INDEX

Unit I ................................................................... 3
Lesson 1: Colour Theory ......................................... 4
Lesson 2: Colour Vocabulary ................................ 17
Lesson 3: The Munsell System of Colour Notation 24
Lesson 4: The Colour Wheel ................................. 30
Unit II ............................................................... 39
Lesson 5: Colour Schemes .................................... 40
Lesson 6: Colour Psychology ................................ 59
Unit III.............................................................. 73
Lesson 7: Graphite Pencils ................................... 74
Lesson 8: Colour Pencils ....................................... 83
Lesson 9: Pastels.................................................. 93
Lesson 10: Pen, Brush and Ink ........................... 103
Lesson 11: Markers ............................................ 111
Lesson 12: Texture ............................................. 126
Lesson 13: Pattern ............................................. 137
Unit V .............................................................. 144
Lesson 14: Drawing & Sketching ........................ 145
Lesson 15: Light & Shade ................................... 151

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Reference Books ................................................ 163

Unit I
COLOUR WHEEL & COLOUR THEORY
Colour Theory
Colour Vocabulary
The Munsell System of Colour

The Colour Wheel

Page

Lesson 1:
Lesson 2:
Lesson 3:
Notation
Lesson 4:

Lesson 1: Colour Theory

Objectives
To examine colour and its effects in designing
Interiors. To identify and use he vocabulary of
colour. To develop an understanding of how a
colour scheme is developed.

Structure
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Experience of Colour
1.2.1 Sensing Colour
1.2.2 Surface Define the Colours We See
1.2.3 The Eye Records colour Stimuli
1.2.4 Three Types of Receptors Produce our
colours
1.2.5 Feeling Colour
1.2.6 Colour and Object Become Cultural
Symbol
1.2.7 We Perceive colour Depending on
Whats Around Them
1.2.8 Two colour Can mix Appear Like a
Third
1.2.9 Some colours Make objects appear
closer

Colour is one of the most vital tools in the hands of

an Interior Designer. It is the most perceptible and
prominent aspect of any interiors, and hence is
central to the success or failure of a design scheme.
It is therefore very important that an Interior
Designer has the full knowledge and understanding
of this tool.

Introduction

Page

1.1

1.2

Experience of Colour

Touching, tasting, smelling, hearing, and seeing

these are the ways we get our information about the
world, about where we live and where we work. But
the world of humans is primarily a world of sights,
with 90 percent of what we know of the world
coming to us through our vision.

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The visual equipment we use to see light and its

characteristic colour is the same for everybody, and
when its working, it works very wellthe human
eye can distinguish over 10 million different colours.

What we see is colour. Objects, landscapes, faces all

register in our brains through the light that enters
the eye, sent to us from a luminous or lightproducingobject (such as a red-hot iron or a
glowing incandescent light) or as light reflects off a
non-luminous object (such as a tree or a table). The
eyes retina absorbs the light and sends a signal, or
sensation, to the brain. This sensation makes us
aware of a characteristic of light, which is colour.

However, colour does more than just give us

objective information about our world: It affects
how we feel. To know this, we need only recall how
a string of grey, overcast days lowers our spirits or
how working in a drab, dull room leaves us listless.
With so much of what we know and feel coming
from what we see, youd think wed all be experts
on colour. In a way, we are. No one has to tell you
what youre seeing or how youre feeling as you sit
in the glow of a late summer sunset. But how would
you describe the pink of that sky? Dazzling? Fleshy?
Glistening? Iridescent?
The qualities we assign to our perceptions of
coloursto the way they make us feelare called
indeterminate attributes. They cannot be measured;
rather, they arise from our intuitive experience of
colour.
These indeterminate attributes provide the mystery
of colour and range from the poetic language we
use to express our perceptions of colour to the
psychological effects of colour on our mood.
Determinate attributes are another matter. They
can be measured by various instruments and
include hue, value, and chroma(as some describe
them) warm/cool, light/dark, and brilliant/dull
colours.

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The mystery and the mechanics of colour are tightly

entwined. We seldom see a single colour in
isolation, completely independent from the influence
of other colours or other external factors, such as
the light source, the surface of the object, and the
surrounding objects. Also, we never perceive colour

They have given rise to optics, a branch of science

that analyses the mechanisms we use to perceive
colourthe rods and cones on the eyes retinaand
colourimetry, which measures the colour systems
developed to precisely communicate colour.

without the modifying influences of psychological

and symbolic factors. In other words, our response
to colour depends on who we are and what our
culture tells us certain colours should mean.
As simple as it may seem on the surface, colour has
a depth that is worth fathoming. The more we
understand colour, the more we can appreciate the
joy it brings to our lives and the better use we can
make of it. That use can be as focused as knowing
what to put on in the morning in order to look our
best or as broad as knowing how colour in
environments, particularly the office, can influence
motivation and performance.

1.2.1

Sensing colour

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and then into your eyes. But in another sense, you

see only what you want to seethe carpet, done in
the same lush green as the one you just installed in
the family room; the fluorescent blue of the pin the

Walk into an office and what do you see? Well, if

your eyes are open, in one sense you see
everything. Natural light streaming in through the
windows and artificial light from lamps flood into
your eyes and bounce off everything in the room

receptionist is wearing on her red dress; the curious

yellow of the reception seating fabric.
For centuries everyone, from Greek philosophers to
Age of Reason scientists, considered only the first
half of seeingthe mechanics. They believed our
eyes were merely receivers. Sir Isaac Newton
(1642-1727) called them visual equipment that
measures light waves much like a clock measures
time. Consequently, most research involved optics,
the branch of physics that describes how light is
produced, transmitted, detected, and measured.
Light allows us to sense colour. To a large degree,
sensing colour depends on four key factors:
1) The spectral energy distribution of the light, i.e.,
the conditions under which the colour is
perceived;
2) The spectral characteristics of the object in terms
of how much light it absorbs, reflects, and
transmits;
3) The sensitivity of the eye in registering light and
then turning it into electrochemical impulses and
sending them via the optical nerve to the brain;
and

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Scientists define the first of these factors, light, as a

form of radiant energy or, more precisely,
electromagnetic energy, a category of energy that
includes gamma rays at one end of the spectrum
and radio waves at the other. The light our visual
system responds to in the experience of seeing,
called visible radiant energy, is a very small
portion of the spectrum, falling between infrared
and ultraviolet radiation. Bands of visible radiant

4) The
psychological
factors,
namely
the
experiences and the personality of the viewer, all
of which affect how colour is perceived.

energy appear to us as colour, and we call them

light.

1.2.2
See

Surfaces Define the Colours We

The second factor influencing our perception of

colour is the spectral characteristics of objects,
sometimes called surface and surround. How a
surface reflects, absorbs, or transmits light and how
the colours and textures surrounding the surface
influence its colour give us the information we need
to understand the objects we perceive.

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We experience the surface mode of colour as part of

a material or substance. The different visual
sensations we get from viewing two table topsone

They help us know an objects shape and location,

although the interaction of surface and surround can
also distort our perceptions as when a yellow
office makes the faces of the people who work in it
appear jaundiced.

with a gloss finish, the other with a matte finish

illustrate the influence texture has on the character
of colour. Even though the colour of the two
tabletops may be identical, the gloss on one will
create an internal refraction, or bending of the light
waves, making its colour appear more brilliant than
the colour on the matte finished top. Surface colour
can also be the result of a materials structure.
Polar bear fur, blue jay feathers, and a kittens blue
eyes are actually clear. Their structures refract, or
bend, the light that illuminates them to cause the
colours we see.

1.2.3

The Eye Records colour Stimuli

In considering the third factor upon which our

perception
of
colour
dependseye-brain
neurologythe focus turns from the world around
us to the world within. Light, whether from a
luminous object or reflected from the surface of a
non-luminous object, enters our eyes and
photochemically activates key nerve cells on the
retinas known as rods and cones.

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1.2.4
Three Types of Receptors Produce
Our colours

10

Rods operate at low light levelsfor example, at

night or in a darkened, windowless roomand sense
blacks, whites, and greys, also called achromatic
colours because they have no hue (the property of
colour that is perceived and measured on a scale
ranging from red through yellow, green, and blue to
violet). The cones in our eyes operate at higher light
levelsfor example, during the daytime or in a
lighted roomand sense chromatic colour, or hues.
When the cones are active during the day, the rods
are dormant. At night, the rods take over and the
cones rest.

Page

Some creatures, such as surface fish, bees, and

some birds, can see more colours than humans can
because
they
have
more
colour-making
photoreceptors than we do. On the other hand,
many mammals, except for humans, have poor
colour vision. The expression to see red comes
from the anger of the bull as it charges the
matadors red cape. In actuality, however, cattle
have no cones in their retinas, so they cant

11

Humans see colour with three types of reception

systems (red/green-, yellow/blue-, and black/whiteproducing) from three types of cone photoreceptors
(red/blue/green-making). Because we create all the
colours we see from red-, blue-, and green-sensing
cones, humans are known as trichromats. When one
set of colour-sensing cones fails or is missing, a
form
of
colour
blindness
occurseither
monochromatism (when only one of the three
photoreceptors works) or dichromatism (when two
of the three work). These dysfunctions are a gene
trait carried by women and occur mostly in men
about eight of every 100 men suffer from some type
of colour blindness, while only one in every 200
women does.

perceive hues; what irritates the bull is really the

matadors twitching of the cape, not its colour.
The use of the names of colours in expres --sions
(seeing red, once in a blue moon, or a redletter day, for example) actually has more to do
with the fourth factor influencing our perception of
colour the experiences and personality of the
viewer, or the process of feeling colour.

1.2.5

Feeling colour

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12

Life would be dull if our brains merely registered the

signals sent to them by the rods and cones through
the optic nerve. Instead, our minds bring memory,
imagination, and reason to the activity of sensing
colour. According to art historian Rene Huyghe,
from the moment the sensation comes into
consciousness it is connected in time with what no
longer exists except in memory. The sensation of
colour does not just affect our psychology at the
time when it occurs, it connects with all of our
experience in time.

To look without preconceptions, then, is virtually

impossible. Colour is something we see, but we
adjust what we see based on our experiences.
Because our experiences occur within the context of
the culture we live in, we develop symbolic ways of
sensing colour.
These differ from culture to culture. For example,
white is associated with death in India, while for
most Westerners it immediately calls to mind purity.

1.2.6
Colour and Object Become Cultural
Symbol
Symbolic ways of sensing colour are almost always
tied to specific objectswhite mourning clothes in
India, white wedding dresses in the United States
which is why one colour may have widely different
connotations from one culture to another, or even
within the same culture. To Americans, for example,
black is a symbol of death, yet a chair upholstered
in
black
leather
suggests
affluence
and
sophistication. According to colourist and art
educator Patricia Sloane, Response to colour
symbolism is a response to colour preconception,
and is a predetermined response based on literary
and psychological ideas about colour, rather than a
response to the nature of colour itself.

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In other words, humans cant resist the urge to add

to what they see how they think and feel about it.
Our human need to develop a symbology for
coloursreflected in fashion, culture, and tradition
is matched by our need to experience the joy that
sensing colour brings.

13

In part, man feels impelled to create symbolsand

to impute symbolic connotations to colourbecause
he cannot help allowing his feelings and emotions,
his
literary,
psychological
and
intellectual
preconceptions, from interfering with his direct
perception of the physical world.

1.2.7
We Perceive colours Depending on
Whats Around Them

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When complementary colours of equal intensity are

next to each other, the afterimages (the ghostly
tinges of colour we see when we look away)
heighten our experience of both colours. That is why
red/green or yellow/purple or orange/blue colour
combinations are the most startling. It is also why,
when we study a painting, the afterimage of one

14

The second brain phenomenon that affects how we

experience colour simultaneous contrastinvolves
our tendency to perceive colours differently
depending on what is around them. Designers are
well aware of how grey carpets seem to shift in
colour, depending on the surrounding wall colour.
This occurs because our perception of one colour
becomes tinged toward the complement (the colour
directly opposite another on a colour wheel) of the
colour around it. For example, a grey square looks
reddish on a green background and greenish on a
red background.

patch of colour influences the next patch of colour

we look at.

1.2.8
Two colours Can Mix and Appear
Like a Third
The third brain activity that influences our
perception of colouroptical mixtureis the
opposite of simultaneous contrast. When an objects
patches of colour are so small that they pass below
the threshold of conscious perception, we see the
colours as optically mixed.Sometimes, as when the
two colours on a topspin too fast to be seen
individually, we perceive a third colour. This also
happens when viewing a multi-coloured brick
building from a distance. The building appears to be
one colour, optically mixed.
Understanding optical mixture in interiors is
necessary for determining where best to use
patterns, especially in regard to their scale and
location in a room. Choosing a coloured pattern
without evaluating it in the position it will occupy in
a space can be risky. A tack board covered in a
fabric with a small pattern may look red and blue
close up, but from a distance the red and blue will
mix and the tack board will look purple among the
other red and blue elements in the space. That
combination may not be what the designer intends
at all, or it can be a way of achieving a new colour
without actually using it in the scheme.

Spatial dimension, the fourth of these internal

phenomena, occurs when our brains add or subtract
distance, depending upon the colours perceived. We
tend to perceive warm-coloured objectsred,
orange, and yellowas closer than cool-coloured
onesgreen, blue, and purple.

15

Some colours Make Objects Appear

Page

1.2.9
Closer

This may have more to do with the focal point at

which we see the colours than with their perceived

temperatures, however. Red, orange, and yellow

may be warmer in the sense that they are closer
to us, since red has a longer wavelength and
therefore a closer focal point than blue does. The
shorter wavelength of blue and its longer focal point
may mean, cool as in distant.

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16

The implications for interior spaces are obvious: If

you want to make a space seem larger, you choose
green, blue, or purple for the ceiling and walls
because they appear to recede, giving the space a
more open feeling.

Lesson 2: Colour Vocabulary

Objectives
To understand and use the vocabulary of colour.

Structure
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6

Hue
Chromaticity
Saturation
Value
Luminance
Tints, Tones and Shades
2.6.1. Tints, Shades, Pastel Colour, Pastel
Tints and Pastel Shades
2.6.1.1 Tints
2.6.1.2 Shades
2.6.1.3 Pastel Colours
2.6.1.4 Pastel Tints
2.6.1.5 Pastel Shades

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2.1 Hue: This is what we usually mean when we

ask "what colour is that?" The property of colour
that we are actually asking about is "hue". For
example, when we talk about colours that are red,
yellow, green, and blue, we are talking about hue.

17

Colour is such a fun thing to look at and enjoy but it

is often difficult to communicate about. The reason
is that the words we use to describe colour are
vague and frequently misunderstood. Not only are
technical terms such as "value," "saturation" and
"chromaticity" confusing but even simple words
such as "bright," "pure," "shiny" and "dim" are hard
to use accurately. Even the experts struggle without
a set of standardized definitions.

Different hues are caused by different wavelengths

of light.
Therefore, this aspect of colour is usually easy to
recognize.

Hue Contrast - strikingly different hues

Hue Constant - different colours, same hue (blue)

2.2 Chromaticity: Think about a colour's "purity"
when describing its "chromaticity" or "CHROMA".
This property of colour tells us how pure a hue is.
That means there is no white, black, or grey present
in a colour that has high chroma. These colours will
appear very vivid and well, ... pure. This concept is
related to and often confused with saturation.
However, we will continue to use these terms
separately because they refer to distinct situations,
as explained here.

High Chroma - very shiny, vivid

Page

Constant Chroma - medium chroma similar

vividness despite differences in hue; less purity
than top mage.

18

Low Chroma - achromatic, no hue

2.3
Saturation: Related to chromaticity,
saturation tells us how a colour looks under certain
lighting conditions. For instance, a room painted a
solid colour will appear different at night than in
daylight. Over the course of the day, although the
colour is the same, the saturation changes. This
property of colour can also be called intensity. Be
careful not to think about SATURATION in terms of
light and dark but rather in terms of pale or weak
and pure or strong.

Saturation Const. - same intensity, different hues

Saturation Contrast - various levels of fullness, same hue

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Low Value, Constant - same brightness level

19

2.4
Value: When we describe a colour as
"light" or "dark", we are discussing its value or
"brightness". This property of colour tells us how
light or dark a colour is based on how close it is to
white. For instance, canary yellow would be
considered lighter than navy blue which in turn is
lighter than black. Therefore, the value of canary
yellow is higher than navy blue and black. Click here
to find out why humans are very sensitive to a
colour's VALUE/BRIGHTNESS.

Contrast of Value - grayscale = no chroma

Contrast of Value - stark differences in

brightness

2.5
Luminance: Although brightness is often
used interchangeably with luminance, we prefer to
use the term "lightness." This concept deals with
many of the same variables as value but using a
different mathematical equation. Check out our own
definition of LUMINANCE/LIGHTNESS or more
simply, think about the colour Wheel as colours
having equal luminance. Adding white will increase
lightness and adding black will decrease it.

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20

2.6
Tints, Tones and Shades: These terms
are often used inappropriately but they describe
fairly simple colour concepts. The important thing to
remember is how the colour varies from its original
hue. If white is added to a colour, the lighter version
is called a "tint". If the colour is made darker by
adding black, the result is called a "shade". And if
grey is added, each gradation gives you a different
"tone."

Shades (adding black to a pure hue)

Tints (adding white to a pure hue)

Tones (adding gray to a pure hue)

2.6.1
Tints, Shades, Pastel Colours, Pastel
Tints and Pastel Shades
There are not many of us who have not, at some
time or another, consulted a paint manufacturer's
shade card. Shade card? No, the one thing it most
certainly is not is a shade card. It should really be
referred to as a paint sample card. Neither should
we comment on such things as, "That's a lovely
shade of pink," for the colour we are referring to
most certainly cannot be pink and a shade of a
colour both at the same time. The word "shade" is
far too often misused when referring to colour, so
let us find out a little more about it.

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Tints are chromatic colours to which a quantity of

white has been added. If we take a pure colour such
as red or orange and add to it some white, however
small this quantity may be it will make the colour
lighter in tone than the original, and it becomes a
tint. If only a small amount of white is added the
difference may not be noticeable but when a large
amount is added to red, for instance, then the
difference is noticed to such a degree that we call

21

2.6.1.1 Tints

the colour pink. A tint, then, is a pure colour to

which only white has been added. Referring to the
last paragraph we can see that pink cannot be a
shade because it fits the description of a tint.
2.6.1.2 Shades
As we have seen this is the term most misused with
regard to colour. Similarly to a tint, a shade is
formed by adding black only to a pure colour. We
have already seen what happens to a light colour
such as yellow when black has been added to it- it
not only becomes darker but the natural order of
colour is reversed and it becomes discordant.
Similarly, when white is added to a dark colour it
reaches a stage when it, too, becomes discordant. A
shade, then, is formed by the addition of black only
to a colour.
2.6.1.3 Pastel Colours

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22

Pastel colours are again pure colours but in this case

both white and black have been added in equal
proportions. They become greyer, softer, subdued
colours and are generally very pleasant.

2.6.1.4 Pastel Tints

Having already dealt with tints it is quite easy to
deduce that a pastel tint is a colour to which has
been added a mixture of both black and white. Black
and white added in equal proportions to a colour, as
we have seen, produce a pastel colour, so to
produce a pastel tint the proportion of white must
be greater than the black.

2.6.1.5 Pastel Shades

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23

A pastel shade is formed in a similar manner to a

pastel tint, except that in this case the proportion of
black must exceed the white.

Lesson 3: The Munsell

System of Colour Notation

Objectives
To understand the numerical scales developed by
Munsell.

Structure

3.3
3.4
3.5
3.6

The Munsell colour-order system is a way of

precisely specifying colours and showing the
relationships among colours. Every colour has three
qualities or attributes: hue, value and chroma.
Munsell established numerical scales with visually
uniform steps for each of these attributes. The
Munsell Book of Colour displays a collection of
coloured chips arranged according to these scales.
Each chip is identified numerically using these
scales. The colour of any surface can be identified
by comparing it to the chips, under proper
illumination and viewing conditions. The colour is
then identified by its hue, value and chroma. These
attributes are given the symbols H,V, and C and are
written in a form H V/C, which is called the Munsell
notation.
Utilizing Munsell notations, each colour has a logical
relationship to all other colours. This opens up
endless creative possibilities in colour choices, as

24

3.2

Hue
Value
Chroma
Munsell Notation
Munsell Colour Space
Munsell Colour Solid

Page

3.1

well as the ability to communicate those colour

choices precisely.

3.1

Hue

Hue is that attribute of a colour by which we

distinguish red from green, blue from yellow, etc.
There is a natural order of hues: red, yellow, green,
blue, purple. One can mix paints of adjacent colours
in this series and obtain a continuous variation from
one colour to the other. For example, red and yellow
may be mixed in any proportion to obtain all the
hues from red through orange to yellow. The same
may be said of yellow and green, green and blue,
blue and purple, and purple and red. This series
returns to the starting point, so it can be arranged
in a circle. Munsell called red, yellow, green, blue,
and purple principal hues and placed them at equal
intervals around this circle. He inserted five
intermediate hues: yellow-red, green-yellow, bluegreen, purple-blue and red-purple, making ten hues
in all. For simplicity, he used the initials as symbols
to designate the ten hue sectors: R, YR, Y, GY, G,
BG, B, PB, P and RP. The hue circle is illustrated in
Figure 1.

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25

Figure 1: Munsell Hue

Munsell arbitrarily divided the hue circle into 100

steps, of equal visual change in hue, with the zero
point at the beginning of the red sector, as shown in
Figure 2.
Hue may be identified by a number from 0 to 100,
as shown in the outer circle. This may be useful for
statistical records, cataloging
and computer
programming. However, the meaning is more
obvious when the hue is identified by the hue sector
and a step, based on a scale of ten, within that
sector. For example, the hue in the middle of the
red sector is called five red, and is written 5R. (The
zero step is not used, so there is a 10R hue, but no
0 YR.) This method of identifying hue is shown on
the inner circle.

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26

Figure 2: Hue Designations

3.2

Value

Value indicates the lightness of a colour. The scale

of value ranges from 0 for pure black to 10 for pure
white. Black, white and the grays between them are
called neutral colours. They have no hue. Colours
that have a hue are called chromatic colours. The
value scale applies to chromatic as well as neutral
colours. The value scale is illustrated for a series of
neutral colours in Figure 3.

Figure 3: Munsell Value

Chroma is the degree of departure of a colour from
the neutral colour of the same value. Colours of low
chroma are sometimes called weak, while those of
high chroma are said to be highly saturated, strong
or vivid. Imagine mixing a vivid yellow paint, a little
at a time, with a gray paint of the same value. If
you started with gray and gradually added yellow
until the vivid yellow colour was obtained, you
would develop a series of gradually changing colours
that increase in chroma. The scaling of chroma is
intended to be visually uniform and is very nearly
so. The units are arbitrary. The scale starts at zero,
for neutral colours, but there is no arbitrary end to
the scale. As new pigments have become available,
Munsell colour chips of higher chroma have been
made for many hues and values. The chroma scale
for normal reflecting materials extends beyond 20 in

27

Chroma

Page

3.3

some cases. Fluorescent materials may

chromas as high as 30. A scale of chroma is

have

Figure 4: Munsell Chroma

3.4

Munsell Notation

The complete Munsell notation for a chromatic

colour is written symbolically: H V/C. For a vivid red
having a hue of 5R, a value of 6 and a chroma of
14, the complete notation is 5R 6/14. When a finer
division is needed for any of the attributes, decimals
are used. For example, 5.3R 6.1/14.4.
The notation for a neutral colour is written: N V/.
(The chroma of a neutral colour is zero, but is is
customary to omit the zero in the notation.) The
notation N 1/ denotes a black, a very dark neutral,
while N 9/ denotes a white, a very light neutral. The
notation for a middle gray is N 5/.
Munsell hue, value and chroma can be varied
independently so all colours can be arrange
according the three attributes in a threedimensional space. The neutral colours are placed
along a vertical line, called the neutral axis with
black at the bottom, white at the top and all grays
in between. The different hues are displayed at
various angles around the neutral axis. The chroma
scale is perpendicular to the axis, increasing

28

Munsell Colour Space

Page

3.5

outward. This three-dimensional arrangement of

colours is called the Munsell colour space. The
relationship of the three scales in three-dimensional
space is illustrated in Figure 5.

Figure 5: Munsell Colour Space

All colours lie within a specific region of Munsell
colour space called the Munsell colour solid. Hue is
limited to one turn of around the circle. The scale of
value is limited on the lower end by pure black,
which is as dark a colour can be, and on the top by
pure white, which is as light as a colour can be. For
a given value, there is a limit to the chroma that is
possible, even with theoretically ideal colouring
agents. Real colouring agents, with less than ideal
characteristics, impose further limitations on
physical representations of the colour solid. The
Munsell colour-order system itself is applicable to all
possible colours. The highest chroma yellow colours
have rather high values, while the highest chroma
blue colours have lower values. Thus the Munsell
colour solid has the irregular shap.

29

Munsell Colour Solid

Page

3.6

Lesson 4: The Colour Wheel

Objectives
To understand the meaning and importance of
the Colour Wheel.

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Colour wheels show how visible colours are related.

Primary, secondary, and intermediate colours are
organized on a circular chart. Colour wheels help

30

A colour circle, based on red, yellow and blue, is

traditional in the field of art. Sir Isaac Newton
developed the first circular diagram of colours in
1666. Since then scientists and artists have studied
and designed numerous variations of this concept.
Differences of opinion about the validity of one
format over another continue to provoke debate. In
reality, any colour circle or colour wheel which
presents a logically arranged sequence of pure hues
has merit.

artists remember how to mix and think about

pigments.
Colour wheels are based on colour theory, which is
based on the physics of light. There are two
common types of colour: additive colour and
subtractive colour.
Additive colour refers to the mixing of colours of
light. Example 1 shows how the light from red,
green and blue flashlights would appear if shone on
a dark wall. The three primaries in light are red,
blue, and green. When all of the colours of the
spectrum are combined, they add up to white light.

Page

mixing of colours of pigment, such as paint or the

ink in your computer's printer. This type of colour is
what is used in the art and design world. When
learning basic colour theory, students typically use
familiar colours like red, yellow, and blue. Printers'
primariesyellow, cyan, and magentaare typically
used by professional designers and printing presses.

31

The colour wheels above are examples of

subtractive colour. Subtractive colour refers to the

Example 2 illustrates subtractive colour by showing

how primary colours mix on a piece of white paper.
Here are some common colour wheels based on
subtractive colour and familiar colours like red, blue
and yellow:

Colour wheel with

primary
and
secondary
colours

Colour wheel with

primary, secondary and
intermediate colours

One of the most common teaching aids in

demonstrating how colour works is the "colour
wheel". In theory, every colour in existence can be
found
somewhere
on
the
colour
wheel.
Understanding the colour wheel helps you to
understand some of the basics of imaging such as
hue, saturation, and brightness.

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The colour wheel is divided into 6 triangular

segments. The three primary colours that occur in
nature (red, yellow, and blue) occupy 3 of the
triangular segments.

32

There is no definitive rule as to how many colours a

visual representation of the colour wheel should
contain. However, using the millions of colours that
the human eye can recognize isn't very practical, so
the most common format is for a colour wheel
demonstration to use a few dozen sample colours.

Each of the 3 primary colours, (red, yellow, and

blue) are then combined in equal amounts with their
neighbouring primary colours, to create the
secondary colours:

Red + Yellow = Orange

Yellow + Blue = Green
Blue + Red = Purple

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This image shows pure red, orange, yellow, green,

blue, and purple, as they exist in the centre band of
the colour wheel. The colour wheel accounts for the
need to create shades of these colours by adding
light to colours as they extend outward from the
centre band of the colour wheel, and removing light
from colours as the extend inward toward the centre
of the colour wheel.

33

In order to account for lighter and darker shades of

colour, we now add light into the mixture. Artists
sometimes say that "white is the presence of light,
and black is the absence of light."

Page

34

The point at dead centre inside the colour wheel,

the point where light no longer exists, is pure
darkness or pure black. The area outside the
confines of the colour wheel, where light drowns out
all colour, is pure lightness or pure white.

Summary:
Colour is one of the most vital tools in the hands of
an Interior Designer. What we see is colour.
Objects, landscapes, faces all register in our brains
through the light that enters the eye, sent to us
from a luminous or light-producingobject. They
can be measured by various instruments and
include hue, value, and chroma(as some describe
them) warm/cool, light/dark, and brilliant/dull
colours. Surfaces define the colours we see. We
experience the surface mode of colour as part of a
material or substance. The eye records colour
Stimuli. In considering the third factor upon which
our perception of colour dependseye-brain
neurologythe focus turns from the world around
us to the world within. The fourth dimension is that
we tend to perceive warm-coloured objectsred,
orange, and yellowas closer than cool-coloured
onesgreen, blue, and purple.
Colours also have a vocabulary of their own. Terms
like HUE, CHROMA, VALUE, SATURATION are a bit
confusing as they all are related to one word i.e.
colour. Hue: This is what we usually mean when
we ask "what colour is that?" The property of colour
that we are actually asking about is "hue". For
example, when we talk about colours that are red,
yellow, green, and blue, we are talking about hue.
Chromaticity: Think about a colour's "purity" when
describing its "chromaticity" or "CHROMA". This
property of colour tells us how pure a hue is.

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Value: When we describe a colour as "light" or

"dark", we are discussing its value or "brightness.
The important thing to remember is how the colour
varies from its original hue. If white is added to a

35

Saturation: Related to chromaticity, saturation tells

us how a colour looks under certain lighting
conditions.

colour, the lighter version is called a "tint". If the

colour is made darker by adding black, the result is
called a "shade". And if grey is added, each
gradation gives you a different "tone."
The Munsell colour-order system is a way of
precisely specifying colours and showing the
relationships among colours. Every colour has three
qualities or attributes: hue, value and chroma.
Munsell established numerical scales with visually
uniform steps for each of these attributes. The
Munsell Book of Colour displays a collection of
coloured chips arranged according to these scales.
Each chip is identified numerically using these
scales. The colour of any surface can be identified
by comparing it to the chips, under proper
illumination and viewing conditions. The colour is
then identified by its hue, value and chroma. These
attributes are given the symbols H,V, and C and are
written in a form H V/C, which is called the Munsell
notation.
Newton developed the first circular diagram of
colours in 1666. One of the most common teaching
aids in demonstrating how colour works is the
"colour wheel". Understanding the colour wheel
helps you to understand some of the basics of
imaging such as hue, saturation, and brightness.
There are 3 primary colours which are mixed to
obtain secondary colours and then further mixing of
secondary and primary colours gives tertiary
colours. 12 colours are obtained by this kind of
mixing based on colour wheel.

2. Achromatic colours: black, whites, grey

Page

1. Iridescent: shimmering, shinning

36

Key words:

3. Trichomats: human who create all colours from

Red, blue and green sensing cones.
4. Monochromatism: when one colour sensing cone
is missing, a form of colour blindness occurs or
dichromatism.
5. Hue: It is the actual colour.
6. Chroma: describes purity of colour.
7. Saturation: the intensity of colour to look or
weak and pure or strong.
8. Value: to describe colour as dark , light
9. Luminance: the lightness of a colour.
10.Tints: when white is added to any colour
11.Shade: when black is added to any colour
12.Tone: when grey is added to any colour.
Munsell notation: H V/C
H stands for Hue
V stands for value
C stands for chrome

Assignments and learning activities

3. After understanding the terms like hue, value,

and intensity, using design plates, students will

Page

2. To understand the importance and use of colour

in interiors, they will be collecting pictures from
various books and magazines and make collages
for residential and commercial areas, basically to
understand the difference in colour used.

37

1. Students will be explained about colour as it is

perceived by different people. Students shall be
asked to make compositions (abstract or real)
using colours with their own imagination.

experiment with changing the hue, value, or

intensity of colour.
4. To understand the terms like tints and shades,
students can pick up any two colours and can
experiment with them on ivory sheets.

Terminal Exercises
1. How does the human eye see colour?
2. Write short notes on the following:
a) Hue
b) Value
c) Intensity
d) Pigment
e) Chroma

Intext Exercises
1. Why is it important for an Interior designer to
have a very thorough knowledge of colour and
colour theory? Explain with the help of examples.
2. Draw a geometric composition using tints and
tones.
3. What is the Munsell system of colour notation?
Explain.

Page

38

4. Draw a Colour Wheel on an ivory sheet and show

primary, secondary and tertiary colours in it
using poster colours.

Unit II
COLOUR SCHEMES & COLOUR
PSYCHOLOGY

Page

39

Lesson 5: Colour Schemes

Lesson 6: Colour Psychology

Lesson 5: Colour Schemes

Objectives
To develop an understanding of how a colour
scheme
is
developed
based
on
colour
wheel. To understand how a colour affects the
psychology of the viewer and what effects are
produced in a space by using different colours.

Structure
5.1 Types of Colour Schemes Based on the
Colour Wheel
5.1.1 Neutral colour schemes
5.1.2 Complementary colour Scheme
5.1.3 Triad Colour Schemes
5.1.4 Analogous Colour Schemes
5.1.5 Monochromatic Colour Schemes
5.2 A Little Technical Background on colour
schemes
5.3
Colour Facts
5.4
Tips on using colours
5.5
Flooring & Colour
5.6
Walls & Colour
5.7
Ceilings & Colour
5.8
Window Treatments & colour
5.9
Furniture & Colour
5.10 Open Floor Plans & Colour

Page

When you construct a circle out of the spectrum of

colours (basically the colours of the rainbow), you
have a colour wheel. Primary colours on the colour
wheel are red, yellow and blue. The full spectrum of
colours includes red, orange, yellow, green, blue,
and violet. In a circle or wheel arrangement, it is
easy to see how the colours interact with each

40

Introduction:

other. The Chroma of a colour is the intensity

(amount of lightness or darkness in the colour) and
purity in the hue. A neutralized colour is a colour
that has been muted or "greyed" so that it loses
some of its intensity.
In the following descriptions, you can refer back to
the colour wheel see how they fall in comparison to
each other. Lime green and shocking pink are
complimentary colours because they fall directly
opposite on the colour wheel. They are ideal colours
together because they intensify and complement
each other.

5.1
Types of Colour Schemes Based on
the Colour Wheel
In reading the following, you may want to go back
and look at the colour wheel to see where the
colours (also their tints and values) fall compared to
each other.

Page

41

5.1.1 Neutral colour schemes: This colour

scheme can be easier to live with than vibrant
colour schemes. Neutral colours are often used as
background colours in rooms because they blend
well with other colours. Touches of accent colours
are usually added in this colour scheme for interest.

Page

42

5.1.2 Complementary Colour Schemes - When

schemes that are built around two colours that are
on the opposite sides of the colour wheel, the
colours will intensify each other and make an
exciting and stimulating room. Colours can be pure
and vivid or neutralized and muted. Examples:
burgundy and forest green yellow and purple

Page

43

5.1.3 Triad Colour Schemes - This scheme is

applied when a room's colours are based on three
colours on the colour wheel that are located at equal
distances from each other. Colours can be pure and
vivid or neutralized and muted. Example: red,
yellow and blue.

Page

44

5.1.4 Analogous Colour Schemes - This colour

scheme uses two or three adjacent hues on the
colour wheel. It is a very harmonious scheme and
can be very restful. The accent colour in an
analogous colour scheme is often a complementary
colour from the opposite side of the colour wheel.
Colours can be pure and vivid or neutralized and
muted. Example: terra cotta, orange and gold

Page

45

5.1.5 Monochromatic Colour Schemes - This is

when only one colour family is used in a scheme.
Diverse tints and shades of one colour can be used
throughout the room. Colours can be pure and vivid
neutralized and muted. Examples: white, ivory and
beige pale pink, rose and burgundy.

5.2
A "Little" Technical Background on
Colour Schemes
Most rooms will typically be made up of 3 to 5
colours. One (or two) of the colours should be the
dominant colour and will be used extensively
throughout the room. It will cover the majority of
the space, such as the colour on the walls or wallto-wall carpeting.

Page

Accent colours are used the least, so often, a strong

colour that makes a statement is used. Accent
colours breathe life into a room and are used in

46

A secondary colour or colours are used a little less

than the dominant and will provide interest and
balance to the colour scheme. It might be the
background colour of a printed upholstery fabric or
the colour of the fabric for the window treatment. It
will not be the main colour in the room, but will play
a secondary role. There are usually only 1 or 2
secondary colours.

pillows, rugs, art pieces, or as contrasts on window

treatments.
There is no hard set way to determine which colours
in a room fall into which categories, you may have
two designers think that a room has a different
secondary colour than the other. This doesn't
necessarily mean that one is right and one is wrong.
With colour - everything is very subjective therefore, it helps to digest the above information,
but that doesn't mean that you can't bend the rules
a little. ....after all, Picasso did.
Neutrals are used to anchor a colour scheme.
Neutrals are not just white, ivory, off white and
grey. Almost any colour can become a neutral once
it is "greyed" or neutralized with its complementary
colour. Neutrals are often used for trim work, but
can also be used as the dominant colour, the
secondary colour, or even an accent in a room. A
room that is built around neutrals as the dominant
and secondary colours is often a very sophisticated
and elegant space Often, in traditional interiors the
dominant colour is neutralized and accents are more
bold. There is no reason why you cannot do the
reverse and allow your accents to be the more
neutralized colours in the room and the walls more
vivid. This is done frequently in contemporary
design.
If you want a room to appear larger - the floor
colour should be similar to the wall colour. For
instance: a room with an ivory carpet will look
larger with the walls painted the same shade of
ivory. A room with wood floors will look larger if
the walls are painted in a shade (although you
can go a bit lighter) similar to the wood floor.
This will create an unbroken line and will room
will not seem as fragmented.

47

Colour Facts

Page

5.3.

The darker the colour of a room, the more

intimate and smaller the room will appear. Light
colours recede visually and will make a room
appear more spacious.
As an elderly person ages, the lens of the eye
yellows, therefore, when selecting paint colours
an elderly person is seeing more "yellow" in the
colours than a younger person would.
Warm colours typically have a yellow or orange
undertone to them and cool colours typically
have a blue undertone. Example: Blue red (cool
red) and Orange red (warm red).
A room on the North side of a house will
generally be more comfortable in a warm
undertone colour. A room on the South side of a
house is more comfortable in a cool colour
scheme.
White will make colours around it seem paler.
Black makes adjacent colours appear darker and
bolder. The same shade of yellow will appear soft
next to white, but can appear bright and vivid
next to black.
Matte (non shiny) surfaces look darker because
they do not reflect as much light, while shiny,
high gloss surfaces appear lighter.

Page

Blue will tend to make the skin look pale and

sallow. Blue also happens to be an unappetizing
colour. If you use it in your Kitchen, throw in
accents of yellow or peach. However, blue is our
favourite colour (according to colour research)
and is perfect for the bedroom because it is
soothing and calming.

48

If you want to look great all the time, paint all

your walls in your house peach. This is the most
complimentary colour to all skin tones. Think
about how much candlelight helps!

Orange has the unhappy honour of being our

least favourite colour - but this is only true in its
vivid and strong value. Generally people are very
fond of terra cottas and peach.
Colours in the yellow or orange family may
become too glaring and bright if used in a pure,
vivid colour over an extensive area. It may be
wise to go a bit more neutral in an orange or
yellow colour than you originally intended.

5.4

Tips On Using Colours

If you're frustrated when attempting to select a

colour scheme for a room, let any favourite fabric,
print or even a scarf be your inspiration. Begin by
pulling 3 to 4 colours you like from the print by
matching the colours to paint chips. Decide which
colours you will use on the flooring, wall colour,
upholstery, etc. Whether you use the actual fabric in
the finished room doesn't matter, but by pulling a
few colours from the print you have the benefit of
an exciting colour scheme.

5.5

Flooring & Colour

Page

and its furnishings. It is always wise to use a more

neutral coloured flooring for the simple reason that

49

Floors can add quite a bit of colour to a room. The

floor is the foundation and base for an entire room

it creates a foundation for everything else.

Remember, even a forest green or a muted blue can
be considered neutral if muted enough. Kelly green
or sky blue are not. If you decide to change your
colour scheme in a few years, it will be easier to
work around a neutralized colour floor. Don't feel
you have to remain neutral with area rugs though.
These are easily moved and replaced with another
in a different style or colour if you want to change
the room. To make your house appear more
spacious and less choppy, select one colour of
carpet or flooring to go throughout your entire
home. This is another reason to go with a
neutralized colour on the floor so that each room's
colour scheme will complement it.
Ceramic tile floors will last for many years, so it is
usually safer to go with a neutral or classic colour
that enables you to easily change the colour scheme
of the room in the future. You can help to make
your tile flooring safer by selecting a floor tile with a
slip-resistance surface.

5.6

Walls & Colour

Page

50

Walls are an extremely important part of a room.

The colour or pattern you use on the walls can
easily become the dominant part of a room, because

of the large amount of space covered. Decide if you

want the pattern in a room to be on the walls, the
furniture, a rug, or a lavish window treatment.
Typically, two very bold patterns in one space will
fight each other and will not create a harmonious
room.
When you think of colour on the walls, don't rule
out all the possibilities. You can expand the feel of a
room and add architectural interest to a plain room
by adding a mural to the space, such as the tree
and faux stone door moulding added to the kitchen
wall below.
Flaws in the wall can be disguised (or,
unfortunately, can be amplified) depending on the
sheen of the wall finish. The flatter or more matte
the finish, the less the flaws in the plaster or drywall
will show. If there are quite a few bumps or ridges
in your dry wall surface, you should go with a flat or
satin finish, avoiding any shine. Flat and matte
paints also allow furniture and wall decorations to
become the focal points in the room.
Entrances, foyers, guest baths and corridors are
transitional parts of the house, and those walls can
be bolder or darker than areas in which you spend a
great deal of time. A bolder or darker colour will
also help a small space make a bigger visual impact.
If you have a dark room that doesn't receive much
sunlight, paint the walls in a light colour satin or
semi-gloss paint. The reflective surface, along with
a lighter colour, will reflect more light into the room.

There are many ways to alter the perception of the

height of a room. Ceilings have traditionally been
painted white to create an illusion of more height.

51

Ceilings & Colour

Page

5.7

However, if you do not want more height, then

consider painting the ceiling a darker colour. Always
paint the ceiling before the walls. If you paint the
walls first, it is extremely hard to keep ceiling drips
and splatters off of the wall surface.
In a child's room, it is a nice touch to paint the
ceiling in a deeper colour. This will make the ceiling
seem lower and the room will be a more intimate
space for a child. Consider painting a faux sky or
cloud effect on one of your ceilings. This paint
technique is especially nice in bathrooms and
bedrooms.

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52

If you have a low ceiling you would like to visually

lift, paint the wall from floor to ceiling in one colour.
If there is a chair rail or dado, use the same colour
or pattern on the wall above and below the
moulding and paint the chair rail in a colour close to
the wall colour. If there is large crown moulding,
you can paint or stain it the same colour as the wall
which will also make the room appear to have more
height.

5.8

Window Treatments & Colour

Windows are a natural focal point in a room.

Depending on your furniture arrangement, window
location or view from the window, you may want to
either enhance the window as a focal point or have
it blend into the background of the room. If you
have a beautiful view, use window treatments to

frame the view, without covering it up. Similar to

how you would frame a work of art.
Don't ignore the view, light or the colours in nature
your home receives from windows and skylights.
These magnificent features that windows provide in
a room should affect the colour and window
treatment choices you make.

Page

If you choose to have the window treatment blend

in with the room's decor, the fabric colour should be
close to the same colour as the wall surrounding the
window. This will also help to make the room
visually larger, because the wall will be an
unbroken, continuous colour, even with an elaborate
window treatment.

53

If you have multiple layers on your windows

consisting of sheers, draperies and top treatments,
you can downplay the proportions and significance
of the window by allowing all layers to be of the
same colour. To make the window a focal point, use
contrasting colours on the different layers.

Regardless of the colour of your drapery fabric,

always use a white or ivory drapery lining. This will
assure that the windows blend with each other on
the exterior of your home. Even coloured window
blinds can give your home an inconsistent
appearance on the outside.
Before purchasing sheers, you should do the
following to view their true colour, which may be
hidden. Roll the sheer fabric up in a ball, this will
show the precise colour of the material. Ivory
sheers can have a hidden warm or a cool undertone
colour that will become more obvious once hanging.

5.9

Furniture & Colour

Don't be afraid to mix furniture styles and finishes

within one room or space. Most homes that are
expensively decorated do not have matching pieces
of furniture, but have unique pieces that compliment
each other. An eclectic design style may seem to
some as the easiest style to pull off, because
anything goes. To others, a traditional room is the
simplest, because there are rules and guidelines to
follow. Whatever your style, the following tips on
using colour on furniture will help you make
decisions.

Page

54

For seating, a textured or patterned upholstery is

best to hide soil and can also pull together your
colour scheme. However, a solid colour or small
print upholstery will make the room look larger.
Small patterns and muted colours on furniture will
create a more restful environment, while bold
patterns and vivid colours will create a room full of
energy.

Furniture that is upholstered in dark colours, heavy

textured fabric or skirted with fabric will look more
massive and can crowd a small room. Furniture in
light colours, smooth textures and exposed legs will
tend to give even a small room a light, airy
appearance.

If you would love a white sofa, but have small

children or pets that make it impractical, use white
accent pillows and throws on a neutral beige sofa
instead.
All the wood on furniture in one room does not have
to match exactly, in fact, it usually looks more
interesting to have a mix of woods and stains. Just
make sure the woods undertones complement each
other. The orange undertones of oak next to the
burgundy undertones of mahogany may not blend
well to your eye.
Many homes built in the last few years are designed
with open floor plans. An open floor plan usually
involves a great room or living area, that is open to
the kitchen and dining room. Often, open floor plans
can create a problem in selecting a colour scheme,

55

Open Floor Plans & Colour

Page

5.10

because one room flows into the other. If you do

have an open floor plan, you'll want to make sure
that all areas flow well aesthetically, which can be
difficult. There are several things you can do to
create uniformity while allowing each room to have
its own unique personality.

Page

kitchen could be a light beige, the dining room a

rich bronze and the living room a shade between
the two. Just find a natural transition point, such as
a corner, to vary the colour of the walls. A long
straight wall, without a natural transition, will look
awkward in two different colours or textures and is
best kept one colour. However, if there is a
horizontal break (such as a chair rail) the colours
and/or textures can be different above and below
the chair rail.

56

You don't have to use the same colour throughout,

but do choose a colour scheme that you enjoy and
use it in the entire open area, changing the
dominant, secondary, and accent colours to give
distinction to each space. Use paint or apply
wallcovering on the walls in each area with a
different colour within the pallet. For instance, the

There are a few details that you will want to pay

attention to in order to retain flow in an open floor
plan. Have all trim work painted or stained the same
colour and the flooring should remain close to the
same colour if you cannot continue the same floor in
all open areas. For instance, if the living room has a
light beige carpet and the dining room has a wood
floor, it would look best to have a light wood floor as
opposed to a dark wood floor.
A consistency in the style and mounting height of all
the window treatments in an open area is
important. You can vary the top treatment some,
but overall, draperies should compliment each other
in length and style. This does not mean that they
have to match exactly, just make sure they
complement each other. The same colour will look
slightly differently in different areas of your home,
depending on the lighting. This adds interest to your
colour scheme and helps each room become unique.
A wall painted peach in a room that receives natural
daylight all day will look different than the same
peach paint will in a room on the north side of the
house.

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If your kitchen is open to the living area, make sure

that the kitchen cabinets complement the colours
and style in the adjacent rooms. If the cabinets are
wood, determine if they are a warm or cool stain

57

Avoid using conflicting styles or colours within an

open area. If you have a country kitchen, it will look
out of place flowing into a contemporary dining
room. Use colour in your accents (pillows, rugs and
artwork) to pull the different spaces together if your
main colour schemes are different. Install dimmers
on your kitchen lighting to create a soft ambiance
when you're not cooking or preparing meals. This
enables an open kitchen to blend in with the living
area in the evenings, particularly when you want to
create an elegant mood.

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58

and then select warm or cool colours for your

schemes. If painted, make sure the colour
complements the colours in the other rooms. For
instance, if you have soft ivory in your colour
scheme in the living area, you will probably not
want to paint the open kitchen cabinets bright
white, or they will look out of place. It would be
better to paint them a soft ivory. If the refrigerator
is visible from the living area, think about having
the doors fitted with front panels to match and
blend in with the kitchen cabinets.

Lesson 6: Colour

Psychology
Objectives
To understand the psychological affects created
by different colours on different persons and
places.

Structure

A remarkable number of references to colour are

expressed in our language using slang, metaphors
and colloquial expression. Some of them, such as
feeling blue, seeing red, or green with envy,
associate colours with specific human emotions.
Others, such as blue blood, white cockade, and red
carpet originated in the Middle Ages. And still
others, among them yellow journalism, the Red
guard, Purple Heart, Black Market all have an
interesting, although more recent history.
Colour is the single most powerful decorating tool.
Colour can affect your mood, make rooms appear
larger or smaller, provide continuity or jumble, and

59

Red
Orange
Yellow
Green
Traditionally Blue
A combination
Literally
White
Grey

Page

6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9

provide welcoming warmth or alienating cold. This is

a lot of pressure to put on selecting your colours!
First, colours can evoke emotions and moods.
Colour conveys moods that affix themselves quite
automatically to human feeling. Some of the
responses to colour are inborn, while other
responses are cultural perceptions or personal
preferences. We'll review some basic colour rules,
but remember that these are only guidelines, and
that your personality and cultural upbringing can
influence your perception of these colours.

6.1. RED: The colour Red has been part of the

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Found not only in the lores of ancient medicine but

in the superstitions of modern times, red has been
viewed as the vigorous colour of health. Red wool
was applied to relieve sprains in Scotland, sore
throats in Ireland, and to prevent fevers in
Macedonia. The ruby, a precious gemstone with a

60

English language since about A.D. 900. It is the

primary colour at the lower or least deflected end of
the visible spectrum. Its name is used for shades
ranging from very bright, bold red, to reddish yellow
or reddish brown.

brilliant red colour, was worn in China to promote

long life. The colour red has also been a
representation of love within a relationship between
two people. A red rose, given to the bearer's lover
or mate has always been known as a symbol of
love. As well as the ever-popular red heart on
Valentines Day. Red is a stimulating warm colour,
defined by heat and fire in nature. Red exudes
passion, desire, royalty and sexuality. Want to spice
up your bedroom? Paint a wall red! Red can add
drama to a room by creating a hot focal point,
perfect when used sparingly in bedrooms, kitchens,
and vibrant living spaces. However, if you want a
room to provide peace and comfort, the drama of
the red colours can upset the balance.

6.2 ORANGE: Orange is the only colour of the

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The fruit come from an evergreen tree, Citrus

aurantius, and the word "orange", comes from the
Old French orenge. Since about 1300 it has used as
part of the English language. Because the tree is
evergreen and ever bearing, the colour orange
became associated with fruitfulness.

61

spectrum whose name was taken from an object,

the well known and popular fruit called the orange.

On the visible spectrum this reddish-yellow colour

lies between, red and yellow the two colours that
when blended together are the creators of the
colour orange. In folklore the colour orange stands
for fire and flames, lust, vigour, excitement,
adventure and wholesomeness. Orange is an active
colour denoting motion and unrest. Used in softer
shades it can be used as an accent colour to create
a cool trendy dcor, think of pumpkin, terra cotta,
and peach.

6.3 YELLOW:

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the Latin and various Germanic languages. In

heraldry, where it is called or (for gold) the colour
yellow stands for the positive virtues of faith,
constancy, wisdom, and glory. It also has been
thought of as being a colour that represents
playfulness, light, creativity, warmth and an easy
going attitude about life. The colour yellow also has
many negative associations as well. Among them
are jealousy, treachery, cowardice, aging, and
illness.

62

The bright golden colour yellow

lies between green and orange on the visible
spectrum and is, along with red and blue, one of the
primary colours. Since about A.D. 900 the colour
yellow has been integrated into the English
language, stemming from closely related words in

Yellow is the colour of the sun, stimulating and

comforting all at the same time. Yellow, and related
tints such as cream, brown and beige, represents a
good base colour, balancing feelings of activity with
tranquility. However, we have seen this colour at
times overused, with various shades of beige and
yellow room after room. In homes with this colour
scheme, the mood can be shallow, unless dramatic
artwork and furniture, or more substantive shades
such as red or blue accent walls are added to liven
up the monotone appearance.

6.4 GREEN:

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Reappearing in springtime, after the dull, seemingly

colourless winter, it became a symbol of fertility and
growth, of abundance and external life. The colour
green represents harmony, nature and radiates a
feeling of fullness. When thoughts of nature come to
mind, green, being the colour of grass, trees and
plants, 99% of the time is the dominant colour of
one's mental images.

63

Green is the colour of freshness

and renewal, and has been in Western culture since
the earliest of times. The word "green" comes from
the Old English grne, in turn from grne in Old
Frisian and various related Germanic languages.

On the visible spectrum green lies sandwiched in

between blue and yellow. Green is the colour of the
forest and meadows, and as such, provides natural,
restful comfort. Green acts as a great colour for
blissful bedrooms, family and living rooms,
providing a place of peace, rest and relaxation.
Green is perfect for balancing the power and heat of
red, particularly with yellow-greens like sage,
celadon, or avocado. It can also be used to
transition the depth of true blues by creating
turquoise or aqua.

6.5 BLUE:

Traditionally blue is the colour of

constancy and faith, the colour painters used for the
Virgin Mary's robe, the colour of the heavens and

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The word "blue", from Middle English blew and Old

English Blaw, has been used since about 1300 to
describe a colour of the spectrum. In the symbolism
of heraldry blue is called azure and signifies piety

64

the oceans. The soothing colour blue stands for

sensitivity, peace, loyalty and ones desire to
nurture.

and sincerity. Around the twentieth century it

became a symbolic representation of the male
gender. Pink being the colour representative of the
female gender. Young children are usually dressed
using these two colours to distinguish the "boys"
from the "girls".
Blue is the colour of the ocean and the sky,
generating moods of coolness and rest. The colour
is associated with sensitivity and thoughtfulness.
Many corporate logos use blue to denote feelings of
depth and stability. Blue can be used as an accent
to relax the heat of red, orange, or yellow colour
schemes. Used in dark shades with abundance
however, the colour can cause a room to look small,
and produce melancholy in your guests.

6.6 PURPLE: A combination of red and blue,

purple is a colour that has been associated with
royalty since ancient Roman times.

Page

porphura, a species of shellfish that yielded, through

an elaborate process, the dye called Tyrian Purple.

65

The colour purple is symbolic of power, leadership,

respect and wealth and has been worn by emperors,
military commanders, and other high ranking
officials. The word "purple" comes from the Greek

Very expensive to produce, it was reserved for

special cloth and garments, such as those of kings.
Violet - the colour of flowers, violet has traditionally
been used for celebrations, ceremony and royalty. It
is the coolest of colours in the spectrum. Violets and
purples can add a twist of the unexpected to a
neutral room. However, violet is difficult to work
with to create the correct blend and mood, so if you
are wanting to add violet colour and accents,
consult with friends or even a professional to be
sure the effect is as intended.

6.7 BLACK:

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Yet long before the physics of light was understood,

the word black was in common use. In Old English it
was blaec, closely related to its equivalents in Old
High German (blah, blach) and Old Norse (blakkr).
In many languages and cultures, black was
associated with evil (and white with good). Both in
art and in religion black signified despair, sin and
mourning. Its use in mourning is very old, it
probably comes from the ancient Semitic custom of
blackening the face with dirt or ashes to make it
unrecognisable to the malignant dead, as well as a

66

Literally, black means absorbing all

light, without reflecting any of its rays.

mark of grief and submission. The tradition of

today's funeral is the wearing of black garments to
mourn the loss of a family member, relative, or
close friend. Despite the colour's many negative
associations, in heraldry black, called sable, also
stands for virtues of constancy, prudence and
wisdom. Black - black is actually not a colour, but
the absence of colour. When light hits a black
object, none of the light is reflected back, it is
absorbed. Black is a very modern and stylish colour
creating a dark, mysterious mood. However, for
those mysterious amongst us we should remember
that black absorbs light, and when used in
abundance such as on a large sofa or a wall
covering, it will make a room appear smaller and
require significantly more lighting. It is for this
reason that we suggest using black sparingly, for
accent furniture and accessories.

6.8 White is, literally speaking the absence of all

colour. Or rather, it is the "colour" produced by
reflecting almost all kinds of light found in the
visible spectrum.

Page

When light hits a white object, as opposed to black

which absorbs all of the light, the white object
reflects all of the light. White is the colour purity,

67

This is why white clothing is considered cooler than

other colours on a hot summer day; since it reflects
back sunlight (and heat) rather than absorbing it; as
black does. The word white comes from the Old
English hwt, which in turn is related to very similar
words in old Germanic languages. Symbolically
white has long represented purity, goodness, light
and innocence. In heraldry white is also called
argent. This word comes from the Latin argentum,
for silver. The colour white projects feelings of
calmness, relaxation and an inner peace with ones
surroundings and inner soul. White is a combination
of all colours.

peace and joy. White rooms appear larger, requiring

less artificial light to create a bright airy feeling.
White however can be difficult to maintain in its
clean pristine state.

6.9 Grey is a non-colour, a combination of black

and white. Grey is the colour of rain clouds, creating
a sombre mood.

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68

Grey is a shade that needs to be used carefully,

although it will not make a room appear dark, too
much grey within a room will have a dull,
monotonous feel. Grey is easy to use as an accent,
such as on a wall, combined with colourful more
dramatic art and window treatments.

Summary:
Colour schemes are based on colour wheel. Study of
these colour schemes will help in making the best
use of colours. The basic colour schemes are
monochromatic, analogous, complementary, split
complementary, double complementary, triadic, and
accented neutral as they relate to the colour wheel.

Revision Points
a) Neutral colour schemes are easy to live with.
They are used as background colours.
b) Complementary Colour Schemes are those that
are built around two colours that are on the
opposite sides of the colour wheel. Examples:
burgundy and forest green yellow and purple.
c) Triad Colour Schemes - This scheme is applied
when a room's colours are based on three
colours on the colour wheel that are located at
equal distances from each other. Example: red,
yellow and blue.

Page

f) There are warm and cool colours, which affect

the temperature of the room. Warm colours
typically have a yellow or orange undertone to
them and cool colours typically have a blue

69

d) Analogous Colour Schemes - This colour scheme

uses two or three adjacent hues on the colour
wheel. Example: terra cotta, orange and gold.
e) Monochromatic Colour Schemes -This is when
only one colour family is used in a scheme.
Diverse tints and shades of one colour can be
used throughout the room. Examples: white,
ivory and beige pale pink, rose and burgundy.

undertone. Example: Blue red (cool red) and

Orange red (warm red).
g) Matte (non shiny) surfaces look darker because
they do not reflect as much light, while shiny,
high gloss surfaces appear lighter.
h) Colours have their own language. They speak for
themselves. So we should always select the
colours very carefully keeping the factors like
flooring, ceiling, furniture and furnishings. They
all should blend with each other.
i) Colour is the single most powerful decorating
tool. Colour can affect your mood, make rooms
appear larger or smaller, provide continuity or
jumble, and provide welcoming warmth or
alienating cold. This is a lot of pressure to put on
selecting your colours!
j) Some of the responses to colour are inborn,
while other responses are cultural perceptions or
personal preferences. Different psychological
effects are produced by different colours Red is
a stimulating warm colour, defined by heat and
fire in nature. Red exudes passion, desire,
royalty and sexuality.
k) Orange is the only colour of the spectrum whose
name was taken from an object, the well known
and popular fruit called the orange. Orange is an
active colour denoting motion and unrest.

Page

m) A combination of red and blue, purple is a colour

that has been associated with royalty since
ancient Roman times. The colour purple is
symbolic of power, leadership, respect and
wealth and has been worn by emperors, military
commanders, and other high ranking officials.

70

l) Green is the colour of freshness and renewal.

The colour green represents harmony, nature
and radiates a feeling of fullness.

n) Blue is the colour of constancy and faith. Blue

stands for sensitivity, peace, loyalty and ones
desire to nurture.
o) Literally, black means absorbing all light, without
reflecting any of its rays. Black is a very modern
and stylish colour creating a dark, mysterious
mood.
p) White is, literally speaking the absence of all
colour.The colour white projects feelings of
calmness, relaxation and an inner peace with
ones surroundings and inner soul. White is a
combination of all colours.

Assignments and learning activities

1. Students will understand the importance of
colour and its many uses in interior design.Using
design plates, students will experiment with
changing the hue, value, or intensity of colour.
2. Paint the colours on the colour wheel beginning
with primary colours and then mixing two of
those to create the secondary combining a
primary and a secondary colour to create
intermediate colours.
3. Students will identify the basic colour schemes:
monochromatic, analogous, complementary, split
complementary, double complementary, triadic,
and accented neutral as they relate to the colour
wheel.

Terminal Exercise

Page

a) Red
b) Green
c) Blue

71

1) What is colour psychology? Describe in detail the

psychological effects of the following colours

d) Yellow
e) Purple
2) Draw and colour compositions using the following
colour schemes:
3) Monochromatic colour scheme
4) Analogous colour scheme
5) Contrast colour scheme
6) Split-complimentary colour scheme

Intext Exercise
1) Explain in detail any five kinds of colour schemes
based on the colour wheel.
2) How can colour schemes help an Interior
Designer in creating optical illusions in
a
room? Explain by giving examples.
3) What kind of colour schemes would you provide
in the following areas:

Page

72

a) Children room
b) Library
c) Office
d) Bedroom of a teenaged boy
e) Kitchen
f) Dining room
4) What factors would you keep in mind while
designing an interior space and what colour facts
would you keep in mind related to to any given
space?

Unit III
RENDERING TECHNIQUES & MEDIUMS
Lesson 7: Graphite Pencils
Lesson 8: Colour Pencils
Lesson 9: Pastels
Lesson 10: Pen, Brush &Ink

Page

73

Lesson 11: Markers

Lesson 7: Graphite Pencils

Objectives
Learning to use the various colour and rendering
mediums and to develop an understanding of
how to choose different mediums for presenting
various works.

Structure
7.1 Material
7.1.1 Clutch Pencils
7.1.2 Graphite Sticks
7.1.3 Graphite Powder
7.2
Techniques
7.2.1 Hard Line
7.2.2 Soft Line
7.2.3 Hard Scribble
7.2.4 Soft Scribble
7.2.5 Studio Pencil
7.3 Graphite Stick

When it is mastered, however, the pencil is a

versatile drawing tool with which you can create

Page

The most common of all drawing instruments, the

graphite pencil is by no means the easiest to use.
Compared with many other drawing tools, its lines
can get small and fussy. They invite detail, and all
too often this leads the beginner into a trap -for it is
best not to pay too much attention to detail at first;
far better to aim initially for the bold strokes and
outlines, or areas of tone, which make up the main
characteristics of a composition.

74

Introduction:

beautiful, and finished pictures as well as make

rough outline sketches. Although not as bold and
chunky as some other materials, it has a varied
range, allowing for broad, heavy and light strokes,
fine lines, and subtleties of shading.
A crystalline form of carbon, real graphite has
historic links with the English Lake District, where it
was extensively mined and from where it was widely

Page

The term 'lead pencil' gives the wrong impression.

Early deposits found in England were originally
thought to be lead. The first graphite pencil was
made in 1662 and the design of the pencil has not
changed greatly over the centuries. Early ones were

75

exported. It is found in many parts of the world,

including North Carolina, Mexico, Sri Lanka and
eastern Siberia. It is also manufactured artificially
both in iron furnaces and by electrical methods. The
graphite available on markets comes in pencil, stick
and powder form.

rods of graphite (graphite mixed with gum or resin)

pressed into a grooved piece of wood, rather like
the modern pencil, or held in a metal holder very
similar to today's clutch or propelling pencils.
The Latin 'pencillus' referred to brushes, used with
ink in the Middle Ages, rather than to the pencil as
we now know it. A more closely related ancestor
was silverpoint, a narrow rod made from lead and
tin. In the hands (artists as Leonardo da Vinci
(1452-1519) and Albrecht Durer (1471-1528),
silverpoint was made to produce beautiful pictures fine lines, varied to create an immense range of
tones. Silverpoint has its drawbacks. It needed a
special ground which was time-consuming to make.

7.1

Material

Page

The pencil is ideal for detail, and for smaller-scale

working. It can be made to produce pictures with
amazing contrasts and subtleties of tone and
textures. Generally speaking, soft pencils make
dark, thick lines; hard ones produce light, thin lines.
But many new types of drawing pencil are coming

76

The ordinary 'lead' pencil is a thin rod of graphite

encased in a hollow tube of wood -wrongly named
'lead pencil' because this was what some graphite
deposits were originally thought to be when they
were first discovered, and because some pencils did
occasionally contain lead. The graphite rod is known
as the 'lead' or the 'strip'. Pencils, of course, are
easily available from many types of shop but the
cheaper ones, for Use in offices or schools, tend to
be crude compared with artists' pencils; they also
tend to be at the harder end of the range. It is a
good idea to buy superior quality pencils from art
shops. They come individually or in sets, and range
in hardness from 9H to 9B -very hard to very soft.
Some manufacturers use numbers, starting at 1, 2
etc, with the low numbers designating the softest.

onto the market. Some of these are extra soft, with

softer, thicker strips than any in the standard range,
and these can be used for large-scale work. 'Studio'
pencils are also specialist tools - rectangular in
shape, with a rectangular strip -and again, these are
good for bigger scale drawings, allowing you to vary
the thickness of the line by turning the pencil.
Traditional carpenters' pencils were made to a
similar design.

7.1.1

Clutch pencils

Most ordinary pencils can be sharpened with a

pencil sharpener, either manual or electric, as well
as with a craft knife or other type of blade. But the
flat studio pencils must be sharpened with a blade
or knife. Instead of sharpening your pencils, you can
obtain clutch pencils or propelling pencils- which

Page

A wide variety of papers can be used for drawing

with pencils. Smooth boards and cards, cartridge,
watercolour papers, tinted paper -all these are
suitable. The paper's texture dictates the effects and

77

hold the rods of graphite in place so that they can

be extended as necessary. These rods, too, come in
a full range, from soft to hard, like the woodcovered normal versions.

type of line. Generally, hard pencils do not take very

well on smooth surfaces, and very soft pencils can
be difficult to control on extremely coarse papers.
For lasting results, a finished pencil drawing should
be fixed -and for soft pencils this is essential.

7.1.2

Graphite Sticks

For spontaneous and less detailed work, graphite

can be obtained in chunky sticks. These are
especially recommended when operating on a very
bold, large scale. They allow you to achieve various
degrees of softness and thickness, coming in softto-hard ranges like ordinary pencils and also in
varying thickness. The lines can be altered by using
the point, the side of the pointed end, or the
flattened length of the stick.

7.1.3

Graphite Powder

Page

78

For special effects such as softly graded tones,

graphite is available in the form of fine powder. This

is obtainable in some art shops and is used to

produce varied areas of tone in a drawing. Rub the
powder on with your finger or with a cloth, and use
the smudged areas in conjunction with line. An
eraser can be used to remove parts of the powder
and create white zones in the dark patches.
Graphite powder needs practice. It can be slippery,
and must be fixed.

7.2 Techniques
7.2.1

Hard Line

Hard pencils produce a paler, thinner line than the

softer grades, and are generally less popular with
artists than soft pencils. But the thin light line is
sometimes useful for an initial drawing which is
required to be inconspicuous and not to smudge. So
choose a hard pencil when you specifically require a
lighter tone -you will get a cleaner line than trying
to use a. soft pencil lightly. Avoid the mistake of so
many artists who tend to stick to one pencil, varying

the pressure to change the line. There is full range

of pencils to choose from, so use them! Here the
artist cross-hatches with a 2H pencil to create an
area of crisp, light grey tone.

7.2.2

Soft Line

Page

79

Dark soft lines characterize the graphite pencils at

the soft end of the range The cross-hatched lines

below are drawn with a 3B pencil. Without pressing
too hard, the artist is able to make a fairly concise
line by using a freshly sharpened pencil . Yet at the
same time, the finished sample has a dark, mellow
quality. The slightly rough cartridge paper
contributes to the soft look, and close observation
shows that the pencil lines are broken, with flecks of
white showing through.

7.2.3 Hard Scribble

The marks you can make with a hard pencil are
limited to light grey, whether you are working in
line, tone or texture. Make the most of this
limitation; when you want to quickly block in a large
area of pale texture and tone choose one of the H
pencils. There is a considerable difference between
an H and 7H pencil, so experiment and explore the
possibilities of the whole range. In the illustrations
below, the artist is working with a 4H pencil, using

loose scribble on white cartridge paper. The result is

a loose and natural texture which the artist
frequently employs to break up flat expanses of
background in figure and still-life drawing.

Page

The B pencils, the soft ones, offer a range of deeper

tones. Here scribbled texture takes on a more
velvety appearance than that created by their
harder counterparts. A 4B pencil is being used to
cover an expanse of white paper with wide, regular
scribbles. The soft, curved strokes are an ideal

80

7.2.4 Soft Scribble

technique when dealing with sweeping landscapes,

where areas of sky, water, hills and fields require a
broad, expansive treatment.

7.2.5

Studio Pencil

A newcomer to the pencil family, these chunky

studio pencils have flattened strips. The advantage
here is that, by turning the pencil round, you can

alter the width of your line. Here, the artist uses the
broad edge of the graphite to block in a flecked
texture of broad marks.
Graphite sticks allow you to make bold lines and to
block in solid areas. Try the 'various types -hard and
soft; thick and thin -practising their various effects.
For example, in the illustration here the artist uses
the flattened edge of the point to lay an area of light
tone on rough paper.

81

Graphite Stick

Page

7.3

7.3.1 Blending

Page

82

You can rub pencil lines to soften their effect. The

softer the pencil, of course, the more effective this
type of blending will be. Rubbing hard pencil lines
will produce a slightly out of focus effect (1), with
soft pencil marks, the result can look very smudgy
and dark (2). Most artists restrict such blending to
selected areas of a drawing - using it to contrast
with the linear character of most pencil drawing or
to knock back a tone or texture which has become
too strong. Carry out your own experiments, fixing
the final effects so that your work does not become
more blended than you intended!

Lesson 8: Colour Pencils

Objectives
To use the various colour and rendering
mediums and to develop an understanding of
how to choose different mediums for presenting
various works.

Structure
8.1.1 Material
8.1.2 Ordinary Colour Pencils
8.1.3 Watercolour Pencils
8.2
Techniques
8.2.1 Cross hatching
8.2.2 Optical Mixing
8.2.3 Colour Mixing
8.2.4 Blending

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83

The striking characteristic of coloured pencils over

the last few decades has been their coming of age.
They are no longer exclusively the playthings of
children experimenting in the nursery. They are
sophisticated tools, continually evolving into more
refined products. This is not to criticize the activities
of schoolchildren -what we learn with coloured
pencils in the classroom is probably the best

grounding of all for potential artists and designers.

But nowadays, large sets of artists' pencils, some of
them containing a range of 72 colours, give the
adult artist command over an extremely subtle
variety of tones. This vastly increased range can
even threaten to overwhelm the beginner.

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84

Both ordinary coloured pencils, and their watersoluble versions (sometimes called watercolour
pencils), are extremely popular with illustrators and
animators. They produce a certain effect which has
become fashionable -a lightly-textured delicate
finish seen in many animation films and children's
and magazine illustrations. This lightness, in fact, is
the symptom of a characteristic which, for the fine
artist, can be quite a problem. It is difficult to build
up 'tonal contrasts; the white paper is rarely
completely obliterated. Even if you are using black,
it is difficult to prevent the paper from playing a
lightening role. It is not easy to build up tone as you
would with paint, because the waxy nature of the

pencil colours obliterates the slight texture of the

paper surface, the 'key', making the support
increasingly smooth with each additional pencil
stroke. Most artists take this into account, and use
pencils for certain tasks and particular subjects,
working within these limitations.
For work on a smaller scale with coloured pencils,
you can combine blocked-in areas of colour with
linear drawing, producing a detailed or naturalistic
finished picture. But one of the areas where
coloured pencils really come into their own is in
mixed media work. Here you can combine the light
touch of the coloured pencil with the stronger,
denser tones of inks, paints and many other
materials.
These,
and
other
adventurous
combinations, open up a range of unusual and
experimental effects.

8.1

Material

Page

Factories produce billions of coloured pencils to a

high degree of precision, ensuring that once a hue
has been established -careful measurements of
components churned automatically in huge drums the same colour is reproduced, exactly. The wood

85

Coloured pencils are made from a mixture of clay

and pigment, bound together with gum, soaked in
wax and pressed into rods encased in wood. In
recent years, there has been an enormous increase
in the variety of coloured pencils available in the
market. Not only has the range of colours been
vastly expanded,
but you-can now obtain
watercolour pencils -allowing you to dissolve or
partially dissolve the colours on the paper with
water. Ordinary coloured pencils differ according to
the manufacturer and the series you choose. Some
of them are waxy and extra hard; others are soft
and crumbly, approaching the pastel pencils in
texture and effect.

encasements are often made from soft Californian

cedar so that the pencils can be sharpened without
splitting.
Coloured pencils are more difficult to erase than
graphite pencils. The only way to remove a heavy
coloured pencil mark is to scrape it back to the
surface with a sharp blade. However, this type of
correction must be severely restricted because the
roughened
paper
surface
quickly
becomes
unworkable.

8.1.1

Ordinary Colour Pencils

Page

in sets of up to 72 colours. Children's and generalpurpose coloured pencils are all right for quick
sketching and drawing, but they are less refined
than those made specifically for use in the studio.
The pencils can be obtained in round or hexagonal
wooden
encasements.
They
look
practically
indestructible - but like all pencils, they must be
handled with care. This is something a lot of people
do not realize -if you drop them or treat them
roughly; the colour strips inside the wood will
fracture. Thus when you sharpen the pencil the
short crumbled pieces will simply fall away.

86

You can buy ordinary coloured pencils individually or

Special coloured pencils are produced for use on film

and acetate. This type of pencil is used mainly by
illustrators and in animation studios, and is
unnecessary for ordinary drawing.

8.1.2

Watercolour Pencils

These can be used as ordinary coloured pencils, or

as 'painting' pencils. When using them in a painterly
way, apply clean water with a soft brush to those
areas which you want to blend or soften.
Alternatively, you can dampen the paper first, so
that the marks made by the pencil will bleed and
expand slightly to produce a broad, soft line.

Techniques

8.2.1

Cross-hatching

The secret of mixing coloured pencils is to make the

white or light tone of the paper work for you. Artists
and illustrators who work frequently with this
versatile medium know that you cannot bully
coloured pencils into forming a particular colour you have to cajole them. For example, if you
decided to mix green from blue and yellow: -and a
'mixed' green composed of flecks of yellow and blue
is far more interesting than a green which is merely
picked from the box -you could not easily achieve
this by simply scribbling dense yellow over dense
blue. The result would be uneven and unattractive,
and
such
closely
worked
strokes
would
automatically prevent you from building up further
colour should you so wish, because the surface
would already have become shiny and unworkable.
By far the best approach is to build up the colour

Page

8.2

87

Very soft, chunky jumbo-sized watercolour pencils

are now available, ideally suited to large-scale work.
They come in sets, complete with their own pencilsharpener L standard sharpeners do not fit these
outsize materials.

gradually, using widely spaced lines with plenty of

white paper showing through -as the artist is doing
in the illustrations on this page. Cross-hatching is a
good way of doing this because the fine, regular
lines give you maximum control over the final
result.
First, patches of regular blue hatching are applied
evenly over a fairly large expanse of white cartridge
paper -if the area is too small it will be difficult to
appreciate the overall effect. Yellow hatching of a
similar texture is then worked on top of this. The
result is a lively, broken colour in which the pure
yellow and blue are still discernible, yet which is
interpreted by the viewer as green.

Page

The 'optical' mixing demonstrated here is simply a

continuation
of
the
cross-hatched
colour
combination on the previous page. First, more blue

88

8.2.2 Optical Mixing

is added to darken the tone; the artist then works in

a bright red, lending a warm tone to the overall
colour. Had they been laid over each other in dense
layers, the red, yellow and blue would have turned
into a dull mass of uneven brownish-grey; the top
colour would have been the dominant one, and the
general effect become clogged and dull.
But, because the artist allowed plenty of white
paper to show between the strokes, the three
colours combine quite naturally to form a neutral
hue which is brownish-grey when viewed from a
distance, but in which the yellow, blue and red are
still visible.

Page

likely to be. Why use flat orange, for example, when

89

These illustrations demonstrate one of the basic

principles of coloured pencil drawing, and they also
help to explain why the medium has become such a
popular one. With coloured pencils you can achieve
glowing and shimmering effects by building up the
colours. And the more you can exploit these colour
combinations, the more interesting the result is

you can create a whole range of exciting, multicolour oranges from red, yellow and tinges of any
other colour you care to add? The resulting mixtures
-often delicate and unusual -' have far greater visual
impact than flat, commercially mixed colours. Try
your own colour mixing. The result will be
surprisingly effective and encourage you to
experiment further with this innovative medium.

8.2.3

Colour Mixing

Page

Work through your pencil set, taking each colour in

turn and overlaying this with every other colour in
the box. You might find it useful to keep a chart of
your discoveries, a handy reference to help you see
at a glance how to mix the colour you want.

90

We have talked about the various ways of mixing

colours - including cross-hatching, optical mixing
and overlaying. And with a little practice you will be
able to use the materials without any problem. But
knowing how to blend and mix the pencils does not
actually tell you what colours to choose if you want
to make a particular colour. For this you need to
know a little about colour theory, and to experiment
by trying as many colour combinations as possible.

Water-soluble pencils can be blended with water.

After lightly overlaying the required colours, take a
soft brush and work the overlaid colours with a Little
clean water. The result is similar to .that of

watercolour paint, and often has the same delicate

transparent quality. There is one problem with this
technique; the colours tend to darken and change sometimes quite dramatically - when they are wet.
It is not always easy to know what the result will be.
Again, practice will help you to anticipate a likely
outcome. But in any case; you should not attempt
to imitate watercolour paint with watercolour pencils
-they are essentially a drawing medium and are at
their best when blending is restricted to limited
areas.
On the previous pages we looked at effective ways
of mixing colour, of overlaying two or three separate
colours to create a new one. This was made possible
by using the white paper and by building up the
pencil lines gradually in several easily controlled
stages. The 'blending' here -is done more directly,
by overlaying colours, one flat area on top of
another. If you decide you want this type of flat
tone rather than the broken colours of optical

91

Blending

Page

8.2.4

mixing and cross-hatching, you must remember the

limitations of the material and proceed carefully.
First, apply the initial colour as lightly as possible
with the side of the pencil. This method does not
completely destroy the key of the paper surface and
enables you to add one or two more colours if you
continue to work as lightly, as possible. Deeper
tones can be created by building up two or three
flat, light colours but already the artist is finding it
difficult to add further red because the underlying
pencil is too dense to receive more colour.

Page

92

The texture of the paper is important when blending

coloured pencils. Here the artist made the task
easier by using fairly coarse cartridge paper -the
waxy colour got caught on the raised parts of the
support's surface texture, leaving the minute
indents as white, Regular sharpening is another
essential if you want to keep the colours unfuzzy
and clear, and the surface of the paper as unclogged
as possible.

Lesson 9: Pastels
Objectives
To learn the technique of using pastel colours
and their areas of application.

Structure
9.1.
9.2.
9.3

Material
Choosing Supports
9.2.1 Oil Pastels
Techniques
9.3.1 Blending
9.3.2 Mixing
9.3.3 Side of the stick
9.3.4 Scribbled Texture
9.3.5 Texture
9.3.5 a Cross-hatching
9.3.6 Optical Mixing
9.3.7 Oil Pastel and Turpentine

Introduction

Page

93

Where do pastels really belong? Some say they are

really 'paints', and 'pastel painting' is often the term

used for work done with them; but they are also
linear tools, and therefore they have a rightful place
in a drawing book. In many ways, they belong with
the chunky materials such as the colour sticks, but
as they require more practice, they warrant a
section of their own.
Like colour sticks, pastels are ideal for large-scale
work and suited to a free, interpretive use of colour.
They can be employed on a small scale but there is
a tendency for this to have a 'chocolate box' look if
you are not careful.

Page

The more recent oil pastels are another matter.

Here, there are fewer colours, with a limited range
of tones to each one. They are cruder, and it is
difficult to achieve any subtle effects -usually a

94

They come in two definite types -the familiar soft,

crumbly pastels and oil pastels. And two completely
different approaches are called for. With soft
pastels, colours need to be built up; blended and
overlaid to obtain the right tone and colour. In this
respect they are similar to paints. You therefore
need a large range of colours - several tones of the
same colour can be used to obtain a realistic effect.
Look at the pastels of Edgar Degas (1834-1917), a
formidable experimenter with techniques and
materials. You will see flesh tones built up with bold
directional strokes of pinks, oranges, mauves and
browns to achieve the subtle, translucent effect of
human skin. This technique, however, definitely
needs practice! An amateur's common mistake is to
start by using the colour too densely, making it
difficult to add further colours. When you have
become used to them, pastels can be used to
produce a beautiful finished painting with as much
subtlety and detail as you may wish. Soft pastel
needs fixing -a light, spray with fixative after each
stage will help stop the fine powder rubbing off as
you work.

mistake to try. Oil pastels are best for large, bold

work -an immediate effect if you want a lively,
colourful and quick rendering of a subject. They are
extremely handy for outdoor work for this reason.
Oil pastels can be dissolved with turps to achieve a
blend, but this is usually best kept to a minimum,
for there is no point using oil pastels if what you
really require is a smoothly blended oil painting.
They belong to a quick, bold, instant approach -just
right if you want to build up confidence in drawing
with colour.

9.1

Material

The so-called 'soft' pastels are made from powder

pigment bound with resin or gum to hold them
together in stick form: They can be square or round.
Soft pastels come in three grades -soft, medium and
hard. The harder pastels are mixed with extra gum
or binder, which detracts from the colour brilliance;
and this is why the softest pastels are the brightest.

Page

95

When working with soft pastels you need a wide

selection of shades or tints. The lighter the tint, the
more white chalk it contains. You can buy the sticks
singly or in sets containing widely varying amounts,
from 12 to more then 300 sticks. You can also

purchase 'landscape' and 'portrait' sets in which the

colours are biased towards either of these areas.
How the pastels are stored is important. Boxed
pastels are laid on strips of ridged cardboard to
separate the colours. Loose pastels become very
grubby, rubbing off on each other until it is
impossible to tell the colours apart. One good idea is
to keep loose pastels in a box partially filled with
grains of dried rice -the friction of the grains cleans
the pastels and keeps the sticks sparkling and fresh.
Many artists make their own pastels, by mixing up
the pigments and varying quantities of zinc white
with distilled water and. gelatine. Despite the wide
range available, they still prefer to make colours to
match their own particular requirements. The lighter
shades are made by increasing the amount of white
each time, so a very large range of tones of one
colour can be achieved, to fit in with an individual
taste.

9.2

Choosing Supports

Page

96

Supports for soft pastels are crucial. The colour of

the support will become an important part of the
finished picture, and should be chosen to match the
subject. Papers with a matt or slightly textured
surface are best for pastels. Smooth papers are less
suitable although vellum or calligraphy paper is
good for delicate, light pastel work.

The paper must be of good quality in order to

withstand the layers of pastel work. Special pastel
paper similar to the very finest grade of industrial
sandpaper is available in art shops. Colours adhere
thickly to this surface to give a strong, brilliant
effect. Ordinary sandpaper can be used but
produces a very definite effect which you may or
may not like.
You need to fix the work, spraying each stage lightly
and allowing it to dry. If you overdo this, however,
you will create a shiny varnished surface which is
unworkable. Fixing also alters the colours, so take
care. Many artists fix from the back- spraying the
back of the paper so that some soaks through.
Some artists find this less effective, but it does hold
the powdered colour to some extent and does not
darken the colours.
Use a torchon to blend the colours -buy one or
make your own by rolling a piece of paper to form a
stick with a pointed end. Alternatively, you can rub
with tissue paper or fine cloth for larger areas. You
can also use a soft brush to lift the colour, and a
kneadable eraser to remove colour.

These are heavy -more like oil paint than any other
drawing medium -and they do not crumble like
traditional soft pastels. They are therefore ideal for
outdoor colour sketching. They come in bright
colours, usually available in sets. There are less
choices of tone, but oil pastels are' best for bold line
work with the occasional block of solid colour or
texture. They are best used on a large scale. Use
strong paper. You can blend the colours with turps.
Limited colour mixing is possible by overlaying
colours, but this is not easy to control.

97

Oil Pastels

Page

9.2.1

9.3

Technique

9.3.1

Blending

The secret of successful soft pastel work lies in

colour blending. With practised handling pastels are
as versatile as paint, carefully blended to produce a
complete range of subtle tints and hues. These may
be either areas of flat tone, or textured broken
colour.
Here the artist demonstrates one method of
blending two separate colours to create a smooth,
yet broken colour combination -an effect often used
to depict skies and water. Bold white streaks are
first drawn on to an expanse of flat blue pastel
colour. This is then gently rubbed to remove the
harsh pastel lines and edges, thus merging the
colours.

9.3.2

Mixing

Page

98

Providing you apply the colour sparingly and lightly,

pastels can be built up in several layers to produce
beautiful and shimmering effects of mixed colour.
Only by experimenting and practising will you find
out how different shades and hues combine, and
how many pastel colours can be laid over each other
before the paper becomes clogged and unworkable.

In the illustration here, the artist starts by blocking

in an area of fairly solid purple, lightening this with
thin white streaks. Light red scribbling lends a
pinkish tinge to the overall colour. You might find it
helpful to fix each colour with a light spray of
fixative, allowing this to dry before moving on to the
next colour.

9.3.3

Side of the Stick

Paper tone is an important element in pastel

paintings, and this can be better integrated into
your picture if you lay colour with the broad side of
the stick.
This method allows the colour to adhere to the

raised parts of the matt pastel support, causing the

paper tone to show through. With a particularly
coarse support, such as watercolour paper, the
effect is even more marked, and has a rough,
granular texture. In the demonstration, bright red is
laid evenly on a darker paper; the final tone is
influenced by the deeper tone showing through.

9.3.4

Scribbled Texture

Page

99

Again, the tone of the underlying paper can be

exploited by applying colour in scribbled or broken

strokes. This basic technique may seem obvious, yet
it is one of the most important underlying principles
of all pastel work. Practice the method extensively;
starting as the artist is here, scribbling a colour on a
tinted paper to produce an area of loosely broken
colour. You can then develop this, lightly adding
more colour and tone to achieve the exact
combination you require. Keep the scribbles loose
and wide apart to prevent the colour from becoming
too dense, otherwise you will lose the light, airy
quality which this approach creates.

9.3.5

Texture

'Texture' is an all-embracing term which, to the

artist, means the visual or tactile surface structure
of the work. Thus: all areas of pattern or built up
marks fall into this very broad category. Try out as
many textures as you can think of. In this way you
will have at your disposal a store of techniques -a
sort of visual repertoire -to fall back on, and your
work will be more creative and lively as a result.
Here the artist experiments with a texture of looped
scribbles starting with one colour and adding to this
with further colours worked in the same looped
strokes.

9.3.5a Cross-hatching

Page

100

Cross-hatching with pastel is unusual, simply

because it is not strictly necessary. There are
quicker ways of building up colour and texture when
using pastels. However, hatching and cross-hatching
does produce a crisp linear effect which can often
provide a welcome contrast to the soft, smudgy

nature of much pastel work. Use the pastel in

exactly the same way that you would work with a
pencil or pen, building up small regular lines to
produce an overall criss-cross texture. Here the dark
red paper shows through, deepening the colour of
the final effect.

9.3.6

Optical Mixing

All coloured drawing materials are ideal for mixing

colour optically, and the small flecks, which mix in
the eye rather than being blended together on the
paper, can be easily and quickly dotted in with
pastel. The soft, broad tip of the stick produces a
largish
mark, and the slight flick of colour, created naturally

as you lay dots quickly, provides an irregular mark

which prevents the pattern from looking too
mechanical. Here the artist combines light blue dots
with bright red ones, using the tone of the paper as
a third colour in the finished effect

Oil pastels can be dissolved with turpentine or

white spirit, enabling you to blend colours smoothly
and completely. However, it is not a method which
should be overdone. For full effect, limit these
blended areas to selected parts of your drawing,
and try blending the selected colours on a separate
sheet of paper first -the strength and tone of oil

101

Oil Pastel and Turpentine

Page

9.3.7

Page

102

pastels increase a lot when diluted with turpentine.

Practise the technique by laying two colours next to
each other and using a brush or clean rag dipped in
turpentine to dissolve and work the colours
together.

Lesson 10: Pen, Brush and

Ink
Structure:
10.1 Materials
10.1.1 Technical Pens
10.1.1.1 Dips Pens
10.1.1.2 Ballpoints
10.1.1.3 Fountain pens
10.1.1.4 Quills and Reed Pens
10.1.2 Inks
10.1.3 Brushes

This creative medium allows you to combine line

with areas of colour and tone. If can be used in
monochrome or in multi-coloured pictures. You can

Page

This is a medium which was used by some of the

great masters centuries ago and is still easily
available, not only in its traditional form but also in
a wide range of modern variations. When you sit
down with pen, brush and ink, you may be working
directly in the tradition of past artists such as
Rembrandt (1606-69), who created drawings with
brown ink and wash -some as preliminary sketches
for paintings but many as finished pictures in their
own right. Yet you are also working with a medium
which allows for a great deal of experiment, for it
embraces some of the latest materials,

103

10.2 Techniques
10.2.1 Technical Pen
10.2.2 Quill Pen
10.2.3 Brush
10.2.4 Ballpoint Pen

work with line alone, or you can use line with blocks
of colour. Our artist demonstrates a line drawing
with a technical pen; a bright circus scene with
blocks of pure colour enlivened with dip pen and
line; and a quick sketch made with an ordinary
ballpoint pen.
You would be well advised to experiment with
different pens. Get the feel of an old quill pen and
compare it with- modern fountain pens, ballpoints
and technical pens. The medium can be used for
finished works or for rapid on-the-spot sketching.
Inks are now available in a huge range of colours,
some brilliant or even fluorescent; they also come
as concentrates.

Page

For the beginner, ballpoints and technical pens are

ideal training tools. There are no precedents (no old
master ballpoint drawings!), and therefore you can
feel completely free to experiment. And the
limitations of these tools can also be turned to
advantage for quick sketching -they produce rather
boring, unvaried lines in themselves. This means
you can concentrate on getting down the
information without worrying about how the finished
drawing looks. You can work tight or loose, or
combine these two approaches in the same work.
The uncompromising lines will also force you to
tackle directly some of the basic techniques of
drawing, such as hatching and cross-hatching, to
achieve a tonal effect.

104

There are various ways of exploring the possibilities

and limitations of the medium. You can experiment
with brush drawings, such as the Chinese 'boneless'
style without outlines. You can start with line and
add colour, or begin with blocks of solid colour and
add line.

10.1.

Materials

These materials include the ordinary, everyday pens

which can be bought in stationery shops and also
some of the more technical types of pen. Even
though there has been impressive technological
development in this field, the old-fashioned quill has
still not disappeared, and in fact is increasingly used
by artists who like its characteristic, natural-looking
line. The quill is direct opposite, the modem
technical pen, is a rewarding challenge if you are a
beginner seeking to explore some of the basic
principles of drawing. Our artist chooses a technical
pen to illustrate some of these principles.

10.1.1 Technical pens

The tubular nib of the technical pen produces a
regular, ungiving line. This is suited to graphic,
linear work, and our artist uses one in the still life
on page 70. Technical pens can be bought at art
shops and graphic suppliers. You can obtain
different nibs -sometimes called 'stylos'- from very
fine to very broad. The number varies with the
make. One manufacturer produces 19, another 12.
The tubular nibs can clog and must be cleaned after
use with a proprietary solvent cleaner. You can use
special inks, made by the pen manufacturers and
obtainable along with the pens, to help prevent this
clogging. But if a nib does clog, soaking in solvent
cleaner can often save it.
These are the pens once associated with
schoolrooms, where children made blots on their
initial, scratchy efforts at handwriting. Dipping the
pen into the ink and controlling the lines on paper
was not easy for young schoolchildren at first,
because. the pen itself does not greatly restrict the
flow of ink, and it responds to varied pressure on
the paper. It is for these very reasons that the dip

105

Dip Pens

Page

10.1.1.1

pen is popular with artists. The pen gives a varied

and undulating line which can be turned to different
effects. Most art shops have a range of nibs which
are used in the same standard holder; and for tiny,
extra-fine lines there are mapping nibs with their
own small holders. You need a good supply of nibs.
They don't last for ever, and with constant pressure
they tend to spread.

10.1.1.2

Ballpoints

These are cheap and easily available. Although they

do not make interesting or varied line's, they are
ideal for the quick sketch which is to be used as a
reference for later work in the studio or home. They
come in limited ranges of colour, usually red; blue,
black and green.

10.1.1.3

Fountain pens

Page

106

Fountain or reservoir pens are also useful for

drawing. They offer a variable line -not quite as

interesting as that of the dip pen, but you do not
have to keep stopping to dip into the ink, so they
are useful for sketching. Remember, however, that
the nibs are riot designed for drawing, and
consequently they can be comparatively short-lived.

10.1.1.4

Quills and Reed Pens

These earliest types of drawing materials have

maintained their popularity over the centuries
because of their ability to produce varied lines and
often beautiful effects. Quills are available in art
shops, You will need practice in order to develop
their versatility. They require cutting frequently, to
form anew nib, because the tip soon softens; use a
sharp blade or craft knife for this.

Page

10.1.2 Inks

107

Reed pens can also be bought at many art shops

and these make a hard, jerky line, capturing the
linear effect of dip pens but on a completely
different scale. You need to dip into the ink a great
many times with quills and reeds, and you should
experiment to collect the right amount of ink and
avoiding flooding and blotting,

The last few years have seen a big increase in the

range of inks. Water soluble and waterproof are the
main categories. Inks come in all colours.
Waterproof concentrates can be obtained in bottles,
and they are very strong. The colours can be diluted
as required, allowing for some degree of
experimentation. They come in a 'very good range
of colours. Some of these, however, are fugitive and
fade quickly.
10.1.3

Brushes

Any watercolour brushes can be used with inks. For

line painting, sable has a nice, springy quality, but
sable- mixes and other hair brushes, are also
effective. Synthetic brushes are suitable, although
they have less spring. Chinese and Japanese
brushes have soft, pointed bristles, good for flowing,
natural lines.

10.2

Techniques

10.2.1 Technical Pen

Page

108

The technical pen forces you to use line, and only

line. Tone, texture and pattern must all be created
from this single element, and you therefore need to
be as resourceful and inventive as possible when
using this piece of equipment. And the regular,
mechanical line -so restricting in many ways -also
has its compensations. For example, the rigid
tul1ular nib can be relied upon not to flood and blot,
and you can exploit this constant factor by
extensively weaving the fine lines into a wealth of

different textures and surface patterns. Here the

artist builds up regular marks of cross-hatched tone,
using the smooth surface of white card to help
produce the final, graphic effects.

10.2.2 Quill Pen

The old-fashioned quill pen differs from the modem
technical pen in almost every way. Here, the
problem is not one of how to make a mechanical
line more interesting, but rather one of having a line
which is uniquely interesting, but can also be too
irregular and sometimes difficult to control! The quill
needs practice, and you will have to dip into the ink
frequently as you work. Do not attempt a neatly
rendered drawing-instead, make the most of the
natural, undulating marks which your feather pen
produces. Here the artist uses a scribbly line to
produce an area of broken tone from the irregular
hatching.

Tension or uncertainty will be reflected in the quality

of the lines, and the smooth, articulate flow which
typifies the best brushwork will not be achieved. So

Page

Watercolour brushes make ideal drawing tools. The

finer the brush, the more delicate the line. But a
word of warning -the artist who draws with the
brush, must be relaxed and well-versed in the
medium.

109

10.2.3 Brush

spend same time getting used to the technique of

brush drawing. Ideally, decide where you want to
make the mark, and then apply it boldly and
confidently -don't work cautiously, or hold the brush
too tightly. Here, the characteristic tapering lines of
the watercolour brush are used to create an area of
tone.

10.2.4 Ballpoint Pen

Page

110

With ballpoint pens, you are not ain1ing for subtle

drawing. This everyday, familiar writing tool comes
into its own as a quick, convenient means of
sketching when more conventional drawing tools are
unavailable. Its techniques are confined to
unexpressive line, hatching and scribbling, so get
used to working within these limitations. Our artist
uses scribble tone a lot when sketching with a
ballpoint pen, usually starting with a loose, overall
pattern, and then building this up to the required
darkness or density.

Lesson 11: Markers

Structure
11.1.1
11.1.2
11.1.3
11.1.4
11.1.5
11.1.6
11.1.7
11.1.8

Materials
Markers
Felt-tip pens
Fine Liners
Techniques
Using Markers
Making Texture
Using Lighter Fuel

Page

The 'traditional' wedge tipped studio markers, with

their thick rectangular drawing points, are
commonly used for presentation work, graphic
design and occasionally for animation. In the
commercial studio, marker artists are specialists
who learn a whole range of techniques to fit the
product. Wood grain, reflective metal surfaces and
even the subtle gradations or tints of portrait and
figure work can be miraculously rendered with
markers. However, without going to these lengths of

111

Technology is relentlessly improving upon the

marker and fibre-tip pen, and new products are
coming on to the market all the time. There is no
need to recoil in puritanical shock from this brash
young medium -it is available for all types of artists
to experiment with, even though they have come to
be associated norri1ally with the graphic artist's
studio. For the fine artist, the wide variety of
products available offers a whole range of colours
and lines which can be used in a completely
different way from their normal commercial role.

expertise, and without producing the finish

necessary in studio work, markers can be borrowed
from their commercial settings to produce lovely
and unusual drawings. They exist in their own right
as a colourful and chunky drawing material.
All artists use them in an individual way -creating
graphic pictures which exploit the crisp quality of
markers; yet making the colours work in a
controlled manner. However, he has not forgotten
the basic characteristics of the medium. Remember
that you cannot produce traditionally-rendered
pictures with a flat colour. There are limitations. The
secret is to choose a subject which suits this
medium, something which can be illustrated in a
striking, graphic manner, rather than a subject
calling for traditional toning. Look for something
bright and bold -and have a go.
There are numerous felt-tip pens, liners, fibre-tip
brushes and other tools which come into this broad
new category. You don't have to become an expert
in them all. You are probably familiar with some of
these pens as writing tools. Be open-minded and
experiment with the different marks. A good artist is
not dependent on conventional pens and pencils -a
marker or felt-tip pen can be made to do -some
spectacular work.

11.1

Materials

Page

For the fine artist, however, there is no need to

worry too much about technical categories, or about
their specialist role in the designer's studio. Your

112

As any artist knows there are thousands of markers,

fibre-tip pens and related drawing implements now
on the market. Not only does every manufacturer
produce its own range of such materials, but these
are changing and being developed all the time, with
superb and bewildering ranges to choose from.

interest will probably be of a more general and

experimental nature.

11.1.1 Markers
Wedge tipped markers come in sets or can be
bought individually. Each marker has a broad,
obliquely cut felt tip which draws the ink from the
cylindrical, glass holder. This glass holder has a
removable screw top to allow for refills. Many artists
prefer these traditional markers to some of the
more recent streamlined types because when not in
use they can be stood upright rather than left
around the desk or table. Markers come in a wide
range of colours, and each colour is usually available
in a number of shades. For example, one product
has nine cool greys and nine warm greys. The
colours are very accurate, but they do darken with
use. The life of a marker can be extended by
diluting the ink with lighter fuel, although this
obviously lightens the colour.
Marker artists generally work on special marker
paper because the colours tend to bleed on
ordinary, more porous surfaces. This makes them
unsuitable for the slick finish which markers are
most often used for. However, as a drawing and
sketching medium this may not matter indeed, you
probably prefer a brighter, more spontaneous effect.
The marker ink is soluble in lighter fuel, making it
easy to spread the colour in graded washes. It is
also an effective way of creating broken colour and
texture.

Page

Broadly speaking, felt-tips are flexible arid wide.

Markers fall into this category. There are many
other brands available. Some, such as the luminous
'highlighters', are made specifically for office use.
Others come in a range of colours and are available

113

11.1.2 Felt-tip Pens

from art and graphic suppliers. Look at the label to

see if you are buying a soluble or waterproof
product.
'Brush' pens have a soft, pliable tip and produce
lines similar to those made with a watercolour
brush. Some of these have a solid, pithy tip; others
are actually made like brushes, with tiny synthetic
bristles.
Again, the choice is a wide choice. Try one or two
brands to see which suit you best. Some have hard
tips; others are more flexible; some pens are water
soluble, others permanent. You can buy sets of felttips in a wide range of colours -some of these are
manufactured specially for the artist, others for use
in the office or playroom. The 'office' variety tends
to come in limited colours, often black, blue, red or
green.
For drawing and sketching, your main concern will
probably be with the width and type of tip. New tips
are usually rigid and produce a hard line, and
become more flexible after being used. Many artists
keep two pens to hand -a new one for strong, hard
lines, and an old favourite with a 'broken in' tip for
softer shading.

Page

The terms 'fine liner' issued broadly for all those

synthetic tip pens which produce a characteristic
thin, spidery line. These pens are used in offices and
graphic design and illustration studios. In many
ways the fine liner is a disposable version of the
technical pen sometimes these drawings are
almost indistinguishable from one done with a
technical pen. Fine liners are excellent for detailed,
illustrative work and for small-scale drawings and
sketches.

114

11.1.3 Fine Liners

11.2

Techniques

11.2.1 Using Markers

Probably the most popular type of marker in use is
the wedge-tipped variety, so-called because of its
broad chiselled end. With this one drawing tool you
can make three widths of line, lay broad areas of
colour and tone, and glaze one colour over another.
Practice is the key to successful marker work.
Markers have definite limitations, and specialist
marker artists readily admit that their job consists
chiefly of finding ways round these limitations.
However, if you are using markers solely as an
adventurous drawing and sketching medium, you
need not worry about these professional drawbacks.
Your main concern is to familiarize yourself with the
materials so that you can use them confidently and
quickly. The techniques on this page are simple and
straightforward, but you do need to try them out
several times before attempting to integrate them
into a drawing. Use good quality products -not only
are the results smoother and easier to achieve, but
the colours are less likely to bleed and 'drag' into
each other when one marker is laid over another.

Page

115

The wedge-tipped studio marker is capable of

producing a variety of marks. Here the artist
uses different sides of the felt-tip to make broad,
medium and narrow lines. Practise this until you
achieve a smooth, even flow -by turning the
marker as you draw, you can vary the width of a
particular line, producing a flowing, undulating
mark.

Page

To
overlay
colour, allow the
first layer to dry
before
working
quickly over this
with a second
colour. Providing
you
choose
a
good
quality
product,
work
quickly, and allow
the first colour to
dry properly, the
second
colour
should not 'drag'
or disturb the
underlying
colour.

116

To lay a flat
colour,
work
quickly in broad;
horizontal lines,
taking each line
over the edge of
the previous one
before it has time
to dry. For a
large expanse of
colour,
use
lighter fuel to
spread the ink.

11.2.2 Making Texture

Page

2. Broad flecks of colour are laid with the wide end

of the marker strip. The pattern of such marks
can be varied to suit the subject in hand, and the
flecks can be close and dense or wide apart,
depending on the required texture and density of
colour. Here the marks are laid in a loosely
parallel fashion. The technique is often used by
this artist to block-in wide expanses of flat
ground -the direction of the marks being used to
indicate the direction of the flow of the
landscape.

117

1. Markers produce a steady flow of even colour.

This makes them excellent for some types of
work, but limits their use in other ways. For
instance, to produce the light feathery texture
demonstrated here, the artist works in loose,
scribbly strokes, relying on the irregular, broken
shapes of white paper showing through to
produce the textural effect.

3. Use the side of the marker strip for blocking in

broad areas. Again, the technique is useful for
wide, directional sweeps of colour. To achieve a
flatter effect, use lighter fuel with the marker
(see following page).

11.2.

Using Lighter Fuel

Page

118

Lighter fuel-normally used to refill cigarette lightersis extremely versatile and useful, and an essential
item in the marker artist's studio. Not only can it be
used to dilute the ink, thus extending the life of a
marker, but it can also be exploited to create a
whole range of texture effects. Although most
marker manufacturers make proprietary solvents,
specially suited to their particular products, lighter
fuel is a cheap, all-purpose alternative and works

quite adequately with all petroleum-based markers.

You must, however, treat lighter fuel with respect.
It is highly flammable and it also gives off
dangerous fumes, so be sure to work in a wellventilated area, away from cigarettes and naked
light.
Although markers can be used to create flat areas of
colour, this becomes tricky if you have to cover very
large areas. The ink tends to dry in streaks before
you have time to blend the edges. However, if you
first spread lighter fuel over the area to be
rendered, the marker colour remains wet long
enough for the marks to bleed, or blend together
and the result is completely even. This technique
can be adapted to create multi-coloured 'washes',
and to lay graded colours.

Page

1. To lay an area of flat colour, first sprinkle the

lighter fuel across the area to be blocked in.
Work on the sealed side of the marker paper,
using enough fuel to cover the area properly, but
taking care not to flood the paper. Spread the
fuel with a clean rag or tissue.

119

Choice of paper affects results, especially when

using lighter fuel to spread the colour. Proper
marker paper is sealed on one -occasionally, both sides. This stops the marker inks from bleeding,
thus producing brighter colours and also enabling
you to produce crisp shapes and hard edges. Other
papers, not specially prepared for use with markers,
absorb colour and give a softer, amorphous effect.
One drawback with 'non marker' papers is that the
colour soaks through to the reverse side. This can
be messy and will spoil any paper underneath,
especially if you are working on a pad.

Page

120

2. Holding the marker strip firmly between the

thumb and forefinger, lay the colour with
parallel, overlapping stripes. As the marker ink
starts to run out, the colour becomes lighter.

Summary:
Students should understand the role of colouring
and rendering and decide on the medium most
suitable for a particular presentation work. The most
commonly used and available materials are:
graphite pencils, Colour pencils Pastels, Pen brush
and ink and Markers.
The most common of all drawing instruments, the
graphite pencil, is by no means the easiest to
use.The pencil is ideal for detail, and for smallerscale working. It can be made to produce pictures
with amazing contrasts and subtleties of tone and
textures. Generally speaking, soft pencils make
dark, thick lines; hard ones produce light, thin lines.
Clutch pencils, Graphite Sticks, Graphite Powder etc
are used to get different effects.
Hard pencils produce hard lines that are paler,
thinner line than the softer grades, and are
generally less popular with artists than soft pencils.
But the thin light line is sometimes useful for an
initial drawing which is required to be inconspicuous
and not to smudge.
Soft lines are produced by soft pencils. Dark soft
lines characterize the graphite pencils at the soft
end of the range.

Page

The B pencils, the soft ones, offer a range of deeper

tones. A newcomer to the pencil
family, these
chunky studio pencils have flattened strips. The
advantage here is that, by turning the pencil round,
you can alter the width of your line. Graphite sticks
allow you to make bold lines and to block in solid
areas. Blending

121

The marks you can make with a hard pencil are

limited to light grey, whether you are working in
line, tone or texture which is just like a hard
scribble.

You can rub pencil lines to soften their effect. The

softer the pencil, of course, the more
effective
this type of blending will be.
There are ordinary Colour Pencils and water colour
pencils. Cross hatching, optical mixing, colour
mixing and blending are the most commonly used
techniques.
The secret of mixing coloured pencils is to make the
white or light tone of the paper work for you. Colour
pencils can be used for optical mixing i.e. two-three
colours are mixed to produce a different colour by
means of any rendering technique.
The so-called 'soft' pastels are made from powder
pigment bound with resin or gum to hold them
together in stick form: They can be square or round.
Soft pastels come in three grades -soft, medium and
hard. The harder pastels are mixed with extra gum
or binder, which detracts from the colour brilliance;
and this is why the softest pastels are the brightest.

The old tool of writing reed and quill pens, brushes

and ink can also be used to create different style of
rendering. Markers can also be helpful in rendering.

Page

Other than colours and graphite pencils, another

medium of rendering is pens. There are many
technical pens available like rotrings with very
delicate and flat tip, ball pens, gel pens, fountain
pens.

122

Pastels are heavy -more like oil paint than any

other drawing medium -and they do not crumble
like traditional soft pastels. They are therefore ideal
for outdoor colour sketching. They come in bright
colours, usually available in sets. The techniques of
using pastels are the same like blending, mixing,
using the side of the stick etc.

Assignments and learning activities

1. Students have to do exercises with the help of
the available mediums using two or more
mediums.
2. Students must do a number of assignments
using the all the
materials discussed to gain
proficiency in work.

Intext Questions:
1. Discuss any two materials used for rendering and
their application and technique to use.
2. Write short notes on
a) stippling
b) scribbling
c) blending
d) cross hatching.

Terminal Questions:
1. On what basis would you choose the colour
medium for rendering any composition? Explain
with the help of examples.
2. Transfer the following view on a ivory sheet and
render the same in the following mediums:
a) Poster Colours
b) Water Colours

Page

123

c) Pen and Ink

1) Transfer the following view onto a gateway

tracing sheet and render it in the following
mediums:
a) Pencil Colours

Page

c) Technical Pens

124

b) Crayons

Unit IV

Texture and Pattern

Lesson 12: Texture

Page

125

Lesson 13: Patterns

Lesson 12: Texture

Objectives
To explore texture and the application to interior
design. To understand the importance of texture
in any space.

Structure
12.1 Texture: surface
12.2 Overview
Find Relief with texture
The feel of texture
The look of texture
Texture affects colour
Patterns & Weaves produce
texture
12.2.6 Textures in a Room
12.2.7 Wall Coverings
12.2.8 Paints
12.2.9 Masonry
12.2.10 Hard Flooring
12.2.11 Fabrics
12.2.12 Trimmings
12.2.13 Straw, Cane, Rush
12.2.14 Pattern Creates Interest
12.2.15 Room Emotion by Texture
12.2.16 Combining Textures

Texture is the definition of surface attributes having

either visual or actual variety. Soft velvet, rough
stucco walls, coarse sisal fibre flooring, colour

Page

12.1 Texture: Surface Attributes

126

12.2.1
12.2.2
12.2.3
12.2.4
12.2.5

alternation, smooth glass, and rock jaggedness to

name a few examples.
Except for colour, nothing adds so much interest to
a room as pattern and texture. Although technically,
everything has texture, smooth surfaces lack the
three dimensional interest of rougher surfaces. The
shadow play that sets up in textural materials,
creating changing patterns & subtle nuances of
colour, is part of magic.
Another element is the pleasure that many textures,
smooth or rough, give the sense of touch -a
pleasure that is suggested just by looking at them

12.2

Overview

12.2.1 Find Relief with Texture

Surfaces that have character bring visual interest to
the room without sacrificing overall visual harmony.
The attention to detail becomes apparent when the
occupant gets closer to the texture. This invites
feeling the depth or relief of the surface while
interacting with the room.
The rule for texture is the same as that for colour.
Don't over do it. Just as a room lacking in texture is
bland, so one with an excess of textured materials,
or one with too many kinds, is distracting. What is
needed is a delicate balance of smooth, pile & rough
texture, each one enhancing the other.

12.2.1.1

The Feel of Texture

12.2.1.2

The Look of Texture

Page

127

Building bricks, gravel walls & burlap curtains feel

rough to the touch. Satin feels smooth -so does a
painted window sill or a glass tumbler. Velvet feels
soft -so does a kitten's fur; & moss feels soft & cool.
The skin of a peach feels fuzzy. Contrast the sharp
scratchiness of steel wool or sandpaper with cold,
slick feel of metal.

Some textures spell enjoyment to you and you are

drawn to touch them; others indicate by their look
that you will dislike them & you avoid contact with
them whenever possible. You know when you look
at it that a thistle or a thorn will be prickly, or that
steel wool will be rough. The rough look of some
ceramic cups might make you decide that you do
not want to drink from them. So long as you do not

touch them, some imitation textures wallpaper that

looks like cork, vinyl flooring that simulates brick can create the effect to the real thing.

12.2.1.3

Texture Affects Colour

Patterns & Weaves Produce

Page

12.2.1.4
Texture

128

A shiny smooth surface reflects light & the colour

appears clear & bright. Rough materials absorbs or
takes up some of the light & the colour may appear
deeper and duller. Velvet because of its deep -cut
pile both absorbs & reflects light, so the colour
appears to be different in the folds of the fabric.

You will find a difference in texture within the same

kind of material. Velvet made from cotton differs
from that made from nylon in feel & appearance.
Plastered walls may be smooth or rough. Wood may
be sanded satin smooth, but the grain pattern gives
more texture to some types. Paper has many
textures: the smooth, thin look of tissue; the coarse
roughness of construction paper; the many
variations in wallpaper and all the different kinds of
gift-wrappings available today. So pattern can
contribute to the textured look of materials
Small all -over pattern is upholstery or curtain
fabrics lose their detail & appears as a textured
fabric. The design gives it a textured look. Examine
the plain weave & fine thread of sheer, crisp
organdie, the smooth finish of a percale sheet. Each
of the many different WPt1ves contributes to the
final fabric texture, & each finds its own companions
in other materials.

12.2.2 Textures in a Room

12.2.2.1

Wall Coverings

Page

129

Amongst those with real texture which you can feel

are grass, cloth, cork, bamboo, suede, and both
fabrics and papers with velvet like flocking. In
addition there is a simulating everything from silk to
marble, including taffeta, damask, lines, bricks etc.

12.2.2.2

Paints

There are some paints with texture incorporated

into the mixture to give a graining or stucco like
effect.

12.2.2.3

Masonry

Page

130

Stone, bricks, Concrete, all have distinctive surface,

often So three dimensional that the play of light and
shadow has particularly handsome effect

12.2.2.4

Hard Flooring

You can use natural materials with tangible texture,

such as wood, marble, brick, terrazzo, stone, or
ceramic tiles, or vinyl flooring that imitates these
material.

12.2.2.5

Fabrics

Use of curtains, draperies, upholstery, slipcovers,

flooring coverings, bedspreads etc., and offer
limitless variations in texture. The basic meaning of
texture is "something woven".

Page

131

Linen comes in all textures from a heavy basket

weave to the: finest gauze. Cotton ranges from silky
percale to rugged corduroy, Wool is sometimes used
for fine-textured casement cloth but is found more
frequently in tapestry or frieze types or upholstery
fabrics and in rugs and carpets. Silk is used for
producing velvet, brocade, damask, taffeta, crepe,
satin etc.

12.2.2.6

Trimmings

Page

132

Fringes, tassels, embroidery and appliqu are useful

for adding three dimensional interest to a smooth
fabric.

12.2.2.7

Straw, Cane, Rush

Woven in a variety of ways, these contribute texture

to chair seats, headboards, cabinet doors, mats,
lamp bases and shades, screens, baskets, trays etc.
The effect of texture may be formal or informal.
Silk, damask, satin, fine-grained woods, elaborately
carved surfaces are thought of as belonging in
formal rooms; tweeds, muslin, chintz, brick, furs,
are informal ones. Textures can also affect the
dimensions of a room A high or shaggy piles of a
rug tends to 'fill' the room from the hot tom up and
makes a low ceiling seem even lower.

12.2.3 Pattern Creates Interest

The presence of a design adds variety and
excitement to any surface. Pattern is sometimes a
by-product of texture -as in a brick wall, or a tiled
floor -and this kind of pattern must be kept in mind
while planning a room. On the other hand, very
small pattern lose their design when viewed from a
distance; the effect is simply to give the material a
textured look.

Page

133

The safest course is to avoid using more than one

strong pattern in a room. However, some of the
most striking effects are achieved by a combination
of designs. Two important patterns will live very well
together if they are related in design but different in
scale. You might combine a pattern featuring a large
rose design with a small all-over rosebud print.
Another possibility for the second or third pattern
would be a coordinated geometrical such as a plaid,
stripe or trellis motif.

A pattern in the rug or carpet often dictates plain

walls and subdued designs in drapery or upholstery
fabric.
Like colour and texture, pattern can play tricks on
you're eyes. A wallpaper with a vertical design
makes a ceiling look higher, while a strong
horizontal motif seemingly lowers the ceiling's
height. A large pattern may seem out of scale in a
small room, while in a large room, a small pattern
tends to be overwhelming. A great deal of pattern in

a room seems to fill it up, while too much pattern

can made a room look crowded

A bold, strongly coloured, or splashy pattern is

usually better confined to a fairly small area, where

Page

134

Pattern can disguise architectural defects. A hall or

foyer cut up by many doors can be given a unified
look by covering the walls and doors with an
exciting pattern. A small all-over pattern is good for
disguising patchy walls

it will provide a centre of interest. Used too lavishly,

it seems overpowering.

12.2.4 Room Emotion by Texture

Removed: sharp, repeating, radial, concentric
Open: smooth, shiny, reflective, rippled
Enclosed: soft, Rough, fuzzy, jaggy, velvet,
fibrous
Formal: grid,
stainless steel)

straight

lines

(like

brushed

Down to Earth: fibres, weaves, wicker, rough,

terra cotta
Functional: smooth surfaces clean easy but
reflect noise and light. Rough textures absorb
sound and light, but do not clean easily and
untreated fibre can stain.
Texture can appear smooth or solid if the scale or
appearance of scale is small enough. This is
exaggerated by foreshortening when the areas of
uniqueness or variety in the surface are no longer
discernable.
Bring the outdoors inward by providing textural
transitions like rock and tile entryways, hard wood
flooring and natural fibre wall coverings. Create
visual interest without making the room feel
enclosed, ornamental or busy, as large patterns
tend to do.

12.2.5 Combining Textures

Page

135

Cohesive use of texture creates harmony. Mixing

textures without context to one another, challenges
tradition and creates a mood of avant-garde.
Consider what an embossed fabric sofa in a room
with sculpted carpet might look like. Would the
textures compete? What about a corduroy jacket

with a velvet pair of pants or natural fibre shirt. Too

much texture or exciting and on-the-edge?
Combining patterns with more contrast of scale
helps the eye distinguish areas of interest and will
prevent visual confusion. Textures lose their visual
variety when the viewer is further away; so small
textures capitalize on visual interest without visually
cluttering the room.
Rough textured objects seem to advance, take up
more space, while smooth textured ones seem to
recede. A small object with a very textured surface
will generally balance larger piece that has a
smoother surface. The texture of wall makes a
difference in the optical size of a room Smooth
fabrics seem better suited to painted, delicately
styled furniture.
Heavier styles of coarse -grained woods may
demand a sturdier fabric. Too much of the same can
be monotonous.

12.2.6 Expressions often used with

texture
The following terms may help to communicate the
intent of the designer internally or to a client.
Comparative perspective - the ability to discern
and
compare
depth
differences
via
foreshortening.

136

Foreshortening - patterns, lines and shapes

becoming visibly smaller while the furthest edges
of an object appear to close together toward a
single vanishing point in the distance.

Surface attributes - differentiation, depth or

variety of the surface

Page

Relief - surfaces having depth, dimension or

varying shallow elevation.

Lesson 13: Pattern

Objectives
To explore pattern and its effects on designs. To
understand the importance of creating patterns
in any space to design

Structure
13.1 Combination of motifs
13.2 Overview

13.1

13.2.1

A Pattern for living

13.2.2

Combining Patterns

13.2.3

Expressions often used with pattern

Combination of motifs

Pattern is the combination of motifs like shapes,

lines, colours, textures, and relief used to form a
composition. If each one of the motifs is large
enough to be seen readily, the composition is known
as pattern and may not be repetitive. If the motifs
are too small or emphasize relief and depth that can
be felt, the composition is known as a texture.

13.2 Overview:
13.2.1 A Pattern for Living

Page

137

Patterns exist in nature as well as man-made

materials. The ability to look at a composition and
see it overall or move around it to explore detail is
what provides rich visual interest. An example of
this would be looking at a rocky cliff. From a
distance its main colours, shapes and depth can be
seen.
Moving
close
to
it
reveals
veins,

inconsistencies in colour, tonal changes, sharp or

jagged relief, cracks, and smaller areas of change.
During the Baroque era from 1600 - 1700 A.D.,
extensive ornamental pattern in tapestries, rugs,
wall hangings, upholstery, and flooring were used to
create a sense of grandeur and formality. It was a
time of discovery about detail and pattern in both
science and living.
The effective use of pattern is the metamorphosis of
sterile unbroken expanses into live, stimulating
surrounds of detail. It can make a large space seem
smaller and more elaborate, establish a small
collection of furniture into its own environment
helping break up space, or create a painterly, cozy
feeling for a small room.
Patterns help define shape and space. They are
mechanisms for comparative perspective. Depth
perception for objects without pattern is dependent
on shading while a pattern provides depth through
shading and perspective. The motif of a floral print
appears smaller as it gets further away from the
viewer. A great example is the pattern on the edges
of a throw pillow wrapping around which make it
appear to have more dimension.

13.2.2 Combining Patterns

Page

138

How is it that we don't often see two different plaids

worn together? Very similar size, colour, style, or
tonal ranges of patterns being combined causes
conflict, lacks harmony and just doesn't look good.
Competing detail can prevent fluid eye movement
from one area of pattern to the next.

A single primary pattern can be selected from which

secondary patterns of different scale, saturation,
colour or style visually support. This tends to keep a
room from overwhelming the viewer.
A contemporary effect can be achieved by
juxtaposing many strong secondary patterns
together without a primary pattern. This can create
visual confusion and does not follow traditional
design.
By combining many subtle secondary patterns, a
room can maintain its openness yet look more
dimensional.

13.2.3 Expressions often used with

pattern
The following terms may help to communicate the
intent of the designer internally or to a client.

2. Composition - the unity of various elements

either actual or implied that can be evaluated as
a whole.

3. Foreshortening - patterns, lines and shapes

becoming visibly smaller while the furthest edges

Page

139

1. Comparative perspective - the ability to discern

and
compare
depth
differences
via
foreshortening.

of an object appear to close together toward a

single vanishing point in the distance.
4. Motif - pronounced 'moe-teef'. A stylistic visual
expression or representation.

Page

140

5. Relief - surfaces having depth, dimension or

varying shallow height.

Summary:
Texture is the definition of surface attributes having
either visual or actual variety. Soft velvet, rough
stucco walls, coarse sisal fibre flooring, colour
alternation, smooth glass, and rock jaggedness to
name a few examples. Surfaces that have character
bring visual interest to the room without sacrificing
overall visual harmony. Some textures spell
enjoyment to you and you are drawn to touch them;
others indicate by their look that you will dislike
them & you avoid contact with them whenever
possible. A shiny smooth surface reflects light & the
colour appears clear & bright. Rough materials
absorb or take up some of the light & the colour
may appear deeper and duller. Pattern can
contribute to the textured look of materials.
Wall Coverings, Paints, Masonry, Hard Flooring,
Fabrics, Trimmings, Straw, Cane, Rush all have a
different texture and hence create different feel in
the space.
Texture can appear smooth or solid if the scale or
appearance of scale is small enough. Cohesive use
of texture creates harmony.

Patterns help define shape and space. A single

primary pattern can be selected from which
secondary patterns of different scale, saturation,
colour or style visually support. This tends to keep a
room from overwhelming the viewer.

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141

Like colour and texture, pattern can play tricks on

you're eyes. Pattern is the combination of motifs like
shapes, lines, colours, textures, and relief used to
form a composition. If each one of the motifs is
large enough to be seen readily, the composition is
known as pattern and may not be repetitive. If the
motifs are too small or emphasize relief and depth
that can be felt, the composition is known as a
texture.

Assignment and learning activities

1. Students have to understand visual and tactile
texture.
2. Make pencil rubbings of an object with tactile
texture. Students may create design plates of
painted visual and tactile textures.
3. On a design plate, paint a smooth and a rough
surface with the same paint. Notice the colour
differences on the painted surfaces.
4. Students can even explore the light reflection
from various textures and how this affects the
amount of light in an area.

Terminal exercises:
1. Explain the following terms:
a) Motif
b) Surface attribution
c) Foreshortening
d) Relief
2. Where all can a texture be used in a room? Give
examples in each.

Intext exercise
1. What do you understand by the term texture?
What is the difference between visual and tactile
texture?
2. What points should you keep in mind while
choosing textures for a room?

4. What is the relationship between texture and

pattern?

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142

3. Explain with the help of examples how textures

can assist in creating optical illusions.

5. What are the prominent areas in a room where

you can use textures? Explain with the help of
examples.
6. How does texture effect colour and vice versa.
Discuss in detail.

Key words:
Comparative perspective - the ability to discern
and
compare
depth
differences
via
foreshortening.
Composition - the unity of various elements
either actual or implied that can be evaluated as
a whole.
Foreshortening - patterns, lines and shapes
becoming visibly smaller while the furthest edges
of an object appear to close together toward a
single vanishing point in the distance.
Motif - pronounced 'moe-teef'. A stylistic visual
expression or representation.
Relief - surfaces having depth, dimension or
varying shallow height.

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143

Surface attributes - differentiation, depth or

variety of the surface.

Unit V
Sketching

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144

Lesson 14: Drawing & Sketching

Lesson 14: Drawing &

Sketching
Objectives
Learning to use free hand drawing as an
instrument for explaining and presenting ones
ideas on paper.

Introduction:
Everything in the world is a subject for a drawing;
yet what you draw is not important. That you enjoy
drawing, and feel you are learning more about the
visual world as a result, is of the utmost
importance. This chapter explains simply and clearly
some of the underling principles 0f drawing. It helps
you to see every subject with a fresh eye and,
above all, it aims to remove the mystique which,
sadly, surrounds this fascinating and rewarding
activity.
There is nothing magical, for example, about
understanding perspective, about 'measuring' the
subject, or about drawing negative space. They are
all 'learnable' principles which, once mastered, will
help you tackle any type of subject with confidence
and enthusiasm. Although such fundamentals are
important, try not to treat them as 'musts', to be
slavishly followed.

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145

Drawing is a subjective occupation. The best artist is

the one who understands the principles and rules,
but who interprets rather than copies them.
Composition is a prime example of this. Convention
dictates that a pictorial composition must be
harmonious; should not contain any discordant
elements, such as a figure looking toward the edge

of the picture; and should avoid absolute symmetry

at all costs. Yet, we only have to look at some of the
Old Masters to know that such rules can certainly be
bent, if not broken.
Making the first mark on a pristine sheet l)f paper is
rather like being the first person to trample across a
perfect patch of freshly fallen snow - it seems such
a shame to spoil it! When learning to draw, the
problem is even worse, because most of us have
such grand and preconceived ideas of what the
finished picture will look like that we are almost
doomed to disappointment, even before we begin.
It is therefore a good idea to regard drawing as a
process, a way of thinking and recording rather than
a means of producing a perfectly rendered picture at
every attempt. If getting going becomes a real
stumbling block, and the thought of marking the
paper is actually inhibiting, then try warming up
with a few quick, throw-away sketches of the
subject, This is a tried and tested method for
overcoming tension and inhibition, and an excellent
way of getting into the right mood.

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146

The secret of successful drawing depends upon

careful observation and the ability to put down on
paper what you can see. So before starting, take a
good look at what is in front of you. Decide how you
are going to approach the subject, and where it will
be placed on the paper.

147

No two artists approach a subject in exactly the

same way. The sequences on this page show two
different approaches. In the first, the artist develops
the whole subject concurrently, starting with a
rough outline, then working across the image,
gradually bringing up the whole drawing at the
same pace. The second sequence shows a different
approach. Having decided on the scale and position

Page

of the subject on the paper, the artist starts drawing

in one place and works across the image, bringing

The 'Growing' Drawing

1.
Here
the
artist
starts in one place -in
this case the top of the
shoe, making sure this is
in the correct position on
the paper, and leaving
plenty of space for the
rest of the subject.

Developing
Subject

the

1.
For
this
traditional
approach,
the artist starts by
establishing the main
lines of the subject. At
this stage, the drawing
is kept fairly sketchy
and loose to allow for
2.
From here, the
redrawing
and
lines are extended to
correction
as
the
show more of the shoe image develops.
the
finished
drawing
'grows' outwards from its 2.
From the initial
starting point.
sketchy
construction
lines, the artist works
3.
The
artist
into the subject, using
completes the work by
the line to describe the
putting
in
remaining
form of the shop
undrawn
areas
and
details.
3.
Finally,
the
drawing is completed
with further line and
detail.

Outline and Internal Contours

The first drawing contains a flat shape; the second

drawing describes a three-dimensional form. By

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148

Unless we are familiar with an object, an outline

drawing of that object will not necessarily tell us
what we are looking at. In the outline drawing
(below), we only recognize the subject as being a
model of a hand because we know what a hand
looks like, and we know that such an outline is likely
to be that of a hand. But we need the added
information of the second drawing to really know
and understand what we are looking at.

drawing into the subject, the artist has turned a

silhouette into a solid object.
These internal lines are similar to the contour lines
we see on maps. Just as geographical contours
describe the form of a hill by mapping out the relief
pattern of its surface, so an artist draws contours to
describe the form of a subject. The artist, however,
must look at the subject to decide where the
internal lines should be; they cannot be placed
scientifically, at regular intervals, as with maps and
diagrams. The hand, for example, has natural
contours - the finger and wrist joints, and the wood
grain which runs lengthwise down the fingers, hand
and arm.

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149

Internal lines are as important as the outline so

don't automatically start by drawing the outline and
then filling in the rest. Ideally, you should try to
develop the two together, looking carefully at the
subject to see how the inside lines and outside lines
combine to describe the form. However, there is no
reason why you should not try to draw from the

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150

inside, and leave the outline to last. Light and shade

can also be exploited in a drawing to give a sense of
form to an object, changing it from a flat shape into
something real and solid. But remember, the areas
of light and shade are not independent of the
internal contours. They are directly related to them.

Lesson 15: Light & Shade

Structure
15.1
15.2
15.3
15.4

Tone
Types of Shading
Colour and surface texture
Describing Forms
15.4.1 Planes
15.4.2 Planning the Picture
15.4.3 Negative Shapes
15.5 Perspective
15.5.1 Linear Perspective
15.5.2 Measured Drawing

Tone

To indicate light and shadow on an object means

picking out the pale and dark areas. These darks
and pales are known as 'tones'. The tonal range

Page

15.1

151

We are able to see three-dimensional objects

because of the light which falls on them. Without
light, and the shadows it creates, all objects would
be seen as flat shapes. Strong, directional light
casts harsh, defined shadows on and around the
objects; it also creates bright highlights and
reflections. The effect of diffused light is more
subtle. The apple illustrated here was drawn in the
artist's studio, with a strong window light falling
from the top left -hand side, hence the highlights on
the top, and the dark shadow across the right-hand
side of the fruit.

runs from black to white, and includes all the greys

in between. To pick out the tones, or values, you
should ignore the local colour as much as possible,
and this can be difficult- especially if the subject is
complex or highly patterned. This apple was actually
red and green, but the artist was concerned only
with the tonal, monochrome effect of the light and
shadows, and chose to illustrate this in black and
white. Any other single colour could have been
chosen.

15.2

Types of Shading

1. Cross-hatching. Shading built up in patches of

tiny crisscross
hatching.
The cross-hatching
becomes finer and more spaced towards the lighter
areas

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152

These are various techniques for blocking-in

shadows. Probably the most common way is to build
up a shaded area with a series of parallel lines, a
technique known as hatching. When the lines are
drawn close together, the tone is dark; widely
spaced hatching produces lighter tone. Whichever
method you use, it must have this flexibility -you
must be able to vary the tone.

2. Scribbled hatching. Regular parallel lines are

unsuitable for the rounded form of the apple, so the
artist adopted a looser type of hatching.

4. Stippling. Tiny dots can be built up to depict

shadows -the denser the dots the deeper the
shading.

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153

3. Blending. Soft shadows, blended with the

finger, eraser or cloth, are only possible with soft
drawing materials. These include charcoal, pastel,
and soft pencil.

15.3

Colour and Surface Texture

Texture and local colour are factors to be considered

when assessing the tonal values of an object: For
example, a matt surface will have less tonal contrast
than a shiny surface, which often contains bright
reflected highlights. Local colour too, affects tone.
Two identical objects, one light and one dark, will
not be the same in a monochrome drawing -the
lights and shades on the darker object will be
tonally darker than those on the lighter.

15.4

Describing Form

When rendering shadows, you can often give a

further feeling of three-dimensional form to the
subject by paying close attention to the direction of
the strokes as welt as to the tones which the
strokes represent. In other words, be logical about
the direction of the shading - draw with the form,
not against it.
For example, the hatched lines on the apples are
taken round the curved shape of the fruit.

15.4.1 Planes
Objects with gradually curving sides, such as
spheres and cylinders, are simple to draw: the
shapes are regular, and light and shade are evenly
distributed, making it easy to both recognize and
describe the form.

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154

Not all subjects, however, are so straightforward,

Natural forms have always been favourites of the
artist, but they are inevitably irregular and often
complicated, Plants, flowers, animals, birds and
human figures are fascinating and challenging
subjects, but they are notoriously complex and
irregular when it comes to drawing them, Light falls
on their surface in an unpredictable way, making it
difficult to see, let alone draw, the subtle areas of
light and shadow.

The best approach is to find a way of simplifying

what you see.
Try to ignore distracting detail and small surface
irregularities, and to break the subject down into
basic areas of light and shade. These simplified
areas are called planes'.
The illustrations here show a cylinder and a human
face, simplified into planes of light and shade. The
lightest planes are those areas which receive direct
light; the darkest are those turned away from the
light. The greys, or mid-tones, describe other planes
in varying degrees of light and shade. On the face,
the light is falling from the top left, catching the
forehead, cheek, nose, the convex area between the
nose and mouth and the lower lip. These are the
lightest areas in the drawing and the artist depicted
them with the bright. light tone of the paper. The
darkest tones, down the right side of the head and
neck are drawn in black.

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155

By simplifying the face in this way, the artist has

tackled the problem of form and structure before
attempting to create a realistic image. But, with this
basic solid structure established, the artist is then
free to develop detail and to blend and break up
these large, rather crude planes into softer more
blended areas.

The technique can be adapted to any object and will

help you to draw both simple and complicated
forms.

COMPOSITION
15.4.2 Planning the Picture
When we talk of 'composition' we are really referring
to the way the subject is arranged on the paper.
This may be a single object -a vase of flowers, or a
figure. Or it might be an arrangement of objects, or
a complete scene.
Whatever you are drawing, it is important to give
some thought to the composition before you start.
These still-life drawings illustrate just four possible

No subject fits conveniently into a rectangle or

square -the shapes we generally work on. When we

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156

arrangements of the same subject, and there are an

infinite number of other possibilities. Notice how the
background plays an important part in each one.
The basic division of the drawing into the blue and
brown shapes is just as important as how the mugs
and coffee pot are arranged. The artist has avoided
a horizontal division, preferring a more interesting
and unusual solution in this case.

look at the subject, what we actually see is an

amorphous shape with an indistinct outline -and our
eyes can only focus on one part of that shape at a
time. The rest of the image is blurred. The most
immediate problem, therefore, is defining the edges
of the composition finding the most suitable shape
for the subject and fitting the subject into that
shape. This applies even with a figure study, an
isolated drawing which does not actually touch the
edges of the paper. It is still necessary to place the
subject properly on the paper, leaving enough space
around the figure to prevent it looking cramped, but
not so much that the subject looks small and lost.
An excellent way of looking at the subject through
'rectangular eyes' is to cut the shape from a piece of
card. This can then be moved around until you find
exactly the composition you want. In this way you
can actually see the shapes of the space around
your subject -the blue wall and brown table in the
case of the illustrations on this page.
Scale too, is an important consideration. Variation of
scale within a composition is usually more
interesting than one which has no contrast between
distance and foreground. This is especially true of
landscapes, which can be very dull if everything is
small and distant.

15.4.3 Negative Shapes

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157

When planning a composition, remember to include

in your calculations the space between the subjects.
If these are not taken into account, your drawing
will, at best, lack cohesion and a sense of design. At
worst, it will be wrong, because if the 'negative'
shapes are inaccurate, this will be reflected in the
rest of the drawing.

The leafy twig illustrated here was~ done, not by

drawing the shapes of the leaves, but by drawing
the shapes of the spaces between the leaves - the
negative shapes. By working in this way, the artist
has successfully created a satisfying composition,
with every area carefully considered and, brought
into the overall design.
Notice how the subject is extended to the edges of
the paper, the straight edges of the support thus
forming part of some of these outer shapes.
Drawing the negative shapes forces an awareness of
the composition as a whole. It also discourages a
tendency to draw what we know rather than what
we see. For example, we know what a leaf looks
like, so why bother to check that we have drawn it
right?

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158

However, because we have no such preconceived

idea about the shape of a space, it becomes
necessary to look very carefully at what we are
drawing. The purpose of the exercise is not to
produce a drawing in which the negative shapes are
as important is the positive ones -in this case the
eaves. Rather it is a device for drawing the positive

shapes correctly n relation to each other

drawing, the spaces between them correctly.

by

Practice the technique. You will be surprised how

much easier it is to make correct drawings once
you) become aware of negative shapes. Chairs,
tables and stools are ideal for this type of exercise,
because their legs and crossbars create a variety of
geometric patterns of empty space. Other good
subjects are winter trees, with their twisted and
splayed branches and spindly twigs; household
objects; and groups of figures.

15.5

Perspective

15.5.1 Linear Perspective

Imagine standing in the middle of a completely
straight road, looking into the distance. You will
notice that the edges of the road appear to come
together and disappear at a spot on the horizon.
The scene demonstrates perfectly the principle of
linear perspective -that all such parallel lines on the
same plane appear to get closer as they recede into
the distance. The point at which they appear to
meet is called the 'vanishing point'. The practical
applications of linear perspective are important
because if the perspective of a drawing is wrong,
this distorts the whole composition.

159

If two sides of an object are visible, two vanishing

points are necessary; more rarely, three sides of an
object call sometimes be seen, in which case three
vanishing points are required. In the drawing below,
two 'sides' of the ship are visible, and the artist has
plotted the two vanishing points.

For example, hills and mountains look bluer and

paler, the further away they are. This is because the

Page

Aerial Perspective Objects appear to get fainter as

they recede into the distance.

intervening
atmosphere
perception of them.

interferes

with

our

For the artist, aerial perspective can provide a

useful means of indicating space. By making distant
objects fainter, and by drawing with finer lines, it is
possible to create an illusion of recession. In the
bridge drawing below, the artist used a soft pencil
for the heavy foreground lines; for the distant
objects, a hard pencil was chosen to create thin,
pale lines.

15.5.2 Measured Drawing

For the tulip drawing below, the artist first took the
measurement of one bloom, and worked out the
position and size of the vase and the other flowers
in relation to this chosen unit. For example, the
height of the bunch of flowers was exactly six times
that of the measured tulip head, and this was duly

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160

By holding the pencil upright at arm's length, you

can use it as a measuring device to help you to
establish the correct proportions of the subject.
Start by choosing one 'distance' on the subject as
your measuring unit. Use the top of the pencil to
mark one end of this unit, and your thumb to mark
the other end. Everything else can then be plotted
accurately in, relation to this one measurement.

plotted in. Before drawing a single line, the

composition was thus plotted out in some detail- the
position of each element was indicated with a series
of marks. In this particular drawing, the artist
worked in coloured pencils, so each mark was
plotted in an appropriate colour -red flowers, green
leaves, and so on.
When drawing the figure, the obvious measurement
to start with the height of the head. Generally,
however, it does not matter which part of the
subject you choose, as long as it is consistent and
easily visible.

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161

Of course, the literal measurement of the chosen

unit has no bearing on the size it is on the paper. If
this was the case, you would have no choice at all in
the size of your drawing! It is the relative size which
is important.

Assignments and learning activities

1. The students are required to maintain a
sketchbook and sketch at least one sketch a day.
The sketches could be quick or detailed sketches
depending on the subject matter.
2. Students have to understand the various types of
shading and make compositions describing
forms, planes, negative space etc.

Review Questions
1. How important is Composition in a drawing?
What points would you keep in mind before
starting a drawing?
2. What do you understand by the term Negative
Space? Explain with the help of sketches.
3. This being a practical topic the students are
required to maintain a sketchbook and sketch at
least one sketch a day. The sketches could be
quick or detailed sketches depending on the
subject matter.

Stationery Requirements
The following material/equipment is to be used for
answering the review questions:
1. Ruled sheets of A4 size shall be used for
attempting the theory questions.
2. Use cartridge or ivory sheets wherever any
drawing/colouring work is to be done.

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162

3. Use gateway or other superior tracing sheets for

rendering in pen and ink.

Reference Books

1. Colour Harmony 1 and 2

2. Rendering in Pen and Ink by Robert W. Gill
3. Interior Design: Illustrated by Francis D.K
Ching

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163

4. Drawing: A Creative Process Francis D K

Ching