The environments in which consumers shop, eat, and play arouse emotions and

moods, and these induced feelings can, in turn, influence consumer attitudes and
behaviors
(Byrnes and Ward 1995; Gardner 1985). Although retailers have at least implicitly
understood these relationships for decades, remarkably, however, little research
has been
conducted regarding the effect of store environments on shopper attitudes and/or
behaviors. Given that store environment may precede brand choice (Darden et al.
1983),
and that many purchase decisions are made within the store (Keller 1987), this lack
of
attention in both marketing and environmental psychology is surprising. The store
environment is a potentially powerful marketing tool that can differentiate the
retailer from
the competition if retailers can better understand how to use it (Kotler 1973).
The lack of research in retail atmospherics may be due to the contin
The lack of research in retail atmospherics may be due to the continued use of The
lack of research in retail atmospherics may be due to the continued use of
traditional consumer research paradigms. Conventional frameworks have
tended to focus on designs relying primarily on verbally processed
information stimuli, ignoring many nonv verbal aspects (Holbrook and
Hirschman 1982). Marketers may however communicate both verbally and
non-verbally. Verbal and non-verbal cues help build emotional feelings,
which in turn are theoretically linked to buyer attitude, preference, and
behavior (Behzzi and Hite 1992). One non-verbal element of the environment
that has been shown to

Humans rely much less on their sense of smell than do other mammals, for whom odors may be
the primary way of interpreting their environment (Serby and Chobor 1992). Most ot us now live
a somewhat scent-impoverished existence, due in large part to widespread availability and use of
indoor plumbing, refrigeration, microwave ovens, air conditioning, mouthwash, toothpaste,
deodorant, and wash and wear clothing. Nevertheless, humans still distinguish and react to a
variety of smells which has implications for consumer marketing.
Physiologically, our sense or smell is directly connected to the brain's limbic system, the center
of all of our emotions (Serby and Chobor 1992, et aL). Perhaps due to this direct connection to
our limbic system., our sense of smell has often been described as our most emotional sense

(Benderly 1988: Gibbons 1986; Monmaney 1987). Memories triggered by scent cues have been
found to be particularly rich in emotional content (Ehrlichman and Halpern 1988).
Scent is relevant to consumption in two formsscented objects and ambient scent
(Gulas 1995). Most of the existing olfactory research has focused on the effects of
scented objects such as scented products (Bone and Jantrania 1992; Laird 1932), or
scents
associated with judgments of individuals (Baron 1981, 1983). However, marketers
have
become increasingly interested in the notion that consumers can be influenced by
ambient
scents that are present in the environment, but are not necessarily related to the
products
being sold (Miller 1993). Moreover, ambient scent may be of greater interest than
product-specific scent since it may influence perceptions of both the store and its
product
content. Ambient scent may also influence perceptions of products that are difficult
to
scent directly (e.g., office supplies and furniture; Gulas and Bloch 1995).
Causal explanations for scent effects are seldom offered by the popular press, and
if so are usually based on anecdotal accounts. Where scientific studies are cited as,
critical
assessment is difficult due to the proprietary nature of the research that is often
sponsored
by commercial fragrance industry organizations. With over twenty billion dollars
spent
annually on fragrances in the US alone (Foderaro 1988), big business has more than
a
casual interest in olfactory research. Recently, scientific investigators are
increasingly
questioning whether exposure to pleasant fragrance influences human behavior in

measurable ways (e.g., Baron 1990; DeBono 1992; Levine & McBumey 1981). Most
of
the scholarly research on olfaction has been conducted by psychologists and
olfactory
scientists. There have been scant few marketing investigations involving the effects
of
scent on consumptive behavior (Baron and Bronfen 1994)
Kotler (1973) hypothesized that purchase probability would increase as sensations
triggered in customers by atmospheric stimuli created or heightened the desire for
certain
goods, services, or experiences. He proposed that atmosphere plays the role of a
very
specific situational factor which may help to convert behavioral intentions into
actual
buying behavior. For example, people walk around a store with many wants and
purchase
intentions that do not materialize until situational factors such as motivating
atmosphere,
tip the scale in favor of purchase. Creating the optimal purchase inducing
environment
then may involve creating shopping atmospheres that stimulate a variety of both
pleasant
and unpleasant sets of feelings. For example, the appropriate atmosphere for a
department
stores bargain basement may be one which is stark and functional to suggest
bargain
prices. Strategically, Kotler (1974) proposed that as other marketing tools become
neutralized in the competitive battle, atmospherics will likely play a growing role for
obtaining differential advantage. To maximize the potential of atmospherics for
gaining
competitive advantage, we need to better understand how the various
environmental

elements may affect consumptive situations. The literature on environmental

psychology
seems to offer marketing researchers the greatest promise toward this improved
understanding.
Environmental Psychology
The influence of the environment on behavior has long been acknowledged by
landscapers, architects, space planners, and interior designers. Environmentbehavior
relationships have been scientifically studied by psychologists, producing a rapidly
growing discipline known as environmental psychology. Environmental factors
have
been shown to significantly influence subjects evaluations. For example, Ittleson
(1973)
proposed that the first level of response to the environment is affective. Maslow and
Mintz (1956) found that evaluations made in a beautiful room were significantly
higher
than those made in either an average or ugly room. Griffit (1970) discovered
that
uncomfortably high room temperature was associated with negative assessments of
mood
and with less favorable ratings of anonymous others. The work of environmental
psychologists typically involves research which focuses on examining work
environments,
residential environments, entertainment environments, and institutional
environments such
as hospitals, schools, prisons (Craik 1973; Mehrabian 1976; Stokols 1978).
Environmental psychology does however have application in a consumer marketing
context. Situational Influences of Behavior
Studies of individuals have provided valuable insights into consumer behavior.
However, limitations in the ability of individual consumer characteristics to explain

variations in buyer behavior have prompted a number of researchers to examine

situational
influences on behavior (Belk 1975). Ward and Robertson argued that situational
variables may account for considerably more variance than actor-related variables
(1973,
p.26). Engel, Kollat, and Blackwell (1969) support the idea that both individual and
situational factors must be considered to explain consumer choices. A situation in
the
context of human behavior may be defined as comprising a discrete time and
space

Affect and Consumer Behavior

Cohen and Areni (1991) state that affect responses (e.g., pleasure, arousal, mood)
may be induced by exposure to physical changes in the store environment.
Additionally,
they found that affective responses may interact with a consumers evaluation of
the store
and the products encountered within the store. The current study demonstrates that
these
induced affective states influence consumer behavior by mediating the effects of
ambient
scent on approach-avoidance responses. Additionally, situational variables such as
purchase decision involvement were found to have a moderating influence on this
affective
transfer relationship. Before continuing with a detailed discussion of affective state
Mood research has led to important findings concerning memory and evaluative
and behavioral processes (Knowles et al. 1993). For example ones mood during
exposure to information may enhance recall of mood congruent items (Bower,
Giligan and
Monterio 1981). Mood congruency between an individuals mood at retrieval and

information recalled, has also been demonstrated (Clark and Waddel 1983; Laird
1974).
Subjects in positive mood conditions were found to be more likely to recall more
positive
information and less negative information than subjects in negative moods.
Although
results of empirical mood research on recall have been somewhat equivocal (Srull
1983;
Westbrook 1980), most of the evidence suggests that subjects are more likely to
recall
more mood congruent information than mood-incongruent information. Positive
mood
states seem to generally enhance the efficiency of information processi
dditionally, smiling subjects consistently rated cartoons as being more funny than
did
frowning subjects. Goldberg and Gom (1987) reported similar findings using a
different
mood induction procedure. Carson and Adams (1980) and Johnson and Tversky
(1983)
found that in comparison to neutral mood control groups, subjects in positive mood
states
evaluated stimuli more favorably, while subjects in negative mood states reported
less
favorable evaluations. Knowles et al. (1992) concurred that individuals in positive
moods
assessed phenomena more favorably than their counterparts in negative or neutral
states.
There has been considerable research relating mood to behavior. Gardner (1985)
suggests that moods exert complex effects on behavior. For example while a
positive
mood will generally enhance the likelihood of many behaviors, it may decrease the

likelihood of behaviors with negative outcomes (Forest 1979). This tendency to

enhance
positive outcomes while suppressing negative effects, complicates predictions of
positive
mood effects. It requires knowing ahead of time if a task is likely to be viewed
positively
or negatively by consumers. Predicting the behavior of subjects in negative moods
appears to be even more complicated (Fried and Berkowitz 1979). This increased
difficulty may exist since negative moods may be more heterogen
The link between mood states and behavior may be seen as both as direct and
indirect (Gardner 1985). A direct linkage may involve associations in memory
between
mood states and behaviors. In this context, a behavior may be viewed as a
conditioned
response. Some research findings suggest that automatic behavioral responses may
be
inborn or instinctive (Plutchik 1980; Zajonc 1980. However, Gardners (1985)
comprehensive review of the mood literature indicates that it may be more likely
that
associations between mood states and behaviors are learned from repeated
experience,
socialization, or acculturation.
The link between mood states and behavior may also be viewed as indirect, and
influenced by information processing, including cognitive activity such as
information
retrieval (Gardner 1985). In this sense the behavioral effects of mood states may be
somewhat mediated by their effects on expectations, evaluations, and judgments.
This
view suggests that positive moods may enhance the likelihood that a behavior will
be

performed by increasing the accessibility of positive associations to the behavior,

thus
leading to more positive evaluations of the behavior (Clark and Isen 1982). Mood
states
seem to bias evaluations and judgments in mood congruent directions. A good
mood may
be associated with looking at the world through rose colored glas
Affect and Attitude Change
Consumer decision making behavior is believed to originate largely as a result of
consumer attitudes toward "entities" such as people, creatures, objects,
advertisements
and brands. (Ajzen and Fishbein 1980, Bettman 1986, Petty and Cacioppo 1983).
Attitudes may be based on behavioral, cognitive and affective information and
experience
(Petty and Cacioppo 1986). For example an individual might become positively
predisposed to Jacuzzi brand whirlpool tubs after trying the brand (behavioral),
reviewing
an ad about the brand (cognitive), recalling pleasant sensations associated with the
relaxing mood music used to promote the brand (affective), or by any combination
of the
three. Two major frameworks for understanding attitude change include Petty and
Cacioppo's (1981, 1986) Elaboration Likelihood Model (ELM) and the Classical
Conditioning Model (CC).