Introduction

Identify examples of uniquely human abilities and why they are significant
Language- ability to express numerable ideas and create new ones
Tools- being able to make tools, use them, and pass on the knowledge
Capable of mathematics- can make predictions about reality, can create
technology which ultimately leads to the successful dominance of our
environment
Understand what is meant by referring to the mind as a computer
The mind is the software running in the hardware of the brain.
Mind : Mental algorithm and cognitive processes
Identify, define, and know the significance of the five foundations of
psychological science (Evolution, Materialism, Idealism, Modularity,
Empiricism)
Evolution (Genes make brains): Result of genes and natural selection.
Materialism (Brains make minds): All sensory experience and emotions
come from neurons firing in the brain.
Empiricism (Believe what you can count!): We use observable and
testable methods to decide which intuitions about the mind are right or
wrong.
o Empiricism- the belief that accurate knowledge of the world
requires observation
o It has produced most reliable treatments
Idealism (Minds make reality)
Modularity (Mind is a collection of parts)

The 3 problems of psychological science:

1. complexity: humans are studied and they happen to be the single most
complex entity in the world
2. variability: humans are most variable; one individual differs from the other
in various ways
3. reactivity: participants may react to the experiment in such a way that can
affect the integrity of the results e.g. participant bias
Describe the key characteristics of the scientific approach
The scientific approach primarily relies on the use of systematic observation to
collect knowledge. Empirical methods are examples of ways in which such
knowledge is acquired. The essential elements of science (completely ripped off
from the textbook):
Systematic observation is the core of science. Scientists observe and
form their own conclusions in a very systematic manner

Science is democratic. Scientists are skeptical and have open

discussions about their observations and theories. These debates often
occur as scientists publish competing findings with the idea that the best
data will win the argument.
Science is cumulative. A crucial aspect of scientific progress is that after
we learn of earlier advances, we can build upon them and move farther
along the path of knowledge.
Observation leads to hypotheses we can test. Scientist develop theories
and hypotheses to test
o Theory: An explanation based on observation; a hypothetical
account of how and why a phenomenon occurs
o Hypothesis: a testable prediction made by a theory

Describe the ethical practices that guide psychological science (Code of

Ethics)
1. Informed consent. In general, people should know when they are involved
in research, and understand what will happen to them during the study.
They should then be given a free choice as to whether to participate.
2. Confidentiality. Information that researchers learn about individual
participants should not be made public without the consent of the
individual.
3. Privacy. Researchers should not make observations of people in private
places such as their bedrooms without their knowledge and consent.
Researchers should not seek confidential information from others, such as
school authorities, without consent of the participant or his or her
guardian.
4. Benefits. Researchers should consider the benefits of their proposed
research and weigh these against potential risks to the participants.
People who participate in psychological studies should be exposed to risk
only if they fully understand these risks and only if the likely benefits
clearly outweigh the risks.
5. Deception. Some researchers need to deceive participants in order to hide
the true nature of the study. This is typically done to prevent participants
from modifying their behavior in unnatural ways. Researchers are required
to debrief their participants after they have completed the study.
Debriefing is an opportunity to educate participants about the true nature
of the study.

Methods
Identify why Empiricism is challenging for psychological science

Problems of empiricism:
o 1. it might not get accurate information
o 2. our intuitive senses may not be the way the mind works

However, empiricism does challenge researcher to go out into the physical world
and look beyond what they can plainly see.
Identify, define, and give examples of operational definitions
Identifies observable events in a way that any other researcher would be
able to identify them as well. Researchers must define the observable
condition that define the concept.
Important for study replication as well as consistency in coding
Example: when choosing to carry out an experiment on sensitivity,
sensitivity itself is considered to be abstract concept. The observable
condition must be defined in order for us to be come up with an
appropriate measure to detect the condition. Example of an operational
definition includes ticklessness, pain, threshold, etc.
o Ticklishness measured by laughs/min, squirming, no. of please
stops
o Pain measured by squirming
o Threshold measured by how participants respond to pressure,
temperature and distance of the caliper .
Understand the relations between an abstract property, operational
definition, and a measure
The abstract property is the condition which a researcher would choose to
observe in a study.The researcher must provide an operational definition in order
to specify the observable condition. In doing so, he or she would be able to
construct an appropriate measure in order to detect the observation.
Define and give/recognize examples of Convergent Validity
When two operational definitions are related
E.g. pain and threshold
Define and give/recognize examples of Reliability
When you measure multiple times and the results are the same. Other
researchers could use the same method and get the same results
E.g. calipers
Define and give/recognize examples of Discriminant Validity
When the measure used gives different results when measuring different
proves things that are supposed to be unrelated and unrelated
E.g.
Understand the relation between a theory and a hypothesis
Theory: a hypothetical account of how and why a phenomenon occurs
Hypothesis: a testable prediction made by a theory
Understand the relation between a sample and a population
Population: a complete collection of people whose properties we wish to
know
Sample: the people whose properties we actually measure
Identify why generality may be a good assumption

Generality is a good assumption because most peoples brains work the

same
Understand overlapping distributions

Similarity of two sets of data

Understand what is meant by mean differences and variability

Variability- the number of choices or alternative that are presented to you
Mean differences- how much the results deviate from the mean i.e.
standard deviation
Define and give/recognize examples of observer bias
This is when the observer introduces error into their study
Fix this by using the double-blind technique
Define and give/recognize examples of subject bias
This is when the subject acts the certain way because they know they are
being observed.
Fix this by ensuring anonymity, measuring involuntary or non-obvious
behaviours, keeping the subjects blind to the hypothesis
Define and give/recognize examples of demand characteristics
Demand characteristics are those aspects of an observational setting that cause
people to behave as they think an observer wants or expects them to behave
Identify what can and cannot be concluded from correlational studies
Normally exploratory
Done during the preliminary stage
You can conclude a correlation, but you cant determine causation i.e. there is a
relationship but you dont know why A causes B.
Understand positive and negative correlations

Positive: A relationship between two variables in which both variables

move in tandem. A positive correlation exists when as one variable
decreases, the other variable also decreases and vice versa.
As temperature increases, ice cream sales increase.
Negative: A relationship between two variables in which one variable
increases as the other decreases, and vice versa.
As seatbelt use increases, the number of fatal car accidents decrease.
Identify three possible reasons why two variables might be correlated but
not causally related
there might be third variable
coincide
reverse causation may be a reason- A can cause B, but B can cause A.
Understand the pets/asthma example

The researchers wanted to find out if there was a correlation between

families owning dogs and their children having asthma. They hypothesized
that pet ownership would decrease the likelihood of the children having
asthma. Initially, dogs and money were given to certain families who
volunteered to be study subjects. As a control, the researchers gave no
money and no dog to a separate group of people.
Problems with this:
o Families who wanted dogs could have children who are already
healthier
o The causation could not be determined by the correlation
Ways to fix this:
o Give everybody money regardless of whether or not they get a dog
(must hold constant for all other conditions except that which is
being tested)
o Random assignment
Identify and understand the key ingredients for an experimental study
Experiments do not just measure the variables involved, they manipulate
them.
o Establish causation
Control
o The variables in both groups must be held constant.
o Randomization of participants into groups/conditions.
Measurement
o Measure a dependent variable with a valid, powerful and reliable
device while avoiding bias
Be able to identify experimental vs. non-experimental studies

Understand and identify the importance of random assignment

random assignment must be used in order to counterbalance any
confounding variables or to eliminate any discrepancies
Random assignment vs. random sampling
Random sampling
A method of choosing research participants in a way in which each member of
the population
has an equal chance of being selected
Random assignment
Randomly assigning participants to different conditions of the experiment.
Be able to identify and know how to avoid selection bias
Basically when you dont random sample
USE random sampling
Understand quasi-experimental designs and when they are used

Finding a group that is somewhat randomly designed, comparing them.

It is quasi because you as the experimenter is not randomly assigning.
Some lack control, some have control
Define and know the benefits of longitudinal studies
Quasi-experimental
Follows the same individual several times over a long period of time
Allows us to study one phenomenal (taking into consideration individual
variation)

Evolution
Define evolution
Change over time, natural selection
Mechanisms by which evolution takes place
Natural selection
Define adaptations and identify types
Survival adaptations: natural disasters, the environment
Sexual selection theory: intrasexual comp etition, intersexual selection
Gene selection theory
Genes that are successful in getting passed on evolve while others dont
Error management theory
Evolved fight or flight instincts over time
better safe than sorry
Marrs levels of analysisidentify and define
1. Computation - evolution
o What is the problem to be solved?
2. Algorithm - mind
o What is the step-by-step procedure for solving the problem?
3. Implementation - brain
o How is the solution realized physically?
Naturalistic fallacy- be able to explain, identify, and describe importance
Because something is natural, doesnt mean it is moral, good, or right.
Is doesnt mean ought to be
Deterministic fallacy- be able to explain, identify, and describe importance
When things are inevitable because they are natural.
We can transcend and disobey what we are born knowing how to do.
Just because a tendency is natural doesnt necessarily translate to it being
inevitable.
Nature/Nurture as dichotomy- be able to explain, identify, and describe
importance of debate
Nature via nurture
Evolution is an interaction between nature and nurture.
Teleology- be able to explain, identify, and describe importance
We are not necessarily evolving to become a better species
We only become better adapted to the environment that we live in
The environment of evolutionary adaptation be able to explain, define, identify
importance

We may be well-adapted to one environment, but not all environments

The Austin Power problem + sweet and fatty foods
Social categorization example of how thinking about evolution informs
hypotheses and conclusions
Ingroup/outgroup
Racial profiling

Brain
Basic concepts of how the brain relates to the mind
Dualism: The mind and brain have no direct relationship. The brain is
simply biological and the mind is not connected.These two interact
through the pineal gland. (DUALISM ISNT TRUE)
Materialism: the mind and brain have a causal relationship and constantly
interact.
What is meant by brain cells fire in patterns
A pattern creates a thought. A pattern causes another pattern.
Why it is unsurprising that placebos affect brain activity
o The brain is constantly firing so the placebo
o The placebo effect affects the mind which neuron firings
o Mind cant do anything to the brain
o Brain can affect the mind
o Placebo effect doesnt affect brain any more than anything else
does
Globalization vs. localization of function
The brain is not a sponge. It is like a bike. Each part serves a particular
function, as opposed to every part serving the same function.
Overlapping brain regions also imply overlapping cognitive processes
Why localized function is important
If we lose a part of our brain (or a bike), the other parts are not affected.
Different parts are responsible for different processes. If you impair one
part of your brain, others may not be affected.
What was shown by the case of Phineas Gage
A rod went through the frontal lobe of his brain, so he became irritable and
mean. The frontal lobe controls decision making, problem solving, control
of purposeful behaviors, consciousness, and emotions. The case of
Phineas Gage shows that the brain is localized, because he did not lose
any other function in his brain other than the ones controlled by his frontal
lobe.
Electrical stimulation:
Neuron stimulation on brain, opening up the skull
Modern methods for brain measurement (from both lecture and book)
Electric stimulation
o Neuron stimulation on brain, opening up the skull
TMS (transcranial magnetic stimulation)

Putting a really strong magnet to the brain and it will temporarily

disrupt outer layer brain function, testing hemispherical brain
function
EEG: measures when brain activity takes place, but not good at
determining where
PET/fMRI: good at identifying where brain activity takes place, but not
when
Name and basic function of the brain stem, cerebellum, and cerebral
hemispheres
Brain stem: responsible for functions that keep us alive
Cerebellum: coordinates movement and posture
Two hemispheres: cognitive abilities and consciousness
Basic brain organization/function (Frontal, Parietal, Temporal, Occipital)
Frontal: reasoning, language, executive control
Parietal: attention, objects in space, counting
Temporal: audition, language, object recognition
Occipital: Sight
Describe the difference between spatial and temporal resolution with regard to
brain function
o

Describe a split-brain patient and at least two important aspects of brain function
that these patients reveal

Sensation & Perception

Explain how illusions show evidence of Idealism
Sensation vs. Perception

Sensation: is the process by which important changes in the state of the

world create changes in the state of the brain.

Perception: is the process by which changes in the state of the brain give
rise to our conscious experience of the world.
How blindsight shows evidence for distinction between Sensation and Perception
Patients with blindsight is able to navigate through an obstacle course
through sight, but cant explain why they avoided the obstacles. Their
brains cannot process the information and cannot experience the visual
information.
Explain how the sensory capabilities of non-human animals provides evidence
for Idealism
How visual information flows through the brain
What it means to say that vision is modular
Vision works because there are many components
Retinotopic maps
The what and where pathwaysalternate name for each pathway, how we
know they are distinct, what happens when each is impaired

What pathway - object recognition - when impaired - visual agnosia

(inability to recognize objects)
Where pathway - spatial recognition - when impaired - hemispatial
neglect (inability to see half of visual field)
o Grasping deficit - you cant guide your hand to where you want
If you have damage to one pathway it doesnt affect the other pathway
Gerstmann syndrome
Inability to count, know which finger is being touched, inability to tell left
from right
What is meant by sensing as change detection
Our senses register changes in the wolrd
Webers law: the senses detect relative and not absolute change
The importance of contrast
Our eyes use saccads to scan the environment. Our visual system makes
sense of surrounding by comparing an object to what is around it. This
allows us to see objects as different simultaneously
How the various illusions shown in class provide evidence that sensation
involves change detection
The grass field slowly changing and our eyes not picking up the change
The old man giving directions and the young man switching behind the
door, and the old man not noticing
Realism vs. Idealism
Realism: what you see is reality
o The senses provides us with direct awareness of the environment
Idealism: what we see -> sensory apparatus -> conscious awareness
o Our perceptions of reality is influenced by the mind
Evidence that expectations influence perception (know the examples from lecture
and how they illustrate this concept)

Ba, Ma, Fa example- the same sound was made each time, but the actors
mouth movements were different, causing us to hear different sounds
Identify the major sources of our theories about the world that affect perception
Evidence for the role of cultural experience

Evidence for hard-wiring

One ball hits another, we expect that its going to move
Hard-wiring - inborn knowledge
McGurk Effect
When sound and mouth shapes dont match
Expectancy Effect:
When you have an expectation of what youre going to see, you cant
unsee it.
Consciousness

Identify which components of the brain do/do not make humans smarter than
other animals
Its not so much how large our brain is, but how large it is in relation to our
body size
Our brains have more folds and is more dense
Our frontal lobe is much denser than that of a chimp
We have increased connections in our brain
Freuds theory of consciousness vs. the unconscious
Consciousness is more evolutionarily recent
Unconscious: drives we can not control that need to be repressed
Freud believes that the majority behaviour is controlled by conscious
processes.
Its like an iceberg
Modern theory of consciousness
Consciousness is a conductor - it can pass instructions onto the different
musicians, but it can not play every instrument at once
Identify why consciousness is tricky to study directly
Much of our mind operates on the unconscious level
Examples of evidence of unconscious processes
Patient with amnesia shook hand with doctor with needle, next day the
patient doesnt want to shake doctors hand
Pattern detection (chick sexing)
unconscious filtering (cocktail party effect)
unconscious priming
Examples of unconscious priming
experimenters primed subjects with unscrambling rude, neutral, and polite
words, and they act accordingly with their partners later
People were primed with neutral and elderly words, people who were
primed with the idea of the elderly walked much slower down the hall
The functions of the consciousness module

Stroop test example

When asked to name the colour of the word and not the word, our reaction
time is delayed
Adults are much better at reading than at naming colours
Cognitive control
The ability to suppress the first automatic response that occurs
Sometimes cognitive control fails: falling asleep in class, addictive
behaviours
Overestimating control can be helpful
Ironic rebound
Thinking about something when were told not to think about it
Illusions of control
Believing we have control when we do not

E.g. lotteries: believing in lucky numbers and choosing numbers

E.g. superstition:
Example of how/why it is helpful to overestimate control
Elderlies who were given plants to take care of lived longer than those
who were given plants and told that the staff would take care of it

The distinction between consciousness and attention

When we pay attention to an object, we become conscious of
its various attributes; when we shift attention away, the object
fades from consciousness. They're not one and the same but
are heavily related. As they interact with each other
REMEMBER
The exam will focus on your conceptual understanding of the issues discussed in
class. This includes your ability to apply the concepts to new examples, to
explain the significance of the concepts for our broad understanding of
psychology, and to relate concepts to one another. Knowing the definitions of the
concepts above is necessary, but not sufficient.
5 ETHICAL PRACTICES
Benefits have to outweigh the negative consequences.
informed consent
deception- must be necessary to the study
Because of the seccadal movement, we wont be able to notice certain changes
right away because we tend to focus on one certain thinking
we sense contrast more clearly than certain subtle changes
you can determine causation when you have manipulation, and there is statistical
difference from the two groups
can determine after an actual experiment
Modularity is the idea that the mind is a collection of parts- localization
magnet -the effect of stimulating certain parts of the brain-affect temporary
communication- seeing how someo