220 VOLUME 9, NUMBER 6, DECEMBER 2000

more time "not there" than we

Mindful Learning know, and the consequences for us
are real and often
Ellen profound. When
J. Langer1 we believe we are
encountering
Department of Psychology, Harvard University, Cambridge, Massachusetts we it
something novel, approach
mindfully. When we believe we
know something well, we tend to
view itmindlessly. As will become
Abstract very goals we are trying to accom
clear, there is power in uncertainty,
plish. The mind-sets we hold re
Mindfulness, achieved with most of us seek cer
more often than yet mistakenly
out meditation, is discussed garding learning
not encourage mindlessness, al tainty.
with particular reference to research, con
is the though learning requires mindful Experimental
learning. Being mindful with the material in ducted over 25 years, reveals that
act of drawing novel engagement
simple some the costs of mindlessness, and the
question. Before examining
distinctions. It leads us to benefits of mindfulness, are vast
of these mind-sets, itmay be useful
greater sensitivity to context and often profound. Mindfulness
to define mindlessness and mind
and perspective, and ulti results in an increase in compe
fulness and briefly review the re
to greater control over tence; a decrease in accidents; an
mately sults of research that reveals some
our lives. When we engage in increase inmemory, and
of the costs of mindlessness, to creativity,
mindful we avoid a decrease in stress;
learning, make we positive affect;
mind-sets that unnec apparent why might
forming want to pursue and an increase in health and lon
mindful learning.
essarily limit us. Many of our to name a few of the ben
gevity,
beliefs about learning are efits.
mind-sets that
have been
to be true. MINDFULNESS AND
mindlessly accepted
Consideration is given to some
MINDLESSNESS:
of the consequences that result
DEFINITIONS
HOW DOES
from amindful reconsideration MINDLESSNESS COME
of these myths of learning. Mindfulness is a flexible state of ABOUT?
mind we are actively en
in which
gaged in the present, noticing new
Keywords
mindfulness; mindlessness; things and sensitive to context. The way we initially learn sets
When we are in a state of mindless us up for mindlessness or mindful
learning
ness, we act like automatons who ness. There are two ways mindless
have been programmed to act ac ness comes about: repetition and
One of the primary issues in cording to the sense our behavior single exposure. The first is the
education today
concerns the ques made in the past, rather than the more familiar way. If we repeat
tion of what should be taught in present. Instead of actively draw something
over and over, we come

our schools. The research my col ing new distinctions, noticing new to rely on our mind-set for how to
as we we are
leagues and I have been conduct things, do when accomplish the goal. For example,
years now we are we most of us have had the experience
ing over several sug mindful, when mindless
a familiar route so often
gests that "what we teach" may be rely on distinctions drawn in the of driving
less important than "how we teach past. We are stuck in a that the car seems to get to the des
single, rigid
it." Moreover, the reconsidered perspective, and we are oblivious tination by itself, without any ac
rules for learning speak as much to to alternative ways of knowing. tive intervention by us. The second
the classroom as When we are mindless, our behav mindlessness occurs is on ini
learning outside way
inside. ior is rule and routine governed; tial exposure to information. If
Whenever we to learn when we are mindful, rules and when first given information we
attempt
it is a new con routines may our behavior it without al
something, whether guide process questioning
tent area, a sport, the way to play a rather than predetermine it. ternative ways the information
musical instrument, or a new way We cannot have the felt experi could be understood, we take it in
to approach our businesses or our ence of being mindless; that would mindlessly. When information is
we on ways of mindfulness. Therefore, mindlessly, we essen
relationships, rely require processed
that work to our most of us think that we are mind tially make
a commitment to a
learning typically
detriment and virtually prevent the ful. However, we spend much single way of understanding it.

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 CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 221

Even if it later would be to our ad consider how information looks

to view the information different from different MYTHS ABOUT LEARNING
vantage perspec
differently, if we learned itmind tives, we become aware of the un
lessly, it will not occur to us to re certainty inherent in our "context
consider it. free" facts. 1: The Basics Should Be
Myth
When we ignore perspective, we Learned So Well That They
tend to confuse the stability of our Become Second Nature
mind-sets with the stability of the
MINDLESS VERSUS All the
underlying phenomenon:
MINDFUL LEARNING while are and at to this myth, we
things changing According
any one moment they are different should learn "the basics" so well

Most
from different perspectives, yet we that they can be enacted mind
teaching unintentionally hold them still in our minds as if
fosters mindlessness. Facts are lessly. Ifwe do that, then itwill not
as closed they were constant. If we get our occur to us to change them when it
typically presented pack cholesterol level checked, for ex
to perspec
would be advantageous to do so.
ages, without attention
tive. Scientists know that research ample, and we are asked what it is, (Whose basics are "the basics" any
we give the same answer whether Should a small woman
results in findings that are prob way? ap
it was checked yesterday or a year a the same a
ably true
given the context in proach sport, e.g., way
if all the shellfish we had tall man
which the work was tested ago?as very does?) Several years
(e.g., all summer and the exercise we
most of the time, under the stated ago, Alison Piper and I conducted
failed to have in the winter made research testing the idea that if we
circumstances, horses are herbivo
no difference. If our cholesterol learn information mindfully when
rous). When these findings are re
level starts off low, we can
teachers or in textbooks, keep it we first encounter it, we will be
ported by down by never checking it again!
are able to use the information in cre
they translated from probabili
As another example, consider hav ative ways in the future (Langer &
ties into absolute statements (e.g.,
learned, as many of
horses are herbivorous) that hide ing mindlessly Piper, 1987). In that work, we intro
us have, that if the car starts to skid duced research participants to sev
the uncertainty. Consider how
on a surface, we should
much more interesting and engag
slippery eral different objects in a way we
gently pump the brakes to mini believed would mind
ing statements of probability are; encourage
mize accidents. Many of us still do lessness (e.g., "This is a dog's chew
they tend to lead us to wonder
this while cars with an
about when the information may driving toy") or in a manner we
thought
or may not be true, and even to tilock brakes. For these cars, how would mindfulness
encourage
ever, the best way to avoid acci
consider how to change one fact to (e.g., "This could be a dog's chew
dents is to firmly hold down the for an eraser then
its opposite (e.g., when might toy"). A need
horses eat meat? what are the ad brakes. The context has changed, arose, and we were interested in
but mindlessly learned behavior
vantages and disadvantages?). seeing who would spontaneously
typically does not. think to use the "chew toy" in a
Facts, whether derived from sci
ence or not, are not context-free; Virtually all of our facts depend creative as an eraser. The
way, par
their meaning and usefulness de on context. For one
example, plus ticipants introduced to the object
on the situation. "What are one does not equal two in all num were
pend conditionally the only ones to
the three reasons for the Civil ber systems. More graphically, one
respond mindfully.
War?" a high school teacher wad of chewing gum plus one wad More
might recently, my colleagues
ask. But from whose of chewing gum equals one wad of and I taught research a
perspective subjects
should the question be answered? gum, not two. If we learn mind new
sport, "smack-it ball," in
a 30-year-old we are more
Surely, for example, fully, likely to realize which each hand wears a glovelike
black woman from Georgia in 1865, this. In the following section, I de racket. One group was taught the
a black male in scribe how several myths or mind in the traditional absolute
60-year-old Europe game
in 1953, and a white in sets we have about fashion, the other was
politician learning may group
1968 would not all feel the same
actually detract from our ability to taught it in a conditional way to
about the war's causes. Who de learn. I also discuss research and foster mindful Rather
learning.
cides what is repre that
perspective examples suggest how mind than being told this is how you
sented and why? The way informa ful learning can turn these disad smack-it ball, they were
play told,
tion is typically given, it does not into advantages here is how it could be played?
vantages (Langer,
even occur to us to ask. Once we with that suggested
1997). language

Copyright ? 2000 American Psychological Society

 222 VOLUME 9, NUMBER 6, DECEMBER 2000

variation and (Levy & Langer, in press), children are

perspective. After they learning, and the experi
sur ence
they were well practiced, we with attention problems (Langer, tends to be positive (Langer,
the ball they Carson, & Shih, in press), or even 1997; cf. Fox & Langer, 1999).
reptitiously changed
were using to one that was much Harvard undergraduates (Bodner
heavier. Subjects who learned the & Langer, 1995), when they were
were more instructed to vary the target of at
game mindfully likely CONCLUDING THOUGHTS
to accommodate to this tention, their performance im
change;
that is, their performance did not proved. Not only is it easier to pay
suffer the way performance did for attention this way, but people re Most of us believe that it is good
those who took the basics for member more about the target of to be in the present, to be involved
and learned the their attention when they attend to in what we are doing, and that it is
granted game
mindlessly. Given the way most it mindfully (study by Lieberman good to keep our minds active. The
are to the & Langer, described in Langer, is that we are un
people taught practice, problem typically
1997), and they like the target of aware of when we are not in the
idea that "practice makes perfect"
their attention better after having present and when our minds are
is questionable (cf. Langer & Im
done so, as described next. virtually closed. The simple pro
ber, 1979; study by Pietrasz &
cess of mindful learning, of actively
Langer, described in Langer, 1997).
drawing distinctions and noticing
3: It Is Important to Learn new things?seeing the familiar in
Myth
How to Delay Gratification the novel and the novel in the fa
Myth 2: To Pay Attention to
miliar?is a way to ensure that our
Something, We Should Hold It
minds are active, that we are in
Still and Focus on It This that tasks are and that we are situated in
idea suggests volved,
inherently good
or bad. To get the present. The result is that we
the bad ones, we should are then able to avert the danger
through
My colleagues and I asked high look forward to the good ones, or not yet arisen and take advantage
school teachers and students what "add a little sugar to help of opportunities that may present
perhaps
it means to pay attention to some the medicine themselves.
go down." However, Teaching mindfully
thing. They all agreed that to suc evaluation does not reside in tasks; not only sets students up for these
cessfully pay attention, people it resides in our minds. Work and but has advantages for
advantages,
should hold the target of their at are not negative, teachers as well.
study although
tentionstill and focus on it the way we may make them appear to be. for diversity often cre
Respect
they would focus a camera. There Sofia Snow and I ates a dilemma the
My colleague regarding
does not seem to be a problem of asked subjects to evaluate how hu choice of teaching material. How
communication between teachers morous cartoons were. For half of can teachers find material that will
and students. The problem is this is the subjects, we called the activity be meaningful to people with such
essentially the wrong instruction. work; for the other half, we re different cultural backgrounds as
To test this, just bring your thumb ferred to it as play. Even though we find in many of our schools?
up to your eyes for scrutiny. If you the task we used could seem inher What is exciting about the research
we
try to pay attention to your finger ently fun to some people, when I have discussed is the implication
the image of it still, you called it work, subjects did not en that if the content of the material
by holding
will quickly come to see how hard joy it, and their minds tended to encourages mindful learning,
this is. The image fades from view. wander while were it rather than freezing the material in
they doing
Instead, attend to your thumb (see Langer, 1997). one perspective,
rigid students
different In other more easily may be able to make
mindfully?notice things experiments, subjects
about your its in tasks they did not like the material relevant to their idio
thumb?perhaps engaged
size, a fleck of dirt, a spot of red to rap music or classical concerns.
(listening syncratic
ness. It is easy now to pay atten music, viewing art, watching foot Should all learning, beginning
tion. ball). Some of the were led with children's earliest experi
subjects
In several studies, my colleagues to engage the task the way they ences, proceed in this conditional
and I asked subjects either to pay typically did; others
were asked to fashion? Or do we need to teach all
attention to a stimulus or to notice notice three, six, or nine new things (or some? and if some, which?)
new things about the stimulus (i.e., about it. The more they noticed, the children stability first so they will
to attend to itmindfully). Whether more they liked the task. Mindful not be overwhelmed by all the pos
the subjects were adults engages in what sibility mindful learning theoreti
elderly learning people

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 CURRENT DIRECTIONS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 223

cally makes available? Some need certainties, because that is the References
(e.g., Bargh & Chartrand,
we ourselves were
people way taught. Bargh, J., & Chartrand, T. (1999). The unbearable
that mindlessness of being. American Psychologist,
1999) believe is automaticity
54, 462-479.
important because it frees limited Recommended Bodner, T., & Langer, E. (1995). Mindfulness and
Reading
attention. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University
cognitive resources. This might be
Press.
true, but it raises the question, "At Langer, E. (1989).Mindfulness. Read Fox, B., & Langer, E. (1999). Mere exposure versus
what cost?" (return to the example ing, MA: Addison Wesley. mindful exposure. Unpublished manuscript,
Langer, E. (1997). (See References) Harvard University, Cambridge, MA.
of antilock brakes). These are mat Langer, E. (1997). The power of mindful learning.
Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
ters still to be determined. My own Langer, E., Carson, S., & Shih, M. (in press). Sit still
view is that we are poorly served and pay attention? Journal of Adult Development.

that we Note Langer, E., & Imber, L. (1979). When practice

by mindless learning. So makes imperfect: The debilitating effects of
do not prematurely close the fu overlearning. Journal of Personality and Social
1. Address to Ellen Psychology, 37, 2014-2025.
ture, we should at least consider that correspondence
J. Langer, William James Hall, 33 Kirk Langer, E., & Piper, A. (1987). The prevention of
all of our learning be mindful or po mindlessness. Journal of Personality and Social
land St., Harvard Cam
University,
Psychology, 53, 280-287.
tentially mindful (i.e., not mindless). bridge, MA 02138; e-mail: langer@wjh. Levy, B., & Langer, E. (in press). Improving attention
Perhaps we only believe that we harvard.edu. in older adults. Journal of Adult Development.

Copyright ? 2000 American Psychological Society