REPRODUCTION

SYSTEM
Chapter 5

Learning Objectives
i.

Identify and describe the different stages of

mitosis and meiosis
ii. Explain and contrast the significance of both
process, emphasizing on the different
outcomes.
iii. Compare and describe asexual and sexual
reproduction process
iv. Compare and describe external and internal
fertilization
v. Describe reproduction in vertebrates
vi. Describe the human gametogenesis process
vii. Describe the stages of human reproduction

MITOSIS
Mitosis is the process in which one
cell duplicates its chromosomes to
generate two identical cells.
It is generally followed by cytokinesis
which divides the cytoplasm and cell
membrane.
This results in two identical cells with
an equal distribution of organelles and
other cellular components.
Mitosis maintains the diploid
condition.

MITOSIS vs MEIOSIS
In multicellular organisms, the somatic
cells undergo mitosis, while germ cells
( cells destined to become sperm in
males or ovum in females ) divide
by a related process called meiosis.

Meiosis
Meiosis is the process by which one
diploid eukaryotic cell divides to
generate four haploid cells called
gametes.
Meiosis is essential for sexual
reproduction and therefore occurs in
all eukaryotes (including single-celled
organisms) that reproduce sexually.
The division of chromosome caused
the cell to produce haploid cells from
a diploid parent.

MITOSIS vs MEIOSIS

Stages of Mitosis

Stages of Mitosis - Interphase

Happens at 90% of the cycle
The cell grows and copies the
chromosome in preparation of cell
division
Can be divided into three subphases
G1, S and G2
G1 cellular contents copied
S Chromosome copied
G2 preparation for mitosis (repairing
any error)

Stages of Mitosis - Interphase

Stages of Mitosis
Interphase (G2)
Single centrosome (an organelle that
organize cells microtubules)
replicates and remain near the
nucleus

Stages of Mitosis - Prophase

Chromosomes condensed
Each duplicated chromosome
appears as identical two sister
chromatids
Centrosomes move away from each
other

Prophase

Stages of Mitosis - Prometaphase

Chromosome are visible
Nuclear envelopes disappear
Microtubule appears and attach to
kinetochores

Prometaphase

Stages of Mitosis - Metaphase

Longest stage in mitosis
The chromosomes are aligned
together with kinetochores attached to
microtubules

Stages of Mitosis - Anaphase

Happens when to
sister chromatid of
each pair are pulled
apart
They began to move
to separate to
opposite ends

Stages of Mitosis - Telophase

Two daughter cell began to form
Chromosomes less condensed

Stages of Mitosis - Telophase

Daughter cells form by cytokinesis in
animal cells and formation of cell
plate in plant cell

Meiosis
Meiosis takes place in the dividing germ
cells of ovaries and testis and it is a
reductional division process that result in a
haploid number of gamete (n) from diploid
cell (2n).

Meiosis I
In Meiosis I, separation of
homologous chromosomes happens

Meiosis II
In Meiosis II, sister chromatids
separate

Meiosis advantage
Meiosis produces new combinations
in two ways, by the
i) genetic recombination of the
alleles
ii) random assortment of maternal and
paternal chromosomes
These events produce genetic
variation.

Meiosis - Crossing over

Some genetic variations can happen during
prophase I of meiosis.
In the diagram below, side by side
alignment by the homologous
chromosomes favors crossing over.
Homologous chromosome pair originated
from the maternal and paternal
chromosome.
This is an interaction between two
nonsister chromatids of a pair of
homologues. The site of interaction is what
referred as chiasmata.

Meiosis
Crossing over
Genetic
recombination is the
result of exchange of
genetic material
between homologous
chromosomes after
crossing over.
Every crossover has
a potential to create
new combinations of
alleles.

Meiosis Random assortment

Maternal and paternal chromosomes are
lined up at random during metaphase I.
At anaphase I, they will move at random at
the spindles poles.
As a result, gametes have new
combinations of chromosomes.
A human germ cell has twenty three pairs
of homologous chromosomes; therefore a
grand total of 223 will result in 8,388,608
combinations of maternal and paternal
chromosome every time a germ cell
becomes a gamete.

Meiosis Random assortment

Meiosis Random fertilization

To add up with the genetic variation,
fertilization of an egg cell by a sperm cell
occurred at random. This causes genetic
variation in organism as a result of sexual
reproduction.

SUMMARY
Property

MITOSIS

MEIOSIS

DNA
replication

Occurs during
interphase

Occurs during
interphase (before
Meiosis I)

Number of
division

One

Two

Crossing
over

None

Occurs during prophase

I between nonsister
chromatids

No of
daughter
cells

Two diploid cells (2n)

that are genetically
identical

Four haploid cells (n)

that are different in
genetic composition

Role

Growth and tissue

repair

Produced haploid
gametes and caused
genetic variability

Asexual and sexual reproduction

Some animals reproduce asexually, but
most of them reproduce sexually.
Asexual reproduction is the fastest and the
most efficient way of reproducing.
Asexual reproduction involves only a single
parent cell that produces offspring via
mitosis.
Therefore, except for cases of mutation,
the offspring have hereditary traits identical
to the parent.

Asexual and sexual reproduction

In protists, a
single organism
divides in a
process called
fission and then
each part will
become a
separate but
identical
organism.

Asexual and sexual reproduction

In asexual production of animals, a
single parent may bud, fragmentize or
undergo parthenogenesis.

Budding
In budding, a small part of the parents
body separates from the rest and
develops into a new individual.
Sponges and cnidarians are among the
animals that can reproduce by budding.

Fragmentation
Happens when the
body of the parents
breaks into several
pieces. Each piece
will regenerate the
missing parts and
develop into a whole
animal.
Flatworms,
nematodes and
annelids possess this
ability regenerate the
missing parts.

Parthenogenesis (Virgin
development)
Is a form of asexual reproduction in which
a female produce offspring from an
unfertilized egg. This will develop to an
adult that is typically haploid.
Parthenogenesis is common among
insects (especially honey bees and
wasps) and other arthropods.
Although a few species appear to
reproduce solely by parthenogenesis, in
most species, parthenogenesis alternate
with a period of sexual reproduction.

Parthenogenesis (Virgin
development)
For example, in honeybees, a
queen bee mates only once and
stores the sperm. She is in
control of the release of sperm.
Without sperm, the eggs
develop parthenogenetically
into haploid male drones.
Fertilized eggs can develop
into other queens or sterile
worker bees that are female.

Parthenogenesis (Virgin
development)
In 15 of the
Cnemidophorus
species there are no
males.
They reproduce
without fertilization,
a process known as
parthenogenesis of
"virgin birth".

Parthenogenesis (Virgin
development)
One of the surprising things about unisexual
whiptail reproduction is that a courtship ritual is still
required even though there is only one gender.
Unisexual whiptails pair up. In the courtship ritual
one female takes the part of a male, while the
other takes the role of a female.

Parthenogenesis (Virgin
development)

Later the 2 lizards switch roles. The switch is

caused by hormones: estrogen promotes female
behavior; progesterone stimulates male behavior.
The mating ritual is required for survival of the
species: without it only a few eggs are released

Hermaphroditism
Hermaphroditism is a form of sexual
reproduction where a single individual
produces both eggs and sperms.
During its lifetime, the individual is
capable of reversing its sex
Unique for sessile or burrowing
animals and parasites that faced
difficulties in meeting members of the
opposite sex

Hermaphroditism
A few hermaphrodites such as the flatworm
are capable of self fertilization. This is
because it is hard for them to encounter
another flatworm.

Hermaphroditism

Most hermaphrodites require other individual to

reproduce.
Earthworms and garden snails always have both
male and female organs, and when, for example,
two earthworms mate, they fertilize each other at
the organ called the clitellum.
The clitellum later forms a cocoon which protects
the developing eggs.

Hermaphroditism
Some deep sea fish are
hermaphrodites where they can
change their sex in a process called
sequential hermaphroditism.

Hermaphroditism
One example is coral reef fish where protogyny
(first female change to male) and protoandry
(first male change to female) happens.
Usually, this happens under social control. For
instance, in cases of absence of males in a
particular group, the largest female can change
into a dominant male.

Sexual reproduction
Involves two parents/individuals through
fusion of sperm and egg from each
individual.
The egg is typically large and nonmotile,
with a store of nutrients that will support the
development of an embryo.
The sperm is usually small and motile,
moving by propelling its flagellum.

Sexual reproduction
There are two types of fertilization
(fusion of sperm and egg) in sexual
reproduction.
i. External fertilization
ii. Internal fertilization

External fertilization
External fertilization
causes gametes to
meet outside the body.
Practiced by many
aquatic invertebrates,
where eggs and sperm
are simultaneously
shed into the water,
and the sperm swim
through the water to
fertilize the egg.

Water is not a hostile

environment because it
causes the gametes to
disperse rapidly, therefore
male and female gamete
must be released
simultaneously.
Thus, they depend on tidal
length and temperature to
coordinate their gamete
release.
Pheromones that attract
mates and chemical signals
trigger gamete release.

External
fertilization

Internal fertilization
Once adapting to terrestrial habitats, the
animals face a constant problem of
dessication.
This problem is serious in small and
vulnerable gametes.

Internal fertilization
Therefore, they start to practice internal
fertilization; where the eggs are fertilized
within the reproductive tract of the female,
and then are covered with eggshells and /
or remain within the body of the female
during their development.

Internal fertilization
Male gametes are deposited straight into
the female reproductive tract. This
prevents the gametes from facing the
dangers of dessication.
Vertebrates that practice internal
fertilization have three strategies for
embryonic and fetal development.
The strategies are called
i. Oviparity
ii. Ovoviviparity
iii. Viviparity

Sexual reproduction - Oviparity

Eggs that are fertilized
internally are deposited
outside the mothers body
(at the environment) to
complete their
development.
Eggs laid are undeveloped
and also depend on egg
yolk for nourishment.
They will hatch later once
they finish their
development.

Sexual reproduction - Oviparity

The eggs might be abandoned by the parents
(fishes) or cared by the parents (birds).
Found in some bony fishes, cartilaginous fishes,
some amphibians, most reptiles, a few mammals
and all birds.
Also happened in species that practice external
fertilization. Eggs that have been fertilized
externally will develop in the environment.

Sexual reproduction - Ovoviviparity

The fertilized eggs are retained within their
mother to complete their development.
However, they do not get the nourishment
from their mother. The embryos obtain
their nourishment from the egg yolk.
When they young are hatched and
released from their mother, they are fully
developed.

Sexual reproduction - Ovoviviparity

Ovoviviparous eggs hatch inside the body
prior to birth making it look like life birth.
Ovoviviparity is found in some bony and
cartilaginous fishes and also many reptiles.
Examples are guppies, Madagascar
hissing roaches and most snakes.

Sexual reproduction - Viviparity

The young develop
within their mothers
uterus (internally)
and obtain
nourishment from
the mother.
Therefore, they do
not depend on egg
yolks anymore.
The young receive
nourishment from
mother via placenta

Sexual reproduction - Viviparity

The offspring are fully developed at
birth.
Is found in some cartilaginous fish,
some amphibians, a few reptiles and
almost all mammals.
Examples of animals are whale, shark
and human.

Reproduction in vertebrates
Fishes and amphibians
Fertilization is external in most fishes.
In most bony fishes, the eggs released
have enough yolk to nourish the embryo
but it is only for a limited time.
Once it is finished, the young fish must
depend on the water for food. However, the
young fish maturation is speedy.

Reproduction in vertebrates
The disadvantage for external fertilization
of them is that gametes live for a short time
only; many are lost in the water and a lot
are eaten by predators or infected by
microbes.
To compensate, many gametes are
released so that sufficient numbers of
embryos can be produced.

Reproduction in vertebrates
In contrast with
cartilaginous fish,
fertilization is
internal. The male
deposit their sperm
through a modified
pelvic fin.
Development of the
embryos in
cartilaginous fishes
is usually
viviparous.

Reproduction in vertebrates
The amphibians have invaded the
land, but they still depend on water
for fertilization.

Reproduction in vertebrates
Gametes from both
males and females are
released from the
cloaca.
When frogs mate, the
male frog tends to clasp
the female underneath in
an embrace called
amplexus. In the
amplexus position, the
male frog fertilizes the
eggs as they get are laid.

Reproduction in vertebrates
The eggs of amphibian contain egg
yolk but lack any other
extraembryonic membrane that can
help the egg from drying. Therefore,
they must be laid in aquatic habitats.

Reproduction in vertebrates
There are different ways on how the young frog
develops.
Some male frogs carry the developing tadpoles in
their back.
Some other species develop tadpoles or froglets
from eggs in special pouches in their back.

Reproduction in vertebrates
In two species of frog, the offspring
develop in the vocal sacs and stomach of
the male frog and they stay there for
metamorphosis before being released as
froglets

Reproduction in vertebrates
Reptiles and birds
Reptiles and birds are
terrestrial animals therefore
they practice internal
fertilization.
Most reptiles and birds are
oviparous. The eggs are
fertilized internally by the
male penis that injects
sperm into the female in an
act called copulation
(mating).

Reproduction in
vertebrates
The eggs are
deposited out of
the mothers body
to complete their
development.
The eggs contain
shell that is
deposited as the
egg passes
through the
oviducts.

Reproduction in vertebrates
Most male birds lack
a penis therefore
they depend on the
cloaca.
The cloaca is a
cavity which both the
intestinal and
genitourinary tracts
empty in reptiles,
birds, amphibians
and many fishes.
The cloaca can
extend to function as
a penis.

Reproduction in vertebrates
As the egg passes along the
oviduct, glands secrete albumin
proteins (egg white) and the
hard, calcareous shell that
distinguish reptile and bird
eggs.
Birds are homeotherms,
therefore they incubate their
eggs to keep it warm.
The parents will look after the
young which development is
still incomplete.

Reproduction in vertebrates
The eggs laid by the reptiles
and birds are known as
amniotic eggs. This is
because the embryo
develops within a fluid-filled
cavity surrounded by an
amnion.
The amnion is an
extraembryonic membrane
that surrounds the embryo.
Together with the chorion, the
yolk sac and the allantois,
they prevent dessication to
happen, allowing the eggs to
be laid in dry places.

Reproduction in vertebrates
Mammals
Some mammals are
seasonal breeder where
they only reproduce once
a year.
Others have more
frequent reproductive
cycles. The cycle in
female include a period of
release of mature ovum
called ovulation.
At ovulation time, they are
sexually receptive to
males.

Reproduction in vertebrates
Mammalian placental female has recurring
physiologic changes that are induced by
reproductive hormones called the estrous
cycle and menstrual cycle.
Animals that have estrous cycles
(mammals like dogs, cows, horses, rats,
goats, elephants) reabsorb the
endometrium if conception does not occur
during that cycle.
Unlike other primates like human and apes,
they have menstrual cycle that causes
them to shed the inner lining of their uterus
followed by heavy bleeding.

Reproduction in vertebrates
Another difference is sexual activity.
In species with estrous cycles,
females are generally only sexually
active during the estrus phase of their
cycle. This is also referred to as being
"in heat, where body temperature
rises and vagina permits mating.
In contrast, females of species with
menstrual cycles can be sexually
active at any time in their cycle, even
when they are not about to ovulate.

Reproduction in vertebrates
Rabbits and cats are induced ovulators
where the females only ovulate right after
copulation.
This is a result of reflex stimulation of the
LH.
This also caused these animals to be
extremely fertile.

Reproduction in vertebrates
Mammals can be divided into three
categories;
i. monotremes (egg-laying mammals)
ii. marsupials (pouched mammals)
iii. eutherians (placental mammals)

Reproduction in vertebrates
Monotremes are oviparous since that they lay
eggs. The young hatch pink and unfinished as an
embryonic stage too helpless to fend for
themselves.
Although they lay eggs, they suckle their young by
letting them lick their skin.
Examples of monotremes are platypus and spiny
anteater.

Reproduction in vertebrates
Marsupials and eutherians
are viviparous.
The marsupials young are
born tiny, blind, and
hairless but find their way to
the mothers pouch which is
at her ventral surface.
There they were suckled
and finish their
development in the pouch.
Examples are kangaroos
and Tasmanian Devils.

Reproduction in vertebrates
Eutherians retain their young for a much
longer period of development in the
mothers uterus.
The young are nourished within the
mothers uterus by the placenta which is a
composite of maternal and fetal tissue.
It is the organ of exchange of nutrients and
wastes between the maternal blood and
the fetal blood.

Reproduction in vertebrates
The advantage of
this method is that
embryos grow faster
than marsupials do
in their pouch and
the offspring are fully
formed at birth.

Offspring survival
As a conclusion,
- Major types of protection to ensure
offspring survival are
i) Tough eggshell (Oviparous
animals
ii) Development of embryo within the
mother (Ovoviviparous / Viviparous)
iii) Parental care ( Amphibian, Aves,
Reptiles and Mammals)

Asexual vs sexual reproduction

Sexual

Advantage

Disadvantage

Genetic diversity
increase chances of
survival in an unstable
environment

Costly because
there is a need to
produce gametes
and make the
gametes meet
(time + energy )
Genetic uniformity
leads to
susceptibility to
diseases.

Asexual Beneficial parental

genotype can be
preserved in a stable
environment.

Human male reproductive system

The primary
reproductive organs
of the male are the
testes that play a
reproductive role of
producing sperm
cells and delivering
them to the female
reproductive tract.
The male paired
testis is also the site
of hormone besides
gamete production.

Male reproductive system

Inside the testes,
there are a number
of lobules.
Each lobules
contains one to four
tightly coiled
seminiferous tubules
which is the site of
sperm production.

Human male reproductive system

At the soft
connective
tissue of the
seminiferous
tubules,
Leydig cells
produce
testosterone.

Human male reproductive system

Seminiferous tubules
of each lobe empty
sperm into another
set of tubules called
the rete testis.
Sperm travel from the
rete testis to enter the
epididymis which
hugs the external
surface of the testis.

Human male reproductive system

The epididymis is a
tube that is coiled and
measure about 20
feet. It provides a
temporary storage
site for immature
sperm that enter from
the testes.
As the sperm make
their way along the
epididymis (about 20
days), they mature
and gain their ability
to swim.

Human male reproductive system

This tube runs upward to
the pelvic cavity and pass
above the urinary
bladder.
Each vas deferens
empties into the short
ejaculatory duct, which
passes through the
prostate gland and
merges into the urethra.
The main function of the
vas deferens is to pass
through the live sperm
from their storage site into
the urethra.

Human male reproductive system

The urethra is a
tube that
conducts urine
and semen at
different times.
When
ejaculation
occurs, sperm
enter the
urethra at the
same time with
the constriction
of the bladder
sphincter.

Human male reproductive system

Sperm released is a
part of semen.
Semen is a secretion
that has a mixture of
three types of
accessory glands in the
internal genitalia - the
seminal vesicles,
prostate gland and
bulbourethral gland.

Seminal vesicles
Produce about 60% of the
fluid volume of semen.
It is located at the base of
the bladder.
Secrete a nutritive fluid rich
in fructose and
prostaglandin.
Fructose nourishes and
provides energy for the
sperm to swim.
Prostaglandins stimulate
contraction of the uterus
that helps move sperm up
the female reproductive
tract.

Human male
reproductive
system

Human male reproductive system

Prostate glands
It is located below
the bladder.
It secretes a milky
and alkaline fluid
that neutralizes the
acidic environment
in the vagina that
might kill or slow
down the sperm.

Human male reproductive system

Bulbourethral glands
It is a tiny pea-sized gland
under the prostate gland
Release a mucous
secretion when a man
becomes sexually excited.
It cleanses the urethra of
traces of acidic urine.
The mucus also lubricates
the penis to facilitate
penetration into the
vagina.

Human male reproductive system

The testes are located inside the scrotum
that serves as a cooling unit.
Under normal conditions, the scrotum
hangs loosely away from the body to
provide a temperature at about 3oC lower
that is necessary for healthy sperm
production.
At lower temperature, the scrotum
becomes heavily wrinkled to pull testes
closer to the warmth of the body.

Human male reproductive system

The penis is an
erectile copulatory
organ that delivers
sperm into the female
reproductive tract.
Internally, the urethra
is surrounded by
erectile tissue that fills
with blood during
erection. The artery is
located at the spongy
erectile tissue.

Spermato genesis
Spermatogenesis
is the process of
sperm cell
production.
It begins during
puberty and
continues
throughout
lifetime.
Within the testes,
sperms form in
the seminiferous
tubules.

Spermatogenesis
A diploid cell called the spermatogonium
remains at the basement membrane of
seminiferous tubule as a stem cell.
At puberty, FSH secreted caused the stem
cell to be pushed forward tubule lumen and
enlarged into a primary spermatocyte.
The primary spermatocyte undergoes
meiosis I to form two haploid secondary
spermatocytes.
The secondary spermatocyte will undergo
meiosis II producing four haploid
spermatids.

Spermatogenesis

Spermatogenesis
Spermatogenesis starts from the outermost
part of the seminiferous tubules inwards to
the lumen of the seminiferous tubules.

Spermiogenesis
Spermiogenesis is the final stage of
spermatogenesis which sees the
maturation of spermatids into mature,
motile spermatozoa.
The process of spermiogenesis is
traditionally divided into four stages:
the Golgi phase, the cap phase, the
acrosomal phase, and the maturation
stage

As a result of
Spermiogenesis
spermiogenesis,
spermatids will develop
flagella during
differentiation and
excess cytoplasm is
stripped away resulting
in four mature sperm
cells.
Each mature sperm
consists of a head,
midpiece and a
flagellum.

Spermiogenesis

Spermiogenesis
The sperm head
contains DNA. Part of
the head contains
acrosome that has
enzymes that help the
sperm to penetrate the
egg.
In the midpiece, there
are mitochondria
provide the energy for
movement of the
flagellum.

Spermatogenesis
The entire spermatogenesis process took
about 64 to 72 days.
The sperm will move through peristalsis to
the epididymis. The epididymis is the site
for sperm maturation that results in
increased motility and fertilizing power.

Hormone production in male

Testosterone is the principal male sex
hormone.
It produces the males primary sex
characteristics such as growth of reproductive
organs and spermatogenesis.
Testosterone also stimulates the development
of the secondary sex characteristics at puberty
such as
the growth of facial and body hair at the pubic
regions
ii. deepening of the voice due to enlargement of the
larynx
iii. enlargement and development of skeletal muscle to
produce heavier muscle mass
iv. increased heaviness of the skeleton due to
thickening of the bones
i.

Hormone production in male

Besides testis, endocrine regulation in
the male involves the hypothalamus
and the pituitary gland.
The hypothalamus secretes
gonadotropin-releasing hormone
(GnRH), which stimulates the anterior
pituitary gland to secrete FSH and
LH.

Hormone production in male

LH stimulates the Leydig cells of the testes
to produce testosterone, which assists in
stimulating the formation and the
development of the sperm.
FSH stimulates Sertoli cells to produce a
protein that concentrate testosterone.
Besides that they cause the formation of
primary spermatocyte from the stem cell
spermatogonium.
When sperm count is high, Sertoli cells
release inhibin that act on hypothalamus
and pituitary gland to cut the release of
GnRH and FSH.

Human male hormonal control

Human female reproductive system

The female reproduction system produces
are much more complex than the males.
They have to produce the female gamete
called oocytes, receives the penis and
sperm released from the male during
sexual intercourse, houses and nourishes
the embryo during prenatal development,
gives birth and produces milk for the young
(lactation).

Human female reproductive system

The ovary consists of a lot of tiny
saclike structure called the ovarian
follicles.

Human female reproductive system

Each follicle consists
of an immature egg
called the oocyte that
is surrounded by
layers and layers of
follicle cells.
During ovulation, the
follicle will rupture,
releasing a
secondary oocyte
leaving the envelope
that will develop into
a corpus luteum.

Human female reproductive system

The Fallopian tubes,
uterus and vagina form
the duct system of the
female reproductive
tract.
The Fallopian
tubes/oviduct receives
the secondary oocyte
and provides a site for
the fertilization process.

Human female reproductive system

At the end of the Fallopian tubes, it
expands into a funnel shape structure with
fingerlike projections called the fimbriae.
During ovulation, the fingerlike fimbriae
create fluid current that carry the oocyte to
the Fallopian tube.
The oocyte will be carried toward the
uterus by the combination of the peristalsis
and the beating of the cilia.

Human female reproductive system

The uterus is a
hollow organ that
functions in
receiving, retaining
and nourishing a
fertilized egg.
The cervix is the
lower part of the
uterus that
protrudes into the
vagina.

Human female reproductive system

The secretion of mucus at the cervix
enhances sperm movement into the
uterus and it also reduces embryos
risk of infection after fertilization.
The wall of the uterus is very thick
and composed of three layers
endometrium, myometrium and
perimetrium.

Human female reproductive system

The inner layer is called the
endometrium which is a site
of implantation of a
fertilized egg.
When a womans oocyte is
not fertilized, the
endometrium layer will
slough off as menstruation.
The myometrium is the
bulky middle layer that
rhythmically contract during
childbirth to force the baby
out of the mothers body.

Human female reproductive system

The vagina is the female organ of
copulation because it receives the
penis during intercourse.
It is also the birth canal or the
passageway for the delivery of a baby
and also for the menstrual flow to
leave the body.

Oogenesis
Like the male gonads, the
ovaries produce both
gametes and sex
hormones.
The process of ovum (egg)
production is called
oogenesis.
Unlike spermatogenesis,
only one of the meiotic
products of oogenesis
becomes a gamete.
The other three are three
tiny polar bodies that simply
deteriorate without
becoming a functional egg.

Oogenesis
Before birth, hundreds of oogonia are
present in the ovaries. All of them are
formed during embryonic development.
No new oogonia are formed after birth.
Therefore, the total supply of eggs that a
female release is determined before birth.
Women have limited reproductive
capability where it begins at puberty and
ends in her 50s or before.

Oogenesis
In the developing female fetus, the oogonia
or the female stem cell multiply and
increase in size and become primary
oocytes. The primary oocyte will then be
push to the ovary connective tissue.
By the time of birth, no more oogonia exist.
The primary oocytes are arrested in the
prophase of the first meiotic development
(Meiosis I).
At this stage they enter a resting phase
that lasts throughout childhood until
puberty.

Oogenesis
A primary oocyte and the granulosa cell
that surround it makes up the follicle.
With the onset of puberty, FSH will be
released and stimulate a few follicles to
mature each month.
As the follicle matures, the primary oocyte
completes its first meiotic division (meiosis
I) producing two haploid cells that differ in
size.

Oogenesis
The first polar body is smaller may
later divide to form two polar bodies
that will later disintegrate.
The larger cell, the secondary oocyte,
remains in metaphase II (meiosis II)
until it is fertilized.

Oogenesis

Oogenesis
During ovulation, the secondary
oocytes ejects through the ovary wall
and into the oviducts.

Oogenesis
The portion of
the follicle that
remains in the
ovary
develops into
the corpus
luteum, a
temporary
endocrine
gland that
secretes
estrogen and
progesterone.

Oogenesis
Almost immediately after ovulation, the
secondary oocyte (still in the metaphase II
stage) is swept into the funnel-shaped
opening of the oviduct/Fallopian tube.
Action of the cilia on the epithelial lining of
the Fallopian tube sweeps the secondary
oocyte into the Fallopian tube and moves it
along toward the uterus.

Oogenesis
During fertilization, the
secondary oocytes
proceeds to the
second meiotic
division and gives rise
to a single ovum and
a second polar body.
The ovum will be
fertilized by the sperm.
Fertilization usually
took place in the
Fallopian tube.
However, the embryo
will be implanted in
the uterus.

Menstruation
Endocrine regulation of female
reproduction involves the hypothalamus,
pituitary gland and ovaries.
The beginning of menstrual bleeding marks
the first day of menstrual cycle.
A typical menstrual cycle lasts for 28 days
but it varies from woman to woman.
Ovulation occurs at about day 14 after the
first day of the menstrual cycle and this
varies depending on the womens cycle

Menstruation
Menstrual cycle requires control from four
hormones, FSH (Follicle-stimulating
hormone), LH (Luteinizing hormone),
progesterone and estrogen.
There are two phases in the menstrual
cycle, the follicular phase and the luteal
phase.

Menstruation
The first 3 to 5 days of the 28 day cycle is
the menstrual phase.
The thick endometrium lining of the
uterus sloughs off.
By day 5, growing ovarian follicles begins
to produce more estrogen.

Menstruation
During the preovulatory phase, (just after
menstrual flow finished) gonadotropin-releasing
hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus
stimulates the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland to
secrete FSH and LH.
During the beginning of the follicular phase, FSH
stimulates follicle development and stimulates the
granulosa cell to produce estrogen causing
estrogen level in the blood to rise.

Menstruation
Estrogen released early in the menstrual cycle
help pave the way to pregnancy by stimulating the
growth of the endometrium layer. Blood vessels
grow fast in the thickened endometrium.
Eight to ten hours before ovulation, the oocyte
completes meiosis I (from prophase I) yielding a
secondary oocyte.

Menstruation
Halfway through the menstrual cycle,
the pituitary gland detects the rise of
estrogen in blood. Therefore it
responds with a brief outpouring of
LH.

Menstruation
The surge of LH causes ovulation, which is the
release of the secondary oocyte from the ovary.
This marks the end of the follicular phase.
The released secondary oocyte left the granulosa
cells in the ovary. This will form the corpus luteum,
which secretes progesterone and some estrogen.

Menstruation
After ovulation, the luteal (postovulatory) phase
will begin. Progesterone prepares the reproductive
tract for zygote implantation.
This hormone makes the cervical mucus thick and
sticky to prevent bacteria from the vagina to enter
the uterus.
Progesterone will also maintain the endometrium
lining during pregnancy.

Menstruation
A corpus luteum persists for 12 days. All
this while, hypothalamus caused minimal
secretion of FSH to stop other follicles from
developing.
If there is no zygote implantation, the
corpus luteum will self-destruct in the last
days of the cycle.
This causes progesterone and estrogen
level to decline quickly causing the
endometrium layer to break down and flow
out of the vagina as menstrual blood.

Menstruation

Hormone production of the ovary

At puberty, the
ovaries become
active and start
producing ovum.
The production
of ovarian
hormone is done
by the growing
follicles where
they produce
estrogen

Hormone production of the ovary

This cause the appearance of the
secondary sex characteristics in a
young woman. This includes
Enlargement in the accessory organ of the
female reproductive system
Development of the breast
Appearance of hairs in certain parts of the
body.
Increased deposits of fat at hips area.
Widening and lengthening of the pelvis.
Onset of menstrual cycle.

Hormone production of the ovary

The progesterone is produced by the
corpus luteum, to maintain the
endometrium lining.
During pregnancy, progesterone helps
maintain it and prepare the breast for milk
production.

Mammary gland
Each breast consists of 15 to 20 lobes of
glandular tissue. Gland cells are arranged
in grapelike clusters called alveolar gland.

Mammary gland

The alveolar gland functions in producing

milk and passing it to the lactiferous ducts.
Ducts from each cluster joined at the
sinuses that terminate at the nipples.

Mammary gland
Lactation is the function of the breast. After
childbirth, colostrum is produced. It
contains protein and lactose but little fat.
The hormone prolactin secreted by the
anterior pituitary gland stimulates milk
production.
When a baby suckles, the posterior
pituitary gland releases oxytoxin that
stimulates ejection of milk from the alveoli.

Pregnancy and Human

Development
When a sperm manage to reach an
oocyte in the Fallopian tube, they
release enzyme to penetrate the
secondary oocyte.
Sperm entry stimulates the secondary
oocyte to complete meiosis II and
becomes an ovum.
The sperm and the ovum/egg nucleus
fuse producing a brand new zygote.

Pregnancy and Human

Development

Pregnancy and Human

Development
If the ovum is fertilized, development
begins as the embryo is slowly moved to
the uterus by the lining the Fallopian tube.
The zygote is already undergoing cleavage
during this movement.

Pregnancy and Human

Development
Cleavage is a series
of rapid cell division
without a growth
phase.
Cleavage starts by
forming a 2-cell, 4-cell
and finally 8-cell
stage before forming
a solid ball of cells
called the morula on
the fourth day.
Morula means a
bunch of berries.

Pregnancy and Human

Development
By the fifth day, a blastocyst has formed. It is a
hollow ball of cells with a fluid filled cavity.
The blastocyst consists of an outer tropoblast that
forms the large fluid-filled sphere and the inner cell
mass. The tropoblast will give rise to the chorion
and amnion that surrounds the embryo.

Pregnancy and Human

Development
By day 7 after ovulation, the blastocyst
begins to implant in the thick endometrium.
An inner cell mass will become an
embryonic disk that consists of two layer of
cells. The lower layer of cells is the yolk
sac whereas the upper layer is the amniotic
cavity.
During this process, the blastocyst adheres
to the uterine lining (endometrium) by
sending out projections that invade the
mothers tissues.

Pregnancy and Human

Development

Pregnancy and Human

Development
The placenta is derived
from the embryonic
chorion that develops villi
and also from the maternal
uterine tissue.
The placenta provides
nutrient and oxygen for the
fetus and removes wastes,
where the mother will
excrete.
In addition, the placenta
secretes estrogen and
progesterone to maintain
pregnancy.

Pregnancy and Human

Development
The blastocyst is able to secrete hCG
(Human chorionic gonadotropin), a
hormone that pregnancy test assays for in
a womans urine.
Usually, the detection of hCG can be made
at the third week of pregnancy.
The function of the hCG is to stimulate the
corpus luteum to release large amount of
progesterone and estrogen to maintain the
endometrium layer from being sloughed
off.

Pregnancy and Human

Development
Gastrulation is the next
stage where three
tissue layers, ectoderm
(will give rise to the
nervous system and the
epidermis of the skin),
mesoderm (will give
rise to most of the
organs) and endoderm
(will give rise to glands
and organ linings)
forms.

Pregnancy and Human

Development
As the embryo grows, the umbilical cord
connects the embryo to the placenta. It
serves as the organ of exchange between
the maternal and fetal circulation.
The fetal blood in the capillaries of the
chorionic villi comes in close contact with
the mothers blood. However, they are
always separated by a membrane.
Substances may diffuse or actively
transported across the placenta.

Pregnancy and Human

Development
Eleven weeks later, the
placenta takes over the
function of secreting
hCG to continue
developing the
endometrium layer and
placenta.
Pregnancy lasts on
average of 38 weeks
from the time of
fertilization.

Pregnancy and Human

Development First trimester
The first three months of pregnancy the
first trimester.
Organ development happens during the
first trimester. Notochord begins to form
and it induces the formation of the neural
plate.
As the neural plate develops, the forebrain,
midbrain and hindbrain are developed by
the fifth week.
The heart, lungs and digestive system
follows.

Pregnancy and Human

Development First Trimester
By the end of the fourth week, arms and
legs are present.
At the second month, the embryo is
referred to as the fetus. It has muscles and
a functional brain.
By the end of the first trimester, the genital
structure has differentiated, the ears and
eyes are visible and the vertebrae column
replaced the notochord.

Pregnancy and Human

Development Second & Third
trimester
A second trimester extends from the start
of the fourth month to the end of the sixth.
At this stage the heart can be heard
beating and the fetus starts to move.
The third trimester extends from the
seventh month till birth. At this stage the
fetus grows rapidly where final
differentiation of organs and tissues
occurs.

Pregnancy and Human

Development

Pregnancy and Human

Development
The process of birth process is called
parturition and is divided into three
stages.
i.

ii.

iii.

The dilation stage The time of appearance of

true contractions to the cervix full dilation to
about 10 cm. This usually last from 6 to 12
hours.
The expulsion stage The period of full dilation
to the delivery of the baby which takes about 20
to 50 minutes.
The placental stage The period of delivery of
the placenta that is usually accomplished within
15 minutes of the infants birth.

Pregnancy and
Human
Development