A

Brief
Overview
of
Geosynthetics
and Their Major Applications*
1. Geosynthetic Materials
2.
Transportation
and
Geotechnical
3. Geoenvironmental
4. Hydraulic Engineering
5. Private Development
1.
GEOSYNTHETIC
MATERIALS
Polymer Background
geosynthetics are really
geopolymers
feedstock is natural gas
reacted to form
resin in a flake form
mixed with additives into a
formulation

manufactured
into
a
particular type of
geosynthetic material
Geosynthetic (GS) Materials
geotextiles (GT)
geogrids (GG)
geonets (GN)
geomembranes (GM)
geosynthetic clay liners
(GCL)
geopipe (GP)
geofoam (GF)
geocomposites (G C)
Geotextiles (GT)
majority are made from
polypropylene fibers

standard
textile
manufacturing

woven
(slit
film,
monofilament or multifilament)
nonwoven (needle punched
or heat bonded)
characterized by an open
and porous structure
mechanical and hydraulic
properties vary widely
very versatile in their
primary function
Geogrids (GG)
unitized, woven yarns or
bonded straps
structure allows for soil
strike-through
bidirectional equal strength
in both directions

unidirectional

main
strength in machine direction

focuses
entirely
on
reinforcement
applications,
e.g.,
walls, steep slopes, base and
foundation reinforcement
Geonets (GN)
all are made from high
density polyethylene
results in parallel sets of ribs
as a integral unit
biplanar flow is equal in all
directions

triplanar flow much greater

in machine direction
function is always in-plane
drainage
surfaces must be covered;
usually with GTs
Geomembranes (GM)

function
is
always
containment
represents a barrier to liquids
and gases
many types: HDPE, LLDPE,
fPP, PVC, EPDM, etc.
manufactured rolls are field
seamed
required by regulations for
waste containment

new
applications
in
hydraulics
and
private
development
Geosynthetic Clay Liners (GCL)

function
is
always
containment
common product is bentonite
between 2-GTs
internally reinforced by
needle punched or stitching
bentonite product bonded to
GM is also available
many other variations exist
competitive with compacted
clay liners (CCLs)
beneath a GM; one has a
composite liner
Geopipe
its really buried plastic pipe!
function is always drainage
HDPE and PVC most common
both can be smooth walled
or corrugated
corrugated HDPE growth is
enormous
Geofoam (GF)
EPS or XPS in block form
lightweight fill on soft or
sensitive soils
relieves lateral pressure on
walls
also used for insulation of
frost-sensitive
soils
Geocomposites (GC)
array of available products
GT/GM; GT/GG; GT/GN; etc.

considerable
ongoing
innovation
primary function depends on
final product
Function vs. Geosynthetic Type

Design Methods
(a)
Cost-based
on
experience/availability
(b)
Specification

for
common applications
(c) Function for specialty,
critical and/or
permanent applications
Design-by-Function
where
test Methods are from ASTM,
ISO or GRI
design Models from the
Literature
factor-of-Safety is Application
Specific

FS=

Required ( design ) Property

Allowable ( Test ) Property

Application Areas
Transportation/Geotechnical

GT, GG & GC mainly

Geoenvironmental GM, GCL &
GN mainly
Hydraulic Systems GM, GP &
GC mainly
Private Development all types
of GSs
2. TRANSPORTATION AND
GEOTECHNICAL
APPLICATIONS
GTs as filters
GTs and GGs as wall
reinforcement
GTs and GGs as slope
reinforcement
GC Wick Drains (also called
PVDs)
GC Erosion Control Systems
Geotextile Filtration
refers to cross-plane flow,
i.e., GT is acting as
a filter not as a drain
three design requirements:
1. adequate flow
2. proper soil retention
3. long-term flow equilibrium
many applications, e.g.,
behind retaining walls

under
erosion
control
systems

around
pavement
underdrains (follows)
Wall
Reinforcement
Design
Concepts
internal design results in:
spacing of GT or GG
length of GT or GG
facing connection stress
external design used to
assess:
overturning stability
sliding stability
bearing capacity

reduction
factors
on
reinforcement

 put on laboratory values for

allowable strength
factor-of-safety
on each design aspect to
resist the unknown
Segmental
Retaining
Walls
(SRWs)
(also called modular block
walls)
design is same as described
before
refers to type of wall facing
great variety of aesthetic
blocks
usually GG reinforced MSE
system
generic computer design
codes available
Tiered Wall with Surcharge
Reinforcement for Soil Slopes
most soil slopes become
unstable steeper
than 2(H)-to-1(V) (26.5)
use GT or GG reinforcement
to increase
either the slope angle or height
essentially no limit, except
for erosion
various placement patterns
are possible
Geocomposite Wick Drains
also called prefabricated
vertical drains (PVDs)
used for rapid consolidation
of saturated fine grained
soils
consists of a drainage core
with a GT filter/separator
wrapped completely around it
typically 100 mm wide, by 2
to 10 mm thick, by 100 m
long (in roll or coil form)
(Driving Wick Drains) (Ready for
Surcharge Fill)
Geocomposite Erosion Control
Systems
huge array of products
slope protection modify
USLE
channel protection increase
shear stress
temporary; permanent (soft);
permanent (hard)

thus leachate is very variable

and is site-specific

flows
gravitationally
downward
enters groundwater unless a
suitable barrier
layer and collection system is
provided
Vertical Geomembrane Cutof
Walls
utilized at abandoned dumps
or for the control of polluted
groundwater
typically placed in a slurry
supported
trench
with
soil/cement,
soil/asphalt, or soil/fly ash as
backfill
system is greatly enhanced
with a geomembrane placed up
gradient, thereby forming a
vertical composite liner system
(Placement of GM Panels)
Liners
for
Surface
Impoundments
design is progressive with
each decision leading
to
the
input
for
next
consideration; i.e.,
geometry
cross section
GM type selection
GM thickness selection
subgrade stability
cover soil stability
runout and anchor trench
major decision is whether to
leave GM
exposed or cover it with soil
exposed; durability is key to
GM selection
covered; many GMs are
possible
(depending on liquid to be
contained)
if covered, slopes will be
relatively flat
and stability is a major design
issue
Commentary:

3.GEOENVIRONMENTAL
APPLICATIONS
Landfill liner systems
Landfill cover systems
Vertical Cutoff Barriers

Liners
for
Surface
Impoundments
Liners for Heap Leach Ponds

Heap Leach Mining

practiced in existing mining
areas
target metals are gold, silver
and copper
process uses cyanide and
sulfuric acid

chemicals
strip
trace
amounts from the ore which
has been placed in heaps
needs GM liner and collection
system

Nature of Waste Problem

moisture
within
and
precipitation on the waste
generates leachate

leachate
takes
the
characteristics of the waste

4. HYDRAULIC ENGINEERING
APPLICATIONS
Waterproofing of Dams
Waterproofing of Canals

Reservoir
Liners/Floating
Covers

Tunnel Waterproofing
Rehabilitation

Pipe
Rehabilitation
Remediation

&
&

Waterproofing of Dams
masonry, concrete, earth and
RCC dams
GM is not a structural
element, its
waterproofing
many dams over 50-years
old often have
leakage; sometimes excessive
leakage
methods are under rapid
development
mainly in European Alps and in
China
Waterproofing of Canals
conveyance of all liquids;
however, water is the
most common
distances and quantities vary
greatly
fundamental issue is leakage
(i.e., how much, if
any, is allowable)
some type of liner (GM or
GCL) is necessary
many federal agencies
involved (BuRec, COE,
DOA and NRCA)
Reservoir Liners/Floating Covers
potable water
architectural ponds
shutdown water
gray water
industrial waters
process waste waters
sewage sludge
industrial sludge
agricultural wastes
hazardous liquids*
GM pond liners date back to
1930s
used to contain all types of
liquids
*EPA estimates 206,000 in USA
alone!
Common Characteristics
generally shallow liquid
depths
typically 2 to 7 m
side slopes from 4(H)-to-1(V)
to 1(H)-to1(V), i.e., = 14 to 45
both exposed and covered
exposed GM durability
issue
covered soil stability issue
New Tunnel Waterproofing
many old tunnels without
GMs are leaking
white staining on surface is
the tell-tale
key is to use a GT and GM
behind the permanent
concrete surfacing

 in turn, this requires a GP

drainage system
Tunnel Rehabilitation
concern is over excessive
leakage

leakage
can
lead
to
instability

tunnels
are
essentially
accessible pipes
obviously, they are usually
more critical
water tunnels are the
general target
SPALOV
TUNNEL,
Czech
Republic
SAN FIORANO, Italy
Pipe
Rehabilitation
and
Remediation
focuses on old lifeline
systems
transmission lines (water,
gas, oil)
drainage (conduits, canals)
sewers (sanitary and storm)
see photos
Methods of Pipe Rehabilitation
Coatings
Slip Liners (Pipe-within-Pipe)
Cured-in-Place Pipe
Fold-and-Formed Pipe
In-Situ Liners
(Epoxy Coated Pipe) (Pipewithin-Pipe)
5. PRIVATE DEVELOPMENT
APPLICATIONS
various dwellings
industrial buildings
storage/staging areas
tank farms
parks and playgrounds
pools and lakes
sport fields
golf courses
airfields
agriculture
aquaculture
liquid transportation
Selected Areas of Focus
Tank Farms/Gas Stations
concern is spillage into
surface water
also, leakage into ground
water
requires a GM or GCL Barrier
classified as secondary
containment
barrier must be resistant to
liquid
Pools, Ponds and Lakes
sites vary from small-to-huge
usually access is limited
liners required for leakage
control
covers sometimes required
for contamination
control and for safety
Golf Courses

aesthetics,
aesthetics,
aesthetics
drainage, drainage, drainage
turf maintenance is a major
issue
essentially all geosynthetics
are involved
opportunities available in
new sites and in
expansion/remediation
of
existing sites
(GM Lined Bunker) (Gravel & GP
Drainage)
Agriculture
mega-farming is big business
animal populations are
enormous
the major item of non-point
source pollution
animal waste conveyance,
recovery and treatment are
critical topics and invariably
they are newsworthy
(Lined Pond Behind Cattle
Stalls) (Aerobic Decomposition
of Waste)
Aquaculture
fish-farming is also big
business
generally shallow GM-lined
ponds
lining required for control
purposes
(nutrition,
oxygen,
contamination)

some
enterprises
are
awesome
(GM Lined Shrimp Farm) (Lots &
Lots of Them!)

-Prevent the mixing of two

diferent soils or materials using
geotextiles, geocomposites
Protection
-Avoid damages to a structure,
a
material
or
another
geosynthetic using nonwoven
geotextiles,
geonets,
geocomposites
Impermeabilization
- Fluid barrier using
Geomembranes,
geocomposites
Reinforcement of
walls/steep slopes
- Provide tensile forces in the
soil using
geogrids, and geotextiles
Reinforcement of
soft soil
-Increase the bearing capacity
using
bidirectional
geogrids,
geotextiles, geocomposites
Reinforcement of
concrete, asphalt
-Provide tensile and fatique
resistance bidirectional geogrid
Erosion control or surfacial
Stabilization
- Avoid the detachment and
transport of soil particles by
rain, runof and wind; root
anchorage using geomats,
geocells, biomats, bionets
Confinement
-Restrain the lateral
movement of a soil mass
geocells
Functions of Geosynthetics
APPLICATIONS
GEOSYNTHETICS
*reservoirs dams
*liquid waste
*solid waste
*cannals
*roads
*railroads
*retaining walls
*erosion protection
*tunnels
*drainage systems

Functions of geosynthetics
Filtration
- Allow the passage of fluids
preventing the migration of soil
particles(geotextiles,
geocomposites)
Drainage
- Transport of fluids geonets,
Geocomposites
Separation

OF

Hydraulic
Engineering
Applications
Waterproofing of Dams
Waterproofing of Canals

Reservoir
Liners/Floating
Covers
Tunnel Waterproofing &
Rehabilitation

Pipe
Rehabilitation
&
Remediation
Characteristic Properties
Mechanical short/longterm

 Hydraulic short/longterm
Durability
Damage during installation
General Product Identification
Polymer identification
Geometrical information
**Thickness
**Grid opening size / pitch
dimensions
Mass per unit area
Geometric Information
Measuring thickness at 2 kPa
The test is performed to EN964
part 1 for a
single layer
products and to EN964 part 2
for multi-layer
25 cm thickness metal base
Mass / Unit Area (mua)
Mass per unit area (mua) (ISO
9864; EN 965 : 1995 ASTM)
the mass per unit area is one of
the
most
often
used
characteristic values, giving the
price creating mass of the raw
material
Specimens are cut preferably
with a circular cutter, the
number
depends
on
the
specimen size; Minimum 3,
each 100 cm to a maximum of
10 specimen, and then weighed
to accuracy of +
0.001g and calculate the mua.
100 cm mua = 123.4 g/m
Mechanical Properties
Short-term tensile strength
and dependent deformation
Long-term tensile behaviour
(creep/creep rupture)
Long-term compressive creep
behaviour (with/without
Shear stress)
Resistance against impact or
punching
** Static puncture test, rapid
puncture
Resistance against abrasion
Friction properties
** Direct shear, inclined plane
test, pullout resistance
Protection efficiency
Damage during installation
Geosynthetics or composites
internal strength
Geosynthetic reinforcement
segmental retaining wall unit
connection testing
Short-term tensile strength and
dependent deformation

Tensile
Creep
and
Creep
Rupture
EN ISO 13431 : 1996 ASTM)

Tensile creep tests give

information on timedependent
deformation at constant load.
Creep rupture tests give time
until failure at constant load.
A deformation measurement
is not necessary for creep
rupture curves.
Loads for creep testing are
most often dead weights, often
enlarged by lever arms.
Creep Test Rigs
set up in
environment,
vibrations

a controlled
free
from

Creep Test Results.

Creep Curves Creep Rupture
Results are plotted for creep as
linear deformation vs log time
For creep rupture linear or log
load vs log time.
Typical curves are shown
Isochronus curves
From creep curves at diferent
stress
grades
isochronous
stress strain curves may be
derived or extrapolated for
calculation
of
structures
deformation at a given time.
Resistance To Static Puncture
Static Puncture Test:
The Test CBR (EN ISO 12236 :
1996)
The use of soil mechanics
California Bearing Ratio (CBR)
apparatus
for
this
static
puncture test, has resulted in
the unusual name for this test.
A plunger of 50mm diameter
is pushed at a speed of 50 +/10mm min onto and through
the specimen clamped in the
circular jaws.
Measurement of force and
displacement are taken. The
test
is
widely
used
for
geotextiles, it is not applicable
to grids, and the test provides
useful data for geomembranes.
CBR device in testing machine
Inserting specimen in hydraulic
CBRclamps
PYRAMID
5494-93)

PUNCTURE

(ASTM

Dynamic Puncture Test :

Cone Drop Test (ISO 13433, EN
918 : 1995)
A 1kg pointed cone is dropped
from a height of 1m onto a
specimen, held tight in a
circular clamp
The diameter of a hole
created is measured by means
of a graduated aluminium cone
scale.
1. Head, release mechanism to
suit laboratory requirements

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Guide rod
Cone
Metal screen
Screen
Clamping plates
Test specimen
Levelling screws

Impact Resistance Test

(CEN TC 189 WI 14; ISO 13428
draft)

Efficiency
of
protection
materials can be tested by
dropping
a
hemispherical
shaped weight onto a specimen
placed on a lead plate on a
resilient
base.
The impression in the lead
and the condition of the
specimen are recorded. Lighter
round shaped drop weights are
used for other geosynthetics.
The deformation of a metal
sheet under the tested material
gives quantitative results.
Impact Resistance Test
(performance test : BAW)
A heavy drop weight (67.5 kg)
is dropped from 2 m height on
the geosynthetic placed on
sand and fixed in a ring. The
result is a penetration yes or
no decision.
Abrasion Resistance
(EN ISO 13427 : 1995)
Emery cloth of a specific
grade is moved linearly along
the specimen. After 750 cycles
the abraded specimen is tested
to measure the residual tensile
strength or hydraulic properties
Direct Shear Friction
(EN ISO 12957 : 1998)

Reinforcing
geosynthetics
develop their tensile resistance
by the transfer of stresses from
the soil to the fabric through
friction. The friction ratio is
defined as the angle of friction,
the ratio of the normal stress to
the shear stress. Low normal
stresses may be tested by an
inclined plane test and higher
normal stresses by direct shear
or by pull out test.
Direct shear (EN ISO 12957-1)
The friction partners are placed
one in an upper box, the other
in the lower box. The lower box
is moved at a concentrate of
displacement (index testing: 1
mm/min) while recording force
and displacement. The results
for
three normal stresses (50, 100,
150 kPa) are plotted, the value
of friction angle is calculated
Inclined Plane Test
(EN ISO 12957-2)

 The friction partners to be

tested
(geomembrane/geosynthetic;
geomembrane/soil;
geosynthetic/soil) are set up on
a inclinable steel table.
Movement of the upper box
and inclination are measured
while lifting the table by 3
degrees/min.
When the upper box moves
50mm the test is stopped and
the angle of the table is taken
as the angle of friction for the
chosen materials combination.
The normal stress must be
recalculated for the resulting
angle at the end of the test.
Pullout Resistance (1)
A strip of the geosynthetic,
just narrower than the width of
the box, is pulled out of a soil
filled box. A load is applied to
the
soil
geosynthetic
by
pneumatic, hydraulic system or
deadweight system. Force and
deformation are recorded for
several
points of the material inside the
box.
Force transfer at the point
where the geosynthetic leaves
the apparatus must be avoided.
It is important to design a
system at the front of the
pullout
box
which
avoids
transferring load to the
box. Results may be max force
at rupture or slippage or plots
of force v deformation.
Protection Efficiency
The ability of a geotextile to
protect a
geomembrane is quantified by
a test
based on a German procedure.
The deformation of a lead
plate, loaded with standard M10
nuts, used as a consistently
reproducible granular
material. The efficiency of the
geotextile
to
protect
a
geomembrane is calculated
fromthe depth and width of the
indentations.
Damage During Installation
The CEN-ISO standard applies
a cyclic load to a platen (100 x
200) pressing via a layer of
Corundum aggregate placed on
top of the geosynthetic being
tested. (Corundum is a trade
name for a sintered aluminium
oxide.
After 200 cycles between 5
kPa and 900 kPa maximum
stress the specimen is exhumed
and may be subject to a tensile
test for the residual strength for
reinforcement applications, or
for filtration the hydraulic

properties
for
filtration
applications.
A performance test requires
the soil and fill to be used on
the site and the equipment to
spread
and
compact
the
material.
Typical results of an index-test
are shown
Damage During Installation
(ENV ISO 10722-1 : 1997)
The forces applied to a
geosynthetic
during installation can be the
most severe loading that will be
applied to the material,
It is therefore necessary to
have a
test
which
simulates
the
installation
process.
Geosynthetics (composites
internal strength)
(EN ISO 13426-1)
If a failure of internal
junctions may cause failure of a
structure, the strength of these
junctions can be tested.
Geocells: The loading of a
internal geocell-connection may
be of:
- a tensile shear type
- a peeling type
- a splitting type
or of combinations.
Hydraulic Properties

Water
permeability
characteristics
normal to plane, without load
Constant head
Falling head
Water flow capacity in their
plane
Characteristic opening size
Hydraulic Properties:
Water
permeability
characteristics normal to the
plane, without load ( ENISO11058 : 1999)
When
geosynthetics
are
working as filters, they are
required to allow water through
freely but soil grains need to be
retained. Some very fine soil
grains are allowed through such
that a stable
secondary filter is developed in
the contact soil zone.
The water flow may be
determined at stationary (time
independent) conditions i.e.
constant flow at constant water
head or at in stationary
conditions, i.e. falling head.
Constant Head Test
In Darcys equation v = kv . I
v = speed of flow (m/s)
i = hydraulic gradient = head
diference/specimen thickness

De-aired water passes the

specimen charged with normal
stresses from top to bottom
(multilayer specimen of 20-40
mm are used), flow vs time is
measured and expressed as a
kv (kn)-factor.
Falling Head Method
De-aired water passes the
specimen charged with normal
stresses from top to bottom
(multilayer specimen of 20 - 40
mm are used), flow vs time is
measured and expressed as a
kv (kn)-factor.
Water Flow Capacity in the
Plane
(EN ISO 12958 : 1999)
In drainage applications water
needs to flow in the plane of
the
geosynthetic.
Tests
according to EN-ISO
or ASTM difer in specimen size,
but use the same basic
principles.
Flow is measured at constant
water head and expressed
either as kH (kp), unit m/s, or as
flow capacity, unit l/s per m
width of the product at given
gradient. The flow value is
dependent on the thickness of
the product, as some products
compress under load the flow
values are time dependant.For
a long-term design, flow values
need to be corrected for the
compressive
creep
of
the
product..
Characteristic Opening Size
(EN ISO 12956 : 1999)
To determine, which grain size
can
passing through a geosynthetic
and which is retained, a wet
sieving test is used with a
standard soil.
The soil passing the
geotextile is extracted from the
water and sieved again.
A characteristic value O90- is
calculated according to EN ISO
12956.
O90 = d90 of the soil
passing the
geosynthetic.
Durability Properties
Resistance to weathering
Resistance to microbiological
degradation (soil burial)
Resistance to liquids
Resistance to hydrolysis

Resistance
to
thermal
oxidation
Durability Properties
Geosynthetics may be used
for temporary structures such
as access roads for construction

sites or may be required for

medium term applications until
consolidation of soils makes
them
redundant.
Long-term
applications are the main use
(30 to 60 years for some in UK
application or ; more than 120
years for landfills in most
countries). Therefore durability
is an important requirement.
Resistance to Weathering
(prEN 12224 : 1996)
Products exposed uncovered
to light
and products placed without
coversoil
for service are tested by
artificial weathering.
Exposure to UV-light of
defined emission spectrum and
rain at elevated temperature
accelerates the test.
Exposure
to
Natural
Weathering
Tensile tests afterexposure and
referenceto
fresh
specimentensile strength loss in
%. Tensile tests on exposed and
fresh specimens can be used to
determine the loss of tensile
strength, normally expressed as
a
percentage
of
strength
retained after exposure.
Resistance to Microbiological
Degradation
(ENV 12225 : 1996)
Fungi and bacteria living in
soils may
attack the polymeric materials
used as geosynthetics. (There
are no recorded failures of
geosynthetics
due
to
microbiological attack).
To check the resistance the
product to be tested they are
buried in biologically active soil
and after the soil burial test
residual strength is measured.
ENV 12224 gives types of
bacteria and environments be
used.
Resistance to Liquids
(ENV ISO 12960)
The chemical tests developed
to date
are:
-the resistance to hydrolysis for
Polyester based geosynthetics
-and the resistance to thermal
oxidation
for
geosynthetics
made from
Polyolefines.
Resistance
to
Thermal
Oxidation
(prEN ISO 13430)
To the polyolefine molecules
of PE, PP oxygen may be
connected creating increased
brittleness of the polymers.

Stabilizing additives delay this

oxidation.
For the test the products are
exposed to high temperature in
an oven.
Resistance to Hydrolysis
(pr EN 12447)
Hydrolysis of Polyester is the
reverse action of the evolution
by
polycondensation
and
means
connecting
water
molecules or parts to the PET
molecules, thus increasing the
Carboxyl end group (CEG)content and decreasing the
average molecular weight often
expressed as solution
viscosity.
External hydrolysis by alkaline
attack occurs also at low
temperatures,
internal
hydrolysis
in
neutral
environments is relevant at
elevated temperatures.
Products are immersed in
liquids for times up to 90 days
and residual strength and
deformation are
tested.
Functions of a Filter
Retain particles of the base soil
to be filtered
Avoid piping
Allow free flow of water
- upstream of the filter
Avoid external clogging (With
unstable soils)
- through the filter
Avoid internal clogging
Survive construction and
environmental stresses
Function can be provided by
either natural
aggregates or by Geotextiles

Filtration Behaviour
Clogging: the voids of a
medium are
progressively filled by solid
matter to the point that the
passage
of
water
is
compromised
Decrease
in
hydraulic
conductivity
Internal clogging
- By mineral particles
-By precipitation and chemical
deposition in the voids by water
containing iron, de-icing salts
By
biological
growth
encrustation
in
aerobic
Conditions

APPLICATIONS : DRAINAGE
Around trench drains and
edge drains
Beneath pavement bases and
base courses
Retaining walls and bridge
abutments
Drain and well pipes
Slope stabilization
Earth dams and Levees
APPLICATIONS
:
EROSION
CONTROL
Protection of runof collection
Slope protection
Along stream banks
Scour protection around
structures

Construction
facilities
across/adjacent to water bodies
Culverts, drop inlets, artificial
stream channels
Filter Applications
Wrapping of trench drains
(Koerner, 1998)
Wall drains
Erosion protection
Earth and rockfill dams
Vertical consolidation drains

Granular filter design

criteria
a)Retention Criteria:

d 15( filter)
<4 5
d 85( soil)
b)Permeability Criteria:

d 15( filter)
<4 5
d 15( soil)

Geotextile filter requirements:

Retention criteria
Permeability criteria
Anti-clogging criteria
Serviceability criteria
Durability criteria
Soil retention
A process in which the particle
movement is resisted by
granular forces
Useful design parameters
1. Coefficient of Uniformity, Cu
2.
Linear
Coefficient
of
Uniformity, Cu
3. Coefficient of Curvature, Cc
Design Charts
Determination of soil retention
requirements such as particle
size
distribution,
Atterberg
limits, dispersion potential, soil
density conditions indicating
the efect of confining stress,
are all considered and design
charts are prepared by Giroud
(1988).

For less critical conditions

Kgeotextile > ksoil For Severe
conditions Kgeotextile > 10
ksoil Min. permittivity
conditions > 0.1 to 1 sec-1

Retention Criteria:
Oe(geotextile) < B D(soil)
where:
Oe = efective opening size in
the geotextile for which e is the
present openings that are
smaller than the
opening size O (mm), usually
the O90 or O95;
B
=
a
coefficient
(dimensionless); and
D(soil)=
representative
soil
particle size (mm), usually the
medium to larger fractions or
D85.
Laboratory Filter
Characterization
Opening size O90 by wet
sieving
Permeability criteria
Giroud Criteria Kg > is Ks
Where is > 1.0
FWHA Criteria Kgeotextile> FS
ksoil
allow > FS required

Anti - Clogging Criteria

Use
the
largest
available
opening size satisfying the
retention criteria
For nonwovens, porosity > 30%
For woven geotextiles percent
open area 4%
The porosity of a nonwoven
geotextile is given by
n = (1-/(tg)) * 100
is the mass per unit area of
geotextile
tg is the geotextile thickness
and is the density of filament
Durability Criteria
Aspects such as geotextiles
resistance to ultraviolet and
adverse chemical environments
need be studied in specific
application.

Exposure
to
sunlight
extensively during must be
protected by anti-oxidants such
a carbon black or titanium
oxide.
Geotextiles should also be
resistant to chemicals.