)2 * number of observations = 0.001137. DOF -4
Source
Sum of Sq
DOF
Factor levels
.000137
residuals
.000132
20
corrected total
.000269
24
Mean Sq
F-value
.000034 4.86 > 2.87

.000007
Reject the hypotheses that the levels are same
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Hypotheses testing
Ho: null hypotheses

There is no significant difference among the groups
H1: There is difference atleast with two groups.
There is no accepting a hypotheses but only rejecting or failing to reject
If Fcomputed > Factual - statistically significant
Software give p value. Lower the p value, higher is the contribution
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Factors that affect significance
The diagrams below show the impact of increasing the numerator of the
test statistic. Note that the within group variability (the denominator of
th equation)
the
ti ) is
i th
the same iin situations
it ti
A and
dB
B. H
However, th
the between
b t
group variability is greater in A than it is in B. This means that the F
ratio for A will be larger than for B, and thus is more likely to be
significant.
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The diagrams below show the impact of decreasing the denominator of

the test statistic. Note that the between group variability (the difference
b t
between
group means)) iis th
the same iin situations
it ti
C and
dD
D. H
However, th
the
within group variability is greater in D than it is in C. This means that
the F ratio for C will be larger than for D, and thus is more likely to be
significant.
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16
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Full factorial design
Replace 1 by -1 and 2 by 1.Note the main effects and interactions.

Higher order interactions are neglected in fractional factorial designs
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Fractional design
2K-1 design
Rearranged
g such that all ABC are 1 ((and -1))
Effect of ABC is not captured but remaining interaction(s) are captured
Coeff of A is equivalent to BC ( B to AC and C to AB)
This mix up is called Alias/confounding. Cant differentiate A, BC etc..
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How to find alias relationship
Defining relation I = ABC

Premultiply by A
=> A=BC, similarly for other combinations
2k-1 design is 1/2 fraction factorial design and is called the principal
fraction
What happens to the second half of the table in the previous slide..?
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OA
OA are fractional factorial designs that are orthogonal properties

L8 (27 OA)
Linear graphs show interaction relationships

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Calculating DOF
Overall mean is 1 always

Each main factor (if levels are na, nb) = na-1, nb-1
Two factor interaction =(na-1) (nb-1)
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Experimental design
Find total number of DOF

Select standard OA using:
Num of runs in OA >=total DOF
Assign factors to appropriate column using linear graph rules
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19
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20

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2/1/2012

ED 302. Design for X

P1: Identify requirements

P2: Characterize design

Translate customer requirements, design alternatives: DFX, DFMEA,

Optimize the design

Project charter, Customer requirements

DOE, Simulation tools, Taguchi method, tolerance design, robust- reliability

Validate the design

DOE, Reliability testing, confidence analysis

DOE serve two purpose:

Get the statistics of a response ( how the product or

Come up with a Transfer function that can be used

Factor (inputs, causes, parameters, ingredients)

Anything that is suspected to have an influence on the performance

Value or status that factor holds within an experiment

Response. Quantity of interest.

Manufacturing process air bubbles are identified. So rejection.

How would performance be measured

Result can be measured by counting number of bubbles (no units) or

Investigating one factor at a time

Quick, cost effective, no complex formulas

Sample1: resin type 1, result =7

What if need to know the result for another

One factor at a time

Consider the prepolymer with 3 levels

100 gms -2 bubbles

What do we know until now

Experiments on atleast 2 levels are necessary to learn

Several factors at a time

One factor at a time minimum two experiments

Technically, I need to run two experiments for each factor (23=6

A smarter way to experiment

Only 4 experiments (N+1) in the place of 6 experiments (N2)

Experiments with multiple factors

Unfortunately, most real life problems have > 1 factor

Factorial design All factor combinations

Total number of combination = (number of levels)number of factors

Fractional factorial designs

3 Factor 2 level design

Feature of the orthogonal property columns are balanced

Each column is balanced within itself (number of times each level

Based on a OA DOE - you get response values

Average effects of factor levels:

Why use OA..?

Influence of A = 60-30 =30. But no information on what happens

6 combinations. Interest only in A-B

Factors and Interaction in L8

LHS designs 2 factor, 5 realization

When to choose which DOE..?

ANOVA - Analysis of Variance

knowing which level or factor has the major influence on the

Consider a 1 factor multiple level problem with multiple

We are interested in the mean of the observations within each

An example of value splitting

Residual error (each column deviation)

SSt = SSb + SSw

Deviations known to us as variance is referred as mean squares or

F is a statistical distribution used for testing like t distribution in

F (comes from R.A.Fisher) allows you to compare the ratio of

A F statistic is obtained from the table with n (numerator) and m

.000034 4.86 > 2.87

Reject the hypotheses that the levels are same