The positive and negative (+ and -) indicate that there are small amounts of positive and negative charge on
shared by atoms.
Water molecules are joined by hydrogen bonds. One water molecule can be joined to 4 other water molecules
by hydrogen bonds as follows:
The outermost shell of hydrogen atom has 1 electron instead of 2, hence unstable. Oxygen atom has 6
electrons instead of 8 in its outermost shell, hence unstable. To form a stable water molecule, the 3 atoms must
share electrons and in the process covalent bonds are formed.
When electrons are shared between atoms, they are not shared equally between those atoms because some
nuclei of these atoms attract more electrons than others. In a water molecule, the nucleus of the oxygen attracts
more electrons than the two nuclei of the hydrogen atoms. So, oxygen is slightly negative while hydrogen
1. Attraction of the positive ions by the oxygen of water and the attraction of the negative ions by the
hydrogen atoms of water.
2. Separation of ions and polar groups
3. Hydration (surrounded by water molecules) of these ions and polar groups i.e. dissolved.
Water as a medium for chemical reactions
-
When in large numbers, hydrogen bonds are very hard to break using heat.
When hydrogen bonds between water molecules are broken, water is converted into vapour (individual water
molecules).
Hydrogen bonds are formed between the negative charge of the oxygen atom (Oxygen atom has 2 negative
charges) and the positive charge of the hydrogen atom. Water, unlike CO2, is dipolar and therefore hydrogen
bonds form between water molecules, holding these molecules together forming liquid. This is why at room
temperature water is liquid and CO2 is gas.
Due to its dipolar nature, hydrogen bonds are formed between water molecules hence; water remains liquid at
room temperature.
2. Cohesion
-
3. Adhesion
-
Attraction force between non-identical molecules e.g. water and xylem wall.
3
Hydrogen bonds allow water to hold onto other substances e.g. to hold onto the walls of the xylem to allow
water to be transported in a continuous unbroken column in the xylem.
Specific heat capacity (SHC) is the amount of energy required to raise the temperature of 1kg of water by 1 0C.
Water has a high SHC due to hydrogen bonds (it is not easy to raise the temperature of water to break strong
hydrogen bonds).
So, the temperature of water remains relatively constant due to this property, whose biological importance
include;
a) The temperature of water bodies such as oceans remains relatively
constant for the survival of aquatic animals.
b) Stable temperature in living organisms so that enzymes remain stable.
5. Latent Heat of vaporation
-
Latent heat of vaporization is the amount of energy required to convert liquid to vapour.
Water has high latent heat of vaporization due to hydrogen bonds.
The importance of this property of water is that water is a coolant (cooling agent), through sweating in
bonds.
The water molecules beneath the ones on the surface pull the ones on the surface inwards by hydrogen bonds,
q1g
1b
CARBOHYDRATES
-
a) Sugars
-
monosaccharides
disaccharides
MONOSACCHARIDES
A carbonyl group becomes an aldehyde group when a hydrogen atom is attached to it. It is this
aldehyde group that reduces metallic ions. A monosaccharide with an aldehyde group is called aldose
Linear forms are less stable but they reduce metallic ions because of availability of carbonyl groups.
Ring forms have molecular stability but cannot reduce metallic ions due to loss of carbonyl groups, so, in
Benedicts test, heating the monosaccharide is meant to open up the ring form into the linear form to expose the
carbonyl groups that reduce the metallic ions.
Trioses
-
Pentoses
-
Hexoses
-
Glucose
-
a) - glucose
b) - glucose
- glucose
- glucose
Note
-
In - glucose, OH on carbon atom One (C1) is below the ring or below carbon atom one (C1).
In - glucose the, OH on carbon atom one (C1) is above the ring or above carbon atom one (C1).
The importance of isomerism in glucose is that it gives different types of polysaccharides as follows:
a) Starch and glycogen are made up of glucose
b) Cellulose is made up of - glucose
The importance of glucose include;
a) It is a respiratory substrate that provides energy when respired.
b) It synthesizes disaccharides and polysaccharides.
Fructose
-
Fructose is a sugar which is present naturally in fruits, some vegetables and honey. The structure of
fructose is as follows:
The
importance of fructose
include;
a) It is a respiratory substrate that is respired to provide energy.
b) It synthesizes disaccharides sucrose.
c) It sweetens the fruits which attract animals, facilitating seed dispersal.
Galactose
-
It occurs in our diet mainly as part of the disaccharide sugar called lactose (milk sugar)
DISACCHARIDES
-
Condensation reaction involves a loss of water molecule when 2 monosaccharides join through a bond.
In disaccharides, the bond that joins the monosaccharides together is called a glycosidic bond.
Hydrolysis reaction involves the addition or gain of a water molecule to break down the glycosidic bond in
the disaccharide in order to get individual monosaccharides.
Maltose
-
It is a disaccharide
It is made up of 2 -glucose molecules
Its chemical formula is C12H22O11
It is mainly found in seeds. It is hydrolyzed into glucose and this glucose is respired to provide energy for the
germinating seeds.
Digestion of starch in animals and germination in seeds release maltose because in both processes starch is
hydrolyzed by amylase enzyme to get maltose.
Sucrose
-
It is a disaccharide
Made up of glucose and fructose
Chemical formula is C12H22O11
Mainly found in sugar cane and sugar beet
It is the form of carbohydrate transported in the phloem of plants.
Lactose
-
It is a disaccharide
Made up of glucose and galactose
Its chemical formula is C12H22O11
Mainly found in mammalian milk to provide energy for the infants when it is hydrolyzed.
Polysaccharides
-
It is a polysaccharide
It is made up of -glucose molecules
These glucose molecules are joined by glycosidic bonds
Starch consist of 30% amylose and 70% amylopectin
Amylose consists of about 300 glucose molecules which are joined by 1, 4 glycosidic bonds. It is unbranched
hence has only 1, 4 glycosidic bonds. It is helical / coiled. It consists of 30% of starch. When iodine solution is
added, it turns blue black.
10
Amylopectin consists of about 1500 glucose molecules joined by 1, 4glycosidic bonds. It is branched thus has
also 1, 6 glycosidic bonds. These branches occur after every 20-30 glucose molecules. It is helical /coiled.
When iodine solution is added, it turns reddish brown. It consists of 70% starch.
NB
-
Amylopectin
Long (1,500 glucose molecules)
Branched, hence has 1,4 and 1,6 glycosidic
30% starch
Turns blue black with iodine solution
Less compact hence less amount of energy
bonds
70% starch
Turns reddish brown with iodine solution
More compact hence more energy
Glycogen
-
It is a polysaccharide
Made up of - glucose molecules
Glucose are joined together by glycosidic bonds
It is branched, hence has 1, 4 and 1, 6 glycosidic bonds. Branches occur after every 8 to 12 glucose molecules
Note
Amylopectin (starch) and glycogen are energy storage molecules, they are both branched and coiled but glycogen
is more branched, hence more compact, therefore stores more energy.
Adaptations of starch (amylopectin) and glycogen as energy storage molecules;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Jan2009
June 2010
June 2011
Jan 2012
June 2012
Jan 2013
Jan 2014
Jan 2014
q3
q1a, b, c
q2a
q4
q2
q6
1ai
q6a
Lipids
Triglycerides
-
12
Each ester bond is formed in a condensation reaction/esterification reaction in which a water molecule is lost. The reaction
is catalyzed by an enzyme.
Glycerol
-
Fatty acids
-
Formation of triglyceride
-
Fatty acids join the glycerol molecule one at a time by an ester bond i.e. monoglyceride, diglyceride and triglyceride
Formation of an ester bond is through condensation reaction where a water molecule is formed. To form water, glycerol
loses hydrogen and fatty acids losses OH.
13
Types of fatty
acids
They have the maximum number of hydrogen atoms and have only single carbon carbon bonds in their hydrocarbon
chain.
Saturation refers to the amount of hydrogen in the molecule.
Triglycerides with saturated fatty acids are called saturated triglycerides.
Due to lack of double carbon carbon bonds in the hydrocarbon chain, there is no straining hence no kinking (bending)
and therefore they have high melting point, above 40 0C and therefore they remain solid at both room and body
temperatures.
Saturated fatty acids have double bond between carbon and oxygen in the carboxylic group.
The following table summarizes examples of saturated fatty acids and the saturated triglycerides they are found in.
Fatty acids
No of double C-C
M.P
Palm oil
Cocoa and animal fat
Coconut oil and palm oil
63
68
44
bonds
Palmitic
Stearic
Lauric
0
0
0
They have less number of hydrogen atoms and have at least one double carbon-carbon bond (C=C bond) in the
hydrocarbon chain. In addition, there is a double bond between carbon and oxygen in the carboxylic group.
Due to double C-C bonds, there is straining, causing kinking that lowers the melting point and therefore they remain liquid
at both room and body temperature. The more the double C-C bonds, the more the straining, kinking and the lower the
melting point.
There are 2 types of unsaturated fatty acids;
1. Mono-unsaturated fatty acids.
2. Poly-unsaturated fatty acids.
14
They have more than one double covalent bonds (C=C) in their hydrocarbon tail.
Example is linoleic fatty acid whose melting point is -40C and is mainly found in maize and sunflower.
Other poly-unsaturated triglycerides include: fish oil, soya bean oil, cotton seed oil and sesame oil.
The following table summarizes the differences between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids:
Saturated
1. Maximum number of hydrogen atoms
2. Have only single C-C covalent bonds in
Unsaturated
Low number of hydrogen atoms
Have double covalent bonds (C=C) in the
3.
hydrocarbon tail
Have kinks due to presence of double covalent
4.
melting points
Functions of triglycerides
points
1. Energy store
-
Generates more than twice the energy generated by carbohydrates. Triglycerides are essential energy stores because of the
following properties;
a) Insoluble (no osmotic effect)
b) Generates a lot of energy due to long carbon chains.
c) Compact hence a lot can be stored in the cell.
3. Heat/thermal insulation
-
Triglycerides are poor thermal conductors (poor conductors of heat) e.g. adipose tissue (tissue that stores a lot of fat
beneath the skin) reduces heat loss from the body.
Triglycerides are soft and therefore cushion the delicate organs such as heart, lungs and kidneys so that they are not
damaged.
Metabolic water is important in desert mammals such as camels to supplement the little water they get.
Phospholipids
-
15
1. Glycerol
2. Fatty acids
3. Phosphate group
The summarized structure of phospholipids
1- Phosphate heads
2- Fatty acids tail
Phospholipids are used to synthesize biological membranes.
Cholesterol
-
This is a lipid.
Cholesterol is not a saturated fat but is made up in the liver from saturated fats absorbed from food.
The structure of cholesterol is
June 2009
Jan 2011
June 2012
June 2013
q1a
q7a
q4bi,ii
q3a
surface area to volume ratio and therefore cannot rely on diffusion for transport of substances.
In summary cardiovascular and lymphatic system are involved in mass transport of substances to
S.A: Volume
S.A: Volume
(2 x 2) 6: 2 x 2 x 2
(8 x 8) 6: 8 x 8 x 8
24:8
SA/V=24/8=3
384:512
SA/V=384/512=0.75
Cardiovascular system
-
It transports the requirements needed by the cells of the body e.g. glucose and oxygen.
It transports the waste products of metabolism from the cells e.g. urea and CO 2.
It carries hormones from endocrine glands to target cells.
It forms part of the defense system of the body.
It distributes heat throughout the body, hence maintains homeostasis.
17
pumps it to the lungs for oxygenation and removal of CO 2 through the pulmonary artery.
The left side of the heart (left pump) receives oxygenated blood from the lungs through pulmonary vein and
via atrio-ventricular valves (AV valves) i.e. tricuspid and bicuspid (mitral) values.
As the blood enters the atrium via vena cava and pulmonary vein, due to its weight, the A.V
valves open and allow two-third of the ventricles to be filled passively with blood so that the
These muscles contract powerfully to generate more pressure that pumps blood from the left
ventricle to the body via the aorta and back to the right atrium via the vena cava. This
circulation of blood from the heart to the body and back to the heart is called systemic
circulation.
This means that the blood flows through the heart twice in one circulation.
It involves pulmonary circulation (circulation of blood from the heart to the lungs and back to the heart) and
systemic circulation (circulation of blood from the heart to the boy and back to the heart).
NB
Fish have single circulation where blood flows from the body to the heart, then from the heart to the gills and from
the gills it does not flow to the heart but it flows to the body. So, it flows to the heart once in a single circulation.
Advantages of double circulation in humans;
1. Allows differential pressure between the lungs and the rest of the body so that the lungs have low pressure
of blood and the body has high pressure:
Low pressure in the lungs ensures that there is enough time for the blood to absorb O 2
&remove CO2, prevents the capillaries from bursting and to prevent ultra filtration.
High pressure in the body ensures that the blood reaches all parts of the body, it overcomes the
effects of elastic recoil and the effects of the combined resistance of multiple capillary
2.
networks.
Repressurization of blood due to further pumping by the heart so that the requirements can be moved to
the body faster and the wastes can be moved to the lungs faster.
3. No mixture of oxygenated and deoxygenated blood. Oxygenated blood is in the left side and deoxygenated
in the right side.
4. Muscles of mammals need a lot of oxygen and double circulation serves this purpose.
19
They are atrio-venticular valves found between the atria and the ventricles. These are;
1) Bicuspid valve (or mitral valve)
- it is found between the left atrium and the left ventricle.
- its functions are:
a) allows blood to flow from the left atrium into the left ventricle.
b) Prevents the backflow of blood from the left ventricle to the left atrium during ventricular
systole, so that the blood enters the aorta.
2) Tricuspid valve
- It is found between the right atrium and the right ventricle.
- Its functions are;
a) It allows blood to flow from the right atrium into the right ventricle.
b) It prevents the backflow of blood from the right ventricle in the right atrium so that the
blood enters the pulmonary artery.
20
21
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
Vena cava
Right atrium
Tricuspid valve
Heartstrings (tendons)
Papillary muscles
Right ventricle
Right/pulmonary semi-lunar valve
Pulmonary artery
Lungs
Pulmonary vein
Left atrium
Bicuspid valve
Left ventricle
Left/aortic semi-lunar valve
Aorta
Body
Septum
Control of the opening and closing of the atrio-venticular valves (AV valves)
-
Heartstrings prevent the valves from inverting (turning inside out) during ventricular systole.
22
The papillary muscles adjust tension in the heartstrings, i.e. they contract to pull on tendons and close the
valves.
When the papillary muscles relax, the heartstrings loosen/slacken to open the valves.
Papillary muscles contract when ventricles contract (ventricular systole) and they relax when the heart relaxes
(diastole).
These sounds are made when the blood hits the AV valves and the semi-lunar valves.
These 2 sounds of the heart are described as lub and dub
The first sound (lub) comes when the AV valves close and the blood hits against these valves during
ventricular systole.
The second sound (dub) comes as the backflow of blood hits the semi-lunar valves in the pulmonary artery and
aorta, as ventricles relax.
and finally branch into capillaries that penetrate deep into the cardiac muscles.
Through diffusion, the requirements such as glucose and oxygen enter the cardiac muscle through capillary
walls.
Heart beat
-
The beating of the heart produces sound called the heart beats.
These sounds are lub and dub.
The rate of the heart beat shows how fast the heart is contracting.
(v)
(vi)
(vii)
Cardiac cycle
-
It is the sequence of events that take place in one heart beat and it last for 0.83 second. It is initiated at the sinoatrial node (SAN) also called pacemaker. These events are: Atrial systole (0.1s), ventricular systole (0.3s) and
complete cardiac diastole (0.4s).
This is the contraction of the atria when they are filled up with blood.
Its role is to pump blood into the ventricles from the atria via AV valves.
It lasts for about 0.1s.
During atrial systole, AV valves are opened.
During atrial systole, semi-lunar valves are closed.
During atrial systole, atria are contracted and ventricles are relaxed.
2. Ventricular systole
-
This is the contraction of the ventricles when they are filled up with blood.
Its role is to pump blood into the aorta and the pulmonary artery from the ventricles.
It lasts for 0.3s
During ventricular systole, the AV valves close to prevent the backflow of blood from the ventricles into the
the vena cava and pulmonary vein, hence refilling the heart with blood.
So, the role of the diastole is to refill the heart with blood.
It lasts for 0.4 second.
During diastole, the AV valves open.
During diastole the semi-lunar valves are closed.
Pressure changes in the left part of the heart during cardiac cycle.
-
During the left atrial systole, the atrial pressure is greater than the left ventricular pressure because of the
refilling of the left atrium by the blood from the pulmonary vein.
The blood enters the left ventricle.
When the pressure of the left ventricle exceeds the pressure of the left atrium, the bicuspid valve closes to
prevent the backflow of blood from the left ventricle into the left atrium.
The pressure of the left ventricle rises suddenly and forces open the left semi-lunar valve
The pressure in the aorta begins to rise but still it is less than the pressure in the left ventricle.
24
When the pressure in the aorta exceeds the pressure in the left ventricle, the left semi-lunar valve closes to
prevent the backflow of blood to the left ventricle from the aorta.
This causes the pressure in the left ventricle to suddenly drop causing relaxation of the heart (diastole) and
during this time, there is refilling of the atria that causes the opening of the AV valves.
The pressure in the aorta continues to reduce as the blood flows towards the tissues.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Question
The following graph shows pressure changes in the left part of the heart
26
The pressure of blood in the arteries varies with the heart beat i.e. when the heart contracts, the blood pressure
increases and when the heart relaxes and refills, the blood pressure in the arteries decreases. In the arteries, there is a
a)
b)
c)
d)
Questions
1.
2.
3.
4.
Describe why the blood pressure in the capillaries does not increase even though they are very narrow?
This is because they form many capillaries which together have greater total cross section area than that of the main
artery and so the pressure is shared by these many capillaries hence reducing the pressure.
What is the importance of low blood pressure in the capillaries?
It gives enough time for the exchange of materials through diffusion with the tissues.
To prevent bursting of capillaries
What are the adaptations of capillaries to exchange of substances?
The wall is one cell thick to reduce diffusion distance
They have pores to allow for the exchange of substances
They form capillary network to increase the SA of exchange.
No collagen fibers , smooth muscles and elastic fibres
What controls the pressure of blood in the arteries?
a) Contraction and relaxation of the heart. Contraction increases pressure in the arteries and relaxation decreases
pressure.
b) Atherosclerosis. It can permanently change the arteries by narrowing them and cause permanent rise in pressure
5.
6.
-
relax.
A sustained value of over 140/90 is called hypertension. This damages arteries.
A sustained value of 90/60 or low is called hypotension. A weakened heart will produce hypotension.
NB
-
The systolic pressure is the maximum pressure when the heart/ventricles contracts;120mmHg
The diastolic pressure is the minimum pressure when the heart relaxes; 80mmHg
The two are measured using sphygmomanometer.
27
BLOOD VESSELS
Mammals such as humans have closed circulatory system. This means that blood flows in vessels. These
vessels are;
1. Arteries
2. Veins
3. Capillaries
Some organisms such as insects have open circulatory system. The heart of the insect is a long tube. It
pumps blood into the body cavity so that blood surrounds the cells. The blood then passes back into the
heart from the body cavity. The insect does not need blood vessels to transport blood around the body
1.
2.
3.
4.
because;
Insects have large surface area to volume ratio and so diffusion of blood is enough to exchange materials.
The cells are in contact with the blood.
The heart and blood are close together hence movement of blood back to the heart is fast
Low metabolism (chemical reactions in a cell) in insects and therefore only need diffusion of blood to get
the requirements.
28
When
the
above leg muscle contracts valve J closes to prevent back flow of blood in the vein. Valve k opens due to
increased pressure of blood.
Vessel
1.
Artery
Structure
Tunica adventitia collagen fibres &
29
Functional significance
Collagen fibres provide strength so that
Tunica media
a)
Smooth muscles
b) Elastic fibres
They stretch and recoil the arteries to
maintain pressure of blood or smoothen
c)
2.
Vein
blood flow.
For strength
It reduces friction between the walls and
epithelium).
Narrow lumen
Tunica adventitia thinner collagen
fibres
Tunica media
a)
cannot burst.
epithelium.
Wide lumen
Valves
Capillaries
Pores
Capillary network/bed
No valves
No collagen fibres
Narrow lumen
So that they can easily fit between cells
3 layers
Valves
No pores
Wider lumen
Have collagen fibres, elastic fibres and
smooth muscles
Capillaries
1 layer
No valves
Pores
Narrower lumen
None
30
Capillaries
1 layer
Pores
None
Veins
Thin walls
Wide lumen
Have series of valves
Shallowly seated
Veins
Carry blood to the heart
Except for pulmonary vein and umbilical cord
oxygenated blood
3. They carry blood under high pressure
4. Blood flows in pulses
Describe how the blood moves in veins from the body back to the heart
1. Series of semi-lunar valves that prevent back flow of blood.
2. Contraction of skeletal muscles so that they push on veins for blood to move forward.
3. Breathing in (inhalation/inspiration)- this reduces pressure in the thoracic cavity forcing the blood to move
towards it.
4. Diastole- this cause reduced pressure in the heart and the blood moves towards it.
Questions on Transport
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
Jan 09 q5
Jun 09 q3
Jan 2010 q4
Jun 2010 q2
Jan 2011 q2 & q4
Jun 2012 q3
Jan 2013 q1, q5a (i), (ii)
Jun 2013 q4 (c)
31
BLOOD CLOTTING
There are 2 types of blood clots;
1. Life saving clot - in the skin
2. Life threatening clot in the blood vessel
Blood clotting in the skin (life saving clot)
This is a vital defense mechanism for the body because when one suffers a cut or graze, the role of clotting
is to;
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(inactive plasma protein) to an enzyme called thrombin (an active plasma protein).
Thrombin (enzyme) catalyses the conversion of fibrinogen (soluble plasma protein) into fibrin (insoluble
plasma protein).
Fibrin forms a mesh that traps blood cells and platelets to form a blood clot.
NB.
A cascade effect is a sequence of events in which each event produces the circumstances necessary for the initiation
of the next event.
G: Fibrinogen
H: Fibrin
I: Blood clot
Q1. List the factors that must be present in order for a blood clot to form;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Thromboplastin
Vitamin K
Calcium ions
Thrombin
Fibrin
Q2. When platelets stick to the collagen fibres in the damaged wall, the platelets break open to release several
substances of which 2 are very important. Which are these two substances and what are their roles?
1. Thromboplastin an enzyme which initiates cascade of events in the formation of a clot
2. Serotonin- causes the smooth muscle of the blood vessel to contact. This narrows the blood vessel to
cut off the blood flow to the damaged area.
Cardiovascular diseases (CVDs)
-
These are the diseases of the heart (cardio) and blood vessels (vascular) as a result of damage to arteries. The
damage is due to plaque formation in the arteries through atherosclerosis and clot formation in the arteries
through thrombosis, causing blockage or narrowing of arteries.
Atherosclerosis
-
Formation of atheroma on the endothelial lining (tunica intima) is because of the damage of this endothelial
The above three immediate consequences of atherosclerosis cause High blood pressure.
How atherosclerosis develops
34
1.
2.
3.
4.
Damage to the endothelial lining due to high blood pressure and toxins in tobacco smoke.
Inflammatory response this is increased flow of blood to the damaged area to bring in a lot of white blood cells.
The white blood cells cause cholesterol to build up in the damaged area to form atheroma.
Plaque formation calcium salts and fibrous tissue accumulate hardening the atheroma to form a hard and uneven
5.
6.
35
Damage to endothelial lining due to HBP and toxins from tobacco smoke
Narrowing of artery
FORMS OF CVDS
1. Coronary heart disease (CHD)
36
Disease that affects a pair of coronary arteries which supply the heart muscle with the glucose and oxygen
Overtime, CHD can weaken the heart muscle and lead to;
(i)
Heart failure condition in which the heart cannot pump enough blood to meet the bodys
requirements.
(ii)
Arrhythmias- irregular heartbeat.
Supply of oxygenated blood to part of the brain is cut off causing its death.
This is due to blockage/narrowing of arteries leading to periphery especially in the legs. This leads to tissue
death and then tissue decay (gangrene).
CVD
Hemorrhagic
Transient Ischemic
Arrhythmias
Heart failure
This is the weakening of the wall of an artery which produces a balloon like blood filled swelling formed
This is a sudden and severe chest pain due to the death of part of the heart muscle.
The death is due to lack of oxygen in these heart muscles as a result of blockage of coronary artery by clot or
plaque
There are 3 forms of heart attack;
1. Largest heart attack (cardiac arrest). It occurs if blockage happens in one of the coronary arteries (Right or
left) before it branches so that a large area of heart muscle dies.
2. Medium heart attack blockage is in one of the branches of the right or left coronary artery.
3. Smallest heart attack blockage is in the further branched blood vessels causing the death of a small tissue
of the heart.
The two major factors that can cause death as a result of heart attack are;
1. Cardiac arrest
2. If medical attention is delayed.
The symptoms of the heart attack are;
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Shortness of breath
Angina pectoris
Arrhythmia the heart beats irregularly
Fatigue
Indigestion
The two major steps to be taken when you suspect someone is developing or having a heart attack are;
1. Give them 2 full strength aspirin tablets to stop blood clotting i.e. the aspirin bursts the clot
2. Call an ambulance.
Question
The plaque often increases in size and can block the artery. If the artery supplying blood to the
heart becomes blocked, blood no longer flows to the heart muscle cells. Shortly after the loss of
blood flow, heart muscle cells stop contracting and start to die. In the heart muscle cells,
energy (ATP) is made available from respiration. The graph below shows how the energy (ATP)
available to heart muscle cells changes with time, after the loss of blood flow.
38
(i)
in the graph, describe how the energy (ATP) available to the heart muscle cells changes with time after
the loss of blood flow.(2)
decrease in ATP with time
drop in the fall of ATP gets less with time
manipulation of figures e.g. from 0 to 80 minutes the ATP dropped by 100
(ii) Suggest why there are changes to the available energy (ATP) in the heart muscle cells following the
loss of blood flow.(2)
less oxygen available
less respiratory substrate/ glucose
less aerobic respiration
(iii) About 8 minutes after the loss of blood flow, the heart muscle cells no longer contract. After about
20 minutes, the heart muscle cells begin to die. Using the information in the graph and your own
knowledge, suggest explanations for the timings of these two events. (3)
due to anaerobic respiration in the heart muscle, lactic acid builds up which inhibits respiratory
enzymes reducing respiration hence reducing ATP production. So at 8 minutes there is insufficient
ATP for contraction ;
after 20 minutes the ATP levels are too low to sustain cell survival ;
(iv) If blood flow is restored within 30 minutes, most heart muscle cells will eventually recover. Suggest
an explanation for this recovery. (2)
restored blood flow provides muscle cells with oxygen and removes lactic acid
aerobic respiration restarts and produces more ATP for muscle contraction.
(Total for Question 5 = 12 marks)
Angina pectoris
-
This is a severe chest pain that is usually experienced during vigorous exercise (exertion) as a result of
1. Medical drugs to dilate coronary arteries for sufficient oxygen supply to the heart muscle.
If the condition is serious, a heart bypass surgery (Coronary artery by-pass operation)
Insertion of a coronary stent
Heart transplant
Angioplasty
This is the death of the part of brain tissue caused by bursting (Hemorrhagic) or blockage (Ischemic) of an
artery that supplies the brain with oxygenated blood.
Usually the blockage of an artery is by a blood clot formed by atherosclerosis (a clot on top a plaque).
If the blockage affects one of the main arteries leading to the brain, a very serious stroke occurs that may lead
to death. However, if blockage affects smaller arterioles leading to the brain, the effect may be less severe.
The symptoms of stroke appear very fast and the damage happens very quickly.
The symptoms of stroke include;
(i)
Numbness
(ii)
Dizziness
(iii)
Confusion
(iv)
Slurred speech
(v)
Loss of vision usually in one eye
(vi)
Paralysis of one side of the body with a drooping hand, leg or eyelid or dribbling mouth.
The quick treatment for stroke that may help the patient to survive is giving clot bursting drugs such as
aspirin.
40
Perceived risk
-
A lot is known about the effect of diet, exercise and smoking on the risk of CVD. But many people do not
change their lifestyle due to perception of risk. This perception of risk is affected by;
a) Own experience
b) Inability to assess risks well
c) Peer pressure
d) Fatalistic ideology (what is destined to happen must happen).
e) Remoteness of the likely consequences.
Actual risk;
-
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
Gender
Age
Diet
High blood pressure
Smoking
Inactivity
Obesity
Diet
Smoking
High blood pressure
Inactivity
Obesity
Gender
- Oestrogen gives women some protection from CVDs before menopause. After menopause the risk in both
sexes is about the same.
42
3. Age
-
Elasticity and width of arteries decrease with age. This raises blood pressure which is a risk factor of
CVDs.
Many correlations (links) between dietary habits and the level of CVD have been investigated e.g.
saturated fat, cholesterol and lipoprotein levels. Some evidence that these correlations are causal have been
documented.
Correlation when one variable changes there is also a change in an accompanying variable.
Causation change in one variable is responsible (it causes) for the change in the other variable.
Our choices of food can increase or decrease the risk of developing CVDs.
Risk for CVDs increases with high intake of;
a) Saturated fat such as animal fats
b) High salt intake
Health problems arise when there is excess cholesterol that has accumulated in tissues.
- Excess cholesterol in blood build up on artery wall forming atheroma that hardens (due to build up of
calcium salts and fibrous tissue) to form plaque. This is atherosclerosis. The subsequent consequences of
atherosclerosis include; narrowing of arteries, clot formation and loss of elasticity of arteries. All these
lead to CVDs.
Note:
Cholesterol is not saturated fat but is made in the liver from saturated fats absorbed from food.
Low density lipoproteins (LDLs)- bad
cholesterol
Formed from saturated fats, proteins and
cholesterol
Formed from unsaturated fats, proteins and
cholesterol
They bind to the LDL receptors on the cell
cholesterol
They transport cholesterol from the body
excreted.
Reduces blood cholesterol levels hence
discourages atherosclerosis.
Questions
1. What is the difference in density of proteins between LDLs and HDLs
LDL has low density of proteins and more cholesterol whereas HLD has high density of
protein and less cholesterol.
2. The role of HDL is to transport cholesterol from the body tissues to the liver to be broken down and
excreted. What is the advantage of this?
i. It lowers blood cholesterol levels, hence reduces formation of atheroma.
ii. It helps remove the fatty plaques of atherosclerosis hence reduces CVDs.
3. Describe the role of monounsaturated triglycerides in reducing blood cholesterol?
They help in the removal of LDLs from the blood and transport them to the liver where they are
broken down and excreted. They include olive oil and peanut oil.
4. Describe the role of polyunsaturated triglycerides in the reduction of blood cholesterol?
44
They increase the activity of the LDL receptors on the surface of cells so that LDLs are actively
removed from the blood and enter these cells. They include vegetable oils, fish oil and sunflower
oil.
5. Total fat has both saturated fats and unsaturated fats. Comment on the effects it has on health.
Saturated fat can be made into cholesterol that becomes part of LDL, increasing the risk of CVD,
while unsaturated fat becomes part of HDL and reduces risk of CVD.
6. What is the major disadvantage of high blood cholesterol?
It increases the chance of atherosclerosis that causes CVDs because the cholesterol forms
atheroma that then hardness to form plaque.
2. Smoking
Tobacco smoke has several components that are risk factors for CVDs. These include:
a) Carbon monoxide
1. Increases the levels of low density lipoproteins and lower high density lipoproteins (the good type of cholesterol).
2. Permanently binds to hemoglobin depriving the tissues of oxygen.
b) Nicotine
(i)
Vasoconstriction
It causes constriction of the blood vessels hence reducing blood flow to the heart and increasing blood pressure.
Nicotine is able to do this by binding to proteins called nicotinic receptors. When nicotine binds to these proteins, it signals for the smooth
muscle around the blood vessels to contract, which makes the blood vessels narrower. This can contribute to heart disease in two ways--by
reducing blood flow to the heart and by increasing blood pressure. Constricted coronary arteries reduce the amount of blood that gets to
the heart. Constricted arteries throughout the body increase the blood pressure, which forces the heart to work harder. The added strain on
the heart can lead to heart disease.
(ii) Endothelial Damage
Causes damage to the lining of blood vessels increasing chances of atherosclerosis.
Elevated levels of nicotine are correlated with inflammation and damage of endothelial cells in blood vessels. Endothelial cells line blood
vessels throughout the body.
(iii) Release of Adrenaline that increases heart rate
When nicotine is in the brain, it causes the release of adrenaline that causes heart's rate to increase, leading to higher blood pressure
which also limits blood flow to the heart.
(iv) Makes platelets sticky increasing the chances of blood clotting.
3.
Alcohol
Alcohol and the Cardiovascular System
Heavy drinking raises levels of triglycerides circulating in the bloodstream, which are a type of cholesterol that lead to diabetes
and also block or narrow down arteries that carry blood to the heart. If coronary arteries are clogged with fats, blood cannot flow
freely, resulting in heart disease or stroke.
Alcohol directly contributes to heart failure by damaging the heart muscle and arteries.
Cardiomyopathy, or an enlargement of the heart muscle, results from long-term alcohol use. An enlarged heart no longer works
efficiently and fails to provide enough oxygenated blood to other organs of the body.
Furthermore, alcohol is associated with cardiac arrhythmia (irregular heartbeat), sudden cardiac death and stroke.
Binge drinking increases the risk of atrial fibrillation, or an ineffective quivering of the heart instead of an actual beat.
NB
45
In the liver, alcohol is converted into ethanal (3 carbon carbohydrate). Most of the ethanal is used in respiration but some may end
up in very low density lipoproteins increasing the risk of plaque formation (atherosclerosis).
4. Exercise
-
Risk of CVDs decreases with more exercise. Exercise helps to control:a) Blood cholesterol by raising HDL cholesterol without affecting LDL cholesterol.
b) Blood pressure exercise dilates blood vessels hence lowers blood pressure.
c) Diabetes mellitus due to increased respiration that reduces blood glucose.
d) Obesity due to increased respiration that reduces blood glucose.
- Moderate exercise that reduces risk include;
a) Walking
b) Cycling
c) Swimming
5. High blood pressure
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
High blood pressure (hypertension) is one of the main risk factors for the later development of heart
disease.
Narrow blood vessels are often the cause of high blood pressure. When blood vessels are too narrow, the
heart must work extraordinarily hard to pump blood throughout the body.
Blood vessels often become more narrow when they're affected by angiotensin-converting enzymes (ACE)
released by the body. These enzymes trigger the blood vessels to constrict and tighten. This enzyme can be
subdued by ACE inhibitor medication.
There are 5 main types of drugs that are used to treat high blood pressure.
These drugs are called antihypertensive drugs.
These drugs are:-
ACE inhibitors are antihypertensive drugs which reduce the synthesis of Angiotensin II from angiotensin I.
Angiotensin is a hormone that is produced in inactive form called Angiotensin I.
An enzyme converts Angiotensin I into an active hormone called Angiotensin II.
Angiotensin II causes vasoconstriction of blood vessels raising blood pressure.
The ACE inhibitors are antihypertensive that inhibit the enzyme so that Angiotensin I is not activated,
lowering the blood pressure.
46
To explain how ACE inhibitors: ACE inhibitors have similar shape to Angiotensin I hence fit in the active
site of the ACE acting as an active site directed inhibitor so that there is no conversion of Angiotensin I to
Angiotensin II.
The side effects of ACE inhibitors are:a) Dry cough
b) Dizziness due to rapid lowering of blood pressure
c) Abnormal heart beats (Arrhythmia)
d) Reduction in functioning of the kidney (impaired kidney function)
Question
Describe and explain how ACE inhibitors work.
of the
arteries, to prevent contraction of the muscle so that the blood vessels do not constrict and this lowers
blood pressure.
Note
The muscles are mainly found in the Tunica media
The side effects include:a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
NB.
People with heart failure taking some calcium channel blockers can worsen symptoms of being fatal. This is because
the heart muscle will not contract as required due to lack of calcium ions.
Unlike other drugs used to treat high blood pressure, calcium channel blockers are generally not given to people
who have heart failure or actual physical damage to the heart muscle.
To explain how calcium channel blockers work: Calcium channel blockers attach to the target of a specific
chemical signal and preventing the signal from reaching and activating that target. So, calcium is prevented from
entering muscle cells, which, in turn, decreases the amount of force the muscle can generate when contracting.
47
The specific targets blocked by calcium channel blockers exist in high numbers both on blood vessels and in the
heart, allowing the drug to exert most of its influence in these areas
Diuretics
They are anti-hypertensive drugs that increase the volume of urine produced by the kidneys and therefore lowers
the excess fluids and salts in the body, hence lowers the blood pressure.
Diuretics cause your body to produce more urine.
Urine flushes excess water and sodium out of your body. This lowers blood pressure because the more you urinate,
the lower the volume of fluid in your bloodstream. Less fluid in your bloodstream means there is also lower
pressure on your artery walls. In addition, the loss of excess sodium causes your blood vessels to open wider.
This causes further lowering of your blood pressure.
The side effects include:a) Dizziness due to rapid lowering of blood pressure
b) Nausea
c) Muscle cramps
Beta blockers
These are anti hypertensive drugs that interfere with the normal system of controlling the heart. They ensure that
the heart does not respond to hormones that speed up the heart beat e.g adrenaline and therefore lowers the blood
pressure.
The side effects include:Dizziness due to rapid lowering of blood pressure
A beta blocker is a medication that slows the heart rate and reduces the force with which the heart muscle contracts, thereby
lowering blood pressure. Beta blockers do this by blocking beta-adrenergic receptors, preventing adrenaline (epinephrine)
from stimulating these receptors.
Beta blockers can be described as either selective or nonselective and vasodilating or nonvasodilating.
Selective beta blockers work by blocking the effect of adrenaline in the heart, but not in the lungs or elsewhere in the body.
Beta blockers that vasodilate have the effect of relaxing and widening the blood vessels, allowing blood to flow more easily
through your arteries. This means the heart doesn't have to pump as hard and blood pressure is reduced.3
Question
Describe and explain how beta-blockers function.
Vasodilators are anti-hypertensives that act directly on smooth muscles in blood vessel walls to make blood
vessels widen (dilate).
By widening the arteries, these drugs allow blood to flow through more easily, reducing blood pressure.
So, your heart doesn't have to pump as hard and your blood pressure is reduced.
Question
Describe and explain how vasodilators (sympathetic nerve inhibitors) reduce blood pressure.
They prevent the muscle fibres in the Tunica media of arteries from responding to the
nerve impulse hence no contraction and therefore no constriction so that the arteries
remain dilated, reducing blood pressure.
cholesterol.
How do statins work?
i) They act as active site directed inhibitors by binding to the active site of HMG-CoA reductase
hence lower blood cholesterol level.
ii) Additional enzymes in the liver cell sense that cholesterol production has decreased and respond by
creating a protein that leads to an increase in the production of LDL receptors. These receptors
relocate to the liver cell membranes and bind to passing LDL and VLDL (very low density
lipoprotein). The LDL and VLDL then enter the liver and are digested. This increase HDLs.
The above 2 functions of plant statins reduce the risk of developing atherosclerosis hence reduces risk of
CVDs
In patients who have CV D treatment with statins they reduce the risk of heart attack by upto 33%
In people who dont have CVD but have elevated blood cholesterol levels, statins lower total LDL
cholesterol by more than 20% and the risk of CVDs by a similar percent
The side effects are very rare when using statins. However, the side effects include:a) Joint problems
b) Liver and kidneys problems
c) Gastro intestinal problems e.g. constipation
d) Respiratory cancer
e) Reduced vitamin intake
Explain how lowering blood cholesterol levels can reduce the risk of CVD
- Less cholesterol in the blood to build up on artery wall (atheroma)
- Hence less likely to develop atherosclerosis
49
N.B. Cholesterol: below 5 mmol/litre is the best; 5.2-6.2 bordering high risk;
above 6.2 high risk.
TREATMENT OF HIGH BLOOD PRESSURE AND HIGH CHOLESTEROL LEVEL USING ANTI
COAGULANTS AND PLATELET INHIBITORY DRUGS.
This is the last treatment applied when:a) Someone had a heart attack or stroke
b) Someone is identified as being at a risk of one heart attack or stroke
c) Such people are given drugs to prevent platelets aggregation and clotting in the artery
2. Clopidogrel
It is an alternative platelet aggregation inhibitory drug to aspirin. The benefits may be greater than with
aspirin for some patients but the risk of bleeding is higher than with aspirin.
3. A combined treatment but has a greater risk of stomach bleeding than even when aspirin is used alone.
B) ANTI COAGULANT DRUGS SUCH AS WARFARIN
This is an anticoagulant dug that interferes with the synthesis of prothrombin hence prevents
blood clotting
50
OBESITY INDICATORS
-
Obesity occurs when one takes more energy than required by the body. The excess energy is converted into
BMI =
a)
b)
Status
Under weight
Normal weight
Overweight
Obese
The person, in the example, with BMI of 22.9 has the normal weight hence safe from CVD
Use of BMI as an indicator of obesity has several disadvantages;
Incorrect in medical cases that lead to overweight and underweight conditions.
Incorrect in fitness cases where there are large muscles. The weight of large muscle will be treated as the
The waist measurement is taken by a non-stretchable tape above the hip bone, below the rib.
The hip measurement is taken by the tape around the widest part of the buttocks.
For men, it should not be more than 0.90; otherwise it will be overweight hence risk of CVD.
51
For women, it should not be more than 0.85; otherwise it will be overweight increasing the risk of CVD.
Waist to hip ratio is the best indicator of obesity compared to BMI.
Minimum amount of energy needed for only essential body processes per day (24 hours).
The essential body processes are;
1. Breathing
2. Heart rate
3. Body temperature
Measurements of BMR show that an average man needs to take about 1500kJ day -1 and an average woman
needs to take about 5850 kJ day-1. This does not reflect the activities.
BMR varies with:a) Age higher in young people
b) Gender higher in males
c) Body mass higher in heavier people
d) Activity higher in active people
An individual EAR for energy is determined by multiplying the BMR by the PAL
EAR = BMR x PAL
In the UK, DRVs are estimates of the requirements of energy and arent recommendations for individuals.
These include:EAR = BMR x PAL
LRNI = low reference nutrient intake
HRNI high reference nutrient intake
These estimates effectively provide a range of values within which a healthy balanced diet should fall.
52
leading to CVDs. In addition, diabetes and joint problems may set in due to obesity or overweight.
For underweight the body is weak and can be subjected to various diseases.
Question
Martin, a mason weighs 70kg. The human basic energy requirement is 4kJkg -1 of body mass hr-1 (per hour). As a
mason, his daily energy requirement is 5000kg. His total energy intake is 10300kJday-1.
(i)
Case-control studies
53
The main features of case-control studies are: A group of people with the condition (case) is compared with a group that does not have (control)
Past history is then investigated to identify factors leading to one group having the disease and the other
not.
Its very important to match the control with the case group e.g. age and gender.
A GOOD STUDY
It is the one with the following features;
Sample should be representative to avoid bias.
Sample size is large. In many diseases, only a low percentage of the population has the condition, so a large
sample may contain a small number of individuals with the condition.
Variables should be controlled when selecting cohort or control groups. This is one of the most difficult
aspects of this kind of study since human beings are so variable in terms of genes and environment.
Measurement techniques involve questionnaire in order to standardize the measurements.
NB
-
Random errors
Values are lying randomly above or below a true value
They are mainly experimenters errors
Examples include;
a) The end point of a colour change is misjudged.
b) The vitamin C cant be added by less than a drop at a time and so sometimes the next drop may be
too much and other times too little.
c) Failure to rinse beetroot disks well.
Question:
-In vitamin C experiment,
1. List the precautions to be taken when carrying out the vitamin C experiment.
2. List ways through which vitamin C is lost from food.
3. Describe how you would compare the vitamin C of 3 different vegetables.
Questions on CVDs
1)
2)
3)
4)
5)
6)
7)
8)
9)
10)
11)
12)
55
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)
Phospholipid
Phospholipid bilayer
Glycoprotein Integral/Intrinsic
Glycolipid
Integral protein (channel protein/ion channel) - transmembrane protein
Peripheral protein
Integral protein (embedded in one layer-outer or inner) - transmembrane protein
Cholesterol
Carrier protein (Integral protein) - transmembrane protein
56
- The polar phosphate head is hydrophilic (polar) and dissolves readily in water.
- The fatty acid tails are hydrophobic (non-polar) and are insoluble in water.
Question
Why do phospholipids form a bilayer and not a monolayer?
-
The property of phospholipids (hydrophilic phosphate head and hydrophobic fatty acid tails) causes the
tissue fluid.
So, phospholipids form a bilayer.
NB
- If the phospholipids molecules are tightly packed in water, they either form:
1. Monolayer:- with hydrophilic heads in the water and hydrophobic fatty acid tails in the air.
57
2. Micelles: A micelle is a structure formed by a cluster of molecules with both hydrophobic and hydrophilic
ends when placed in water. In a micelle, all the hydrophilic heads point outwards hence face the water, and
all the hydrophobic fatty acid tails point inwards (are hidden inside) i.e. non polar environment.
NB
-
Cholesterol
-
The structure of cholesterol is:In the cell surface membrane, cholesterol has 2 functions;
1. Control fluidity so that the cell membrane is not too fluid or too rigid
2. Provides mechanical strength to the cell membrane. Those that do not break easily
Glycolipids
-
a) Peripheral proteins
-
b) Integral proteins
- These are embedded in the phospholipid bilayer. They include:
1. Those embedded in the inner and outer phospholipid layers.
2. Trans-membrane proteins. They span through the phospholipid bilayer so that they are exposed at both
ends. These are:a)Channel proteins which are either gated or fixed proteins.
b)
Carrier proteins which are globular proteins.
c)Some glycoproteins- A carbohydrate attached to a protein (same functions as glycolipid)
58
Question
Explain why a membrane may be more fluid when it contains more unsaturated fats.
Unsaturated fatty acids contain at least one double bond in the carbon chain
The more the unsaturated lipids there are in the membrane, the more fluid the membrane is.
-
It is fluid because the phospholipids move around the membrane making the cell
3. Membranes with more unsaturated fatty acids are more fluid. Discuss?
-
They have double C-C bonds in the chain that would cause kinking hence more fluid.
This is due to the nature of the phospholipids whose phosphate heads are hydrophilic
hence face polar environments (tissue fluid and cytoplasm) and the fatty acid tails are
hydrophobic hence face inwards (non polar environment)
60
Diffusion
Facilitated diffusion
Active transport
Osmosis
Endocytosis
Exocytosis
NB
Diffusion facilitated diffusion and osmosis dont use energy hence they are called passive processes. Active
transport, endocytosis and exocytosis uses energy hence they are called active processes.
Diffusion
-
This is passive movement of small uncharged particles (small non polar particles), down their concentration
a) Diffusion
b) Facilitated diffusion through channel proteins
water is transported easily through diffusion when the phospholipid bilayer contains phospholipids with
unsaturated fatty acids hydrocarbon tails because they are more spaced
CO2 is polar but its small size thus allows diffusion
61
Facilitated diffusion
Large polar molecules and ions that is larger than CO 2 molecules that cannot move across a membrane by diffusion.
They are insoluble in lipids and therefore the hydrophobic tails of phospholipid provides a penetrable barrier to
them. They cross the membrane with the help of proteins through a process called facilitated diffusion. These
proteins are channel proteins (ion channels) or carrier proteins.
a) Channel proteins
They transport small charged molecules or ions through the channel that is polar channel proteins are specific i.e
transport only one molecule or ion e.g. Na channel is a protein that only transport Na+ ions down the concentration
gradient. Chanel proteins are divided into two
a) Gated open and close depending on the presence of the substance
b) Fixed always remain open
To show that channel proteins are specific, the following experiment can be conducted
-
The concentration of the 3 mineral ions in a seedling are determined e.g nitrates (NO 3-5 units phosphates
NO37.5
7.5
PO438.0
7.0
62
Mg2+
9.0
6.0
1. The ions are being absorbed through facilitated diffusion because with nitrates, equilibrium has been
achieved
2. The absorption of the nitrate ions (NO3-) is faster than other minerals
3. Due to different concentration of the ions inside the plant, the 3 ions are transported by different channel
proteins i.e channel protein are specific to ions.
NB
In facilitated diffusion, no metabolic energy is used and the movement of ions is down the concentration gradient.
b) Carrier proteins
They transport large polar molecules such as amino acids and glucose. These carrier proteins are specific for
particular molecules. Once a carrier protein has picked up a molecule, it changes shape and act as a pore for the
molecule to travel through the membrane. There is no use of metabolic energy and the movement is down the
concentration gradient
2. Gas exchange in the leaves of flowering plants between the air spaces and the spongy mesophyll tissue
and the mesophyll cells
The requirements for diffusion /facilitated diffusion to occur are
1. Concentration gradient of the substance
2. Permeable membrane
Osmosis
This is the passive movement of molecules of water down their concentration gradient through a partially
permeable membrane.
Osmosis is due to the random movement of water molecules across the membrane. If solute molecules are present,
water molecules from hydrogen bonds with them, and this reduces the movement of these water molecules.
Examples of osmosis include:
a) Absorption of water molecules by animal and plant cells
b) Absorption of water molecules by the plant roots from the soil
Describing concentrations
1. Isotonic solution
This is the solution that has the same osmotic concentration of the solution as the cell i.e there is equilibrium hence
no net movement (no osmotic gradient)
2. Hypertonic solution
This is the solution with the higher concentration of solutes than the cell, and therefore water will move from the
cell to the solution, and the animal cell shrinks (crenated) and the pant cell shrinks (becomes flaccid) and is finally
plasmolyzed (cell membrane moves away from cell wall).
3. Hypnotic solution
This is the solution with less solute than the cell and thus it has more water then the cell. So, water will move from
the solution into the cell causing the cell to become turgid (full of water) and finally the animal cell bursts, but the
plant cell remains turgid as it cant burst due to cellulose cell that provides mechanical strength to the cell.
64
Water potential
This is the ability of water to move. Its measured in units of kPa (pressure), kilo Pascals. Pure water has the
highest water potential i.e OkPa so, all the solution have negative water potentials.
Questions
1. List differences between osmosis and diffusion
-
Osmosis transports water molecules only, while diffusion transports many small uncharged molecules
Osmosis uses a partially permeable membrane but not diffusion.
Osmosis transports water only whilst facilitated diffusion transports many polar molecules that are larger than
Differences
Osmosis
Transports water
Diffusion
Transports small
Osmosis
Transports water
Facilitated diffusion
Transports are polar
molecules
Partially permeable
uncharged molecules
None
molecules only
Partially permeable
molecules (>CO2)
None
membrane
None
Uses proteins to
membrane
transport molecules
across the
membranes.
Active transport
This is the movement of particles against their concentration gradient using metabolic energy in the form of ATP. It
involves carrier proteins that span (cut by the whole bilayer) the membrane.
Carrier proteins, also called protein pumps, are specific as they transport only one substance e.g. Na pump, K
pump.
ATP is hydrolyzed by ATPase enzyme to release energy that enables the carrier protein to change shape
and act as a pore for the molecule to travel through the membrane.
65
Example of active transport are:a) Selective reabsorption of glucose, sodium and amino acids in the kidneys
b) Absorption of glucose in the small intestine
c) Absorption of mineral salts by the plant roots from the soil
Questions
1. Describe the process of active transport
-
Facilitated diffusion
Particles move along down their concentration
66
gradient
uses ATP energy
Has no equilibrium
gradient
No energy used (passive)
Has an equilibrium
4. Write the major similarity between facilitated diffusion and active transport
Both use proteins
Bulk transport
-
Diffusion, osmosis and active transport allow for the movement of small particles across the membranes
However, there are times when larger particles need to be transported across the cell surface membrane
This is achieved by bulk transport i.e endocytosis and exocytosis which rely on the fluid nature of the
membrane. This transport requires metabolic energy.
Endocytosis
This is the movement of materials into a cell by a process in which the plasma membrane engulfs extra cellular
materials forming membrane bound sacs (vesicles) that enter the cytoplasm.
67
Questions
1. Explain how endocytosis and exocytosis provides evidence for the fluid mosaic model of membranes.
Endocytosis and exocytosis involves the breaking and fusing of parts of the cell surface membrane. If the
membrane was not fluid this would not be possible.
2. What are the similarities and differences between exocytosis and endocytosis
Endocytosis
Both use metabolic energy (ATP)
Both transport substances in vesicles
Both transport large molecules
Substances taken into cell
Exocytosis
5. List the components of the respiratory system and the processes that take place in those components
(i)
conducting system which consist of breathing tubes and cavities :- breathing or ventilation
(ii)
Alveolus in humans
Gills in fish
Leaf in plants
The alveoli in the lungs provide a large SA for the exchange of gases. The capillaries surrounding the alveoli
maintain a steep concentration gradient they continuously carry away oxygen from the lungs and ring in CO2
The alveoli provides a large SA for the exchange of gases in the human body
An adult has around 480 to 500 million alveoli in the lungs which gives a large SA for gaseous exchange of
around 100m3 packed into a chest
70
A pair of nostrils
A single nasal cavity
Pharynx (back of mouth or throat)
Larynx (voice box)
Trachea
Bronchi
Bronchioles
b) Interface
-
In the conducting system, ventilation/breathing takes place while in the interface gaseous exchange takes place.
Ventilation or breathing
71
This is a process of taking air rich in oxygen into the lungs and removal of air rich in carbon dioxide from the lungs
back into the air or atmosphere. Ventilation or breathing takes place in the conducting system of the human
respiratory system, ventilation consists of
a) Inhalation/inspiration/breathing in
b) Exhalation/expiration/breathing out
a) Inhalation /inspiration/breathing in
This is the taking in of air rich in oxygen into the lungs. Its an active process because it involves contraction of
muscles.
External intercostals muscles contract forcing the ribs to move up and out. Diaphragm muscles contract, lowering
the flattening the diaphragm.
The above two events increase the volume of the chest cavity and decrease the pressure forcing the air to enter the
lungs through the conducing system.
Exhalation/expiration/breathing out
This is the removal of air rich in carbon dioxide from the lungs.
Normal exhalation is a passive process because it involves the relaxation of the muscles that had contracted during
inhalation.
The external intercoastal muscles relax so the ribs move downwards and inwards. Diaphragm muscles relax and the
diaphragm becomes dome shaped. The above two events reduce the volume of the chest cavity and increase the
pressure, and air is forced out.
Forced exhalation is an active process that requires
a) Internal intercostal muscles contract pulling the ribs downwards and inwards
b) Abdominal muscles contract forcing the diaphragm upwards
The above two events increase pressure in the chest cavity and decreases the volume causing exhalation.
Preparation of air before reaching the lungs
Preparation of air before entering the lungs ensures that the inhaled air does not change the internal environment.
These preparations are carried out by the conducting system or air passage.
These preparations include
a) The air must be clean by the removal of micro organisms and other particles.
This cleaning is done by
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
Nose hair
Mucus produced by the gablet cells that trap these particles
Cilia of epithelial cells. The wafting like beating of cilia moves the dirty mucus to the mouth cavity
where it is either coughed to/swallowed, thus reducing the risk of infection of the lungs.
72
b) The air is moistened. (The level of water vapour in the air is increased.
The air is moistened by moist surface. The moist surface is due to the moist lining (produced by the goblet cells.
c) The air is warmed by a good supply of blood in the nasal passages
This raises the temperature of the air
NB
The nose provides a large SA for the preparation of air to be inhaled.
Gaseous exchange in the interface
This involves the alveoli (air sacs) and the surrounding capillaries.
The exchange of these gases CO2 and O2 is though diffusion.
Capillaries maintain step concentration gradient of these gases between the capillaries an the alveoli in the
following ways;
(i)
They continuously carry oxygen from the lungs to the body so that there is less oxygen in the
(ii)
capillaries than the alveoli therefore creating concentration gradient hence diffusion.
They continuously bringing carbon dioxide to the lungs fro the body so that there is always more CO 2
in the capillaries than the alveoli creating a concentration gradient hence diffusion.
73
However, to reduce the collapse, some cells in the alveolar lining produce a special phospholipid known as lungs
surfactant. The surfactant coats/lens the alveoli to reduce adhesion so that gaseous exchange is easier.
Composition of gases
Gas
Oxygen
Carbon dioxide
Nitrogen
Water vapour
% percent of gas
Inspired air
20.70
0.04
78.00
1.26
Alveolar air
13.20
5.00
75.60
6.20
Expired air
14.50
3.10
75.40
6.20
Inspired air has more oxygen than expired air by 6.2%. This percent is used for respiration in the respiring
tissues. Alveolar air has less oxygen as oxygen diffuses in to the capillaries
Alveolar air has more carbon dioxide than both inspired and expired air. This is because carbon dioxide
diffuses from the capillaries into the alveoli.
Mucus should not have excess or too little water in the lungs
The membrane of the epithelial cells is the one that detects the amount of water in the mucus and then it
Cystic fibrosis
74
It is a genetic disorder caused by a gene mutation (deletion) in the gene which codes for a protein known as the
the shape of the CFTR protein so that it opens to allow for the passage of chloride ions.
The gene mutation of the CFTR protein cause the loss of ATP binding site in the CFTR protein so that it
remains closed. This cause the chloride ions to remain in the cell
So, chloride ions remain in cells and cannot diffuse into the mucus and therefore water cannot move into mucus
by osmosis and instead the water leaves the mucus into the cells (epithelial cells) by osmosis leaving behind
thick and sticky mucus in the airways that block them.
NB
The ATP in the CFTR protein provides energy by the change of the shape of this protein so that it opens up.
75
1. Cl- pumped into epithelial cell from tissue fluid across the basal membrane but cannot diffuse into mucus
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Proteins
They are very large (macro molecules) organic molecules made up of:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Carbon
Hydrogen
Oxygen
Nitrogen
76
In addition to these elements, other proteins have sulfur, iron and phosphorus
Proteins have a wide range of functions in living things. About 18% of body is made up of protein. Some of these
functions of protein include:1. Formation of enzymes they speed up chemical reactions of the cells
2. Formation of hormones control working of organs
3. Formation of antibodies protect us from diseases
4. Formation of hemoglobin transports oxygen and carbon dioxide
5. Formation of prothrombin used for blood clotting
6. Proteins in cell membranes - these are involved in transportation, structure of the membrane and cell to cell
7.
recognition.
Making proteins in hair, skin, nail etc
Amino acids
-
These are small monomer units that join by peptide bonds in condensation reactions to form proteins
There are about 20 different naturally occurring amino acids that can combine in different ways to form a vast range of
different proteins.
All amino acids have the same basic structure i.e. there is always an amino group (NH 2) and a carboxyl group (COOH)
attached to a carbon atom. The R- group (residual group or side chain) is the only group in all amino acids that varies
They are small molecules that can easily pass through the cell membrane
They are soluble in water because the NH2 and COOH groups are polar
They can crystallize
Some amino acids have polar R groups while others have non polar R groups.
Amino acids are amphoteric (compounds with acidic and basic groups). The NH 2 group is basic as it readily accepts
protons (H+ ions) while COOH group is acidic as it readily donates protons. The amino acid therefore acts as a buffer
77
For each amino acid, there is a specific pH value at which the amino acid has a zero charge (ionized amino acid). The pH value
at which the amino acid is neutral is known as the iso electric point of the amino acid.
Formation of peptide bond and dipeptide molecule
-
Amino acids are joined by a peptide bond to form a dipeptide molecule or a polypeptide molecule in a condensation
reaction.
A dipeptide molecule has 2 amino acids joined by a peptide bond while a polypeptide molecule is a long chain of amino
acids joined by a peptide bond.
78
STRUCTURE OF PROTEINS
There are 4 levels of protein structures
1.
2.
3.
4.
1.
2.
Primary structure
Secondary structure
Tertiary structure
Quaternary structure
Primary structure
This is the sequence of amino acids joined by peptide bonds to form a polypeptide chain.
Primary structure is not affected by high temperature because the peptide bonds are not affected by this temperature
and therefore even after heating, the length remains the same.
Secondary structure
This is 3D structure formed by either coiling of the structure to form alpha helix such as keratin held together by
hydrogen bonds; or joining of several primary structures to form beta pleated sheets such as collagen held in place
by hydrogen bonds.
Examples of proteins with - Helix structures are
1.
2.
Keratin found in the skin, hair, nails, hooves, beaks and horns to give support
Myosin found in muscles fibres to allow movement
79
Proteins with secondary structure are long (fibrous) and they have a role in support to give mechanical strength. In
addition they are insoluble in water and they are affected by high temperature as it breaks down hydrogen bonds
causing them to lengthen (they stretch out after heating).
Summary of secondary structures
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
3.
Tertiary structure
This is a globular (spherical) structure formed by folding of the polypeptide chain already in secondary structure, and
it is held in place by hydrogen, ionic and disulphide chemical bonds and hydrophobic interactions.
The amino acids have R- groups between which chemical bonds are formed. So, R-groups determine the types of
chemical bonds, the chemical bonds determine the structure/ shape of protein and this structure determines the
function of the protein.
High temperature, extreme pH and heavy metal ions such as copper change the shape of the globular protein.
Examples of protein with tertiary structure are enzymes such as amylase, antibodies and some hormones such as
glucagon.
4.
Being globular, proteins with tertiary structure have a role in metabolism e.g. enzymes speed up chemical reactions in
the cells and glucagon raises blood glucose levels in the cells.
All proteins with tertiary structures are soluble in water.
The solubility of proteins with tertiary structure is because the polar R-groups face outwards and the non-polar Rgroups face inwards in the protein
Quaternary structure
This is globular structures that consist of more than one polypeptide chain already in the tertiary structures, and
these globular structures are held loosely by hydrogen, ionic and disulphide bonds and hydrophobic interactions.
Examples of proteins with quaternary structures are haemoglobin with 4 polypeptide chains and insulin with 2
polypeptide chains.
Being globular, they have a role in metabolism. In addition they are soluble in water.
-
2.
Insulin has 2 polypeptide chains: A and B. A has 21 amino acids and B has 30 amino acids.
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2. Globular proteins
-
3. Conjugated proteins
- Consist of amino acids and other non-protein chemical groups (prosthetic groups)
- Examples of conjugated proteins are
1. Haemoglobin prosthetic group is haem group that contains iron. Oxygen binds to iron
2. Glycoprotein prosthetic group is carbohydrate
3. Lipoprotein prosthetic group is lipid
These are weak electrostatic forces of attraction between the negative charges on the oxygen atom of the carboxyl group of
the amino acids and the positive charge on the hydrogen atom of the amino groups of the amino acids. When these charged
groups are close to each other, the opposite charges attract forming a hydrogen bond.
Hydrogen bonds are weak but when they are in large numbers, they are very strong.
Hydrogen bonds are easily broken and reformed if pH and temperature conditions change.
Hydrogen bonds are important in the folding and coiling of the polypeptide chain
2. Sulphur bridges
-
They are formed when two sulfur containing amino acids called cysteine or 2 methionine molecules are close together in
3. Ionic bond
-
They are formed between strong positive and negative R-groups of amino acids, found buried deep in the protein
molecule.
These links are also known as slat bridges
They are strong bonds but not as common as the other structural bonds.
81
Insulin
Globular
Have sulfur bridges
Have 2 polypeptide chains
Has 51 amino acids
Does not have repeated sequences of amino acids
skin etc.
Insoluble in water
Insulin
Lowers blood glucose levels
Soluble in water
Enzymes
-
These are globular proteins that act as biological catalysts to speed up chemical reactions by reducing the activation
energy and themselves dont change shape or get used up in the reaction.
Activation energy is the energy required to start reaction.
A catalyst is a substance that speeds up a reaction by lowering the activation energy without changing the substance
Most of the reactions that occur in living organisms are endogenic i.e require an input of energy to activate the molecules
in order to make them reactive. The free energy that is needed to raise the substrate to the activates state is known as
activation energy. This means that there is an activation energy barrier in a biological reaction.
Enzymes therefore lower the activation energy barrier so that the reaction is speeded up. By lowering the E A barrier,
enzymes make it easier for the substrate molecules to reach the activation state
EA Activation energy
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Its the break down of complex molecules into simpler ones e.g. break down of glucose (complex molecules ) into ATP
(simpler ones) in a catabolic reaction (or glycogen into glucose e.g. respiration)
Metabolic pathway is the sequence of chemical reactions in a cell and each of these reactions is controlled or catalyzed by
a specific enzyme e.g. aerobic respiration is a metabolic pathway (chain).
Structure of enzymes
-
specific reactions.
An enzyme has a binding site called an active site onto which a substrate molecule binds or a reaction to occur.
Only a specific substrate binds to a specific active site of the enzyme for a reaction to occur and therefore
enzymes activity is based in lock and key mechanism i.e the lock is the enzyme, the key hole is the active site
specificity. Once the products leave, the active site reverts to its former shape.
Apart from the active site, the other part of the enzyme is called the allosteric site.
A substrate binds to a specific active site to form an enzyme substrate complex. Due to kinetic energy of the
enzymes and substrate molecules, there are random collisions that lead to the binding of the substrate to the active
site.
Hydrogen bonds and vander waals forces of attraction are formed between the substrate and active site forming
enzyme substrate complexes and the reaction occurs to form a product. The product detaches from the active site
and the enzyme is available for other reactions. So, enzymes are not used up or changed in the reaction they
catalyze.
maltose glucose
molecules
The active site and substrate have a complementary shape NOT the same shape!!
The modes of action of enzymes are:1. Lock and key mechanism
2. Induced fit hypothesis
Groups of enzymes
There are two major groups of enzymes:(i) Intracellular enzymes
Are synthesized and work inside the same cells e.g DNA polymerase and DNA ligase
(ii) Extracellular enzymes
Formed in the cells and secreted through exocytosis to work elsewhere e.g the digestive enzyme such as amylase
and lisozyme in the tears.
Naming enzymes
1. Using the molecule hat the enzymes work on (the substrate) with (-ase) on the end, e.g sucrose (roks on
sucrose) or the substrate with an indication of what it does e.g creatine kinase
2. Using the type of reaction being catalyzed e.g ATP; creatine, phosphotransferase
3. A classification number e.g EC 2.7.3.2
Characteristics of enzymes
84
1. All enzymes are globular proteins. Enzymes have an active site and alosteric site. Active site is where a
substrate binds and therefore high temperature changes the shape of enzyme and also changes the shape of
the active site. So the substrate cant bind. This is known as the denaturation.
2. Enzymes only change the rate of a reaction by speeding it up. They dont alter the end products that are
formed.
3. They do not change or get used up in a chemical reaction that they catalyze
4. They are specific to the reaction that they catalyze. They show high specifity in their action.
5. They are affected by high temperature, extreme pH and heavy metals.
Factors that affect enzyme activity
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Temperature
pH
substrate concentration
enzyme concentration
inhibitors
Most enzymes have their optimum temperature between 30 and 40 0c. at very low temperatures the enzyme is
inactive. At very high temperature the enzyme is denatured. Each enzyme has its own optimum temperature.
Different enzymes have different optimum pH levels. E.g the optimum pH for enzymes in the human stomach
is 2, while the pH for enzymes in the human mouth cavity and duodenum is 7.5.
Deviation from the optimum pH alters the ionization of amino acids that make up these enzymes. The change
in ionization of amino acids breaks down hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds and sulfur bridges leading to loss of
globular shape of enzymes hence denaturation.
At this point the enzymes are working as fast as possible (maximum reation0 hence there is maximum formation of
products. This maximum rate of reaction is known as Vmax.
Substrate concentration
NB
In addition of enzymes will provide more active sites and the rate of reaction will not level off
No
Vmas
Rate of
reaction
(v)
Substrate
concentration
Effects of enzyme concentration
on enzyme
activity
If the substrate concentration remains the same but the enzyme concentration increases, the rate of reaction will
increase but only until all the substrate molecules are used up; so, its the substrate concentration that is limiting not
the enzyme concentration.
Rate of
reaction
87
Enzyme concentration
NB
If more substrate molecules are added, the rate of reaction will continue to increase
Rate of
reaction
Enzyme concentration
88
NUCLEIC ACIDS
Nucleic acids are the genetic molecules of the cell.
They are concerned with inheritance.
There are two types of nucleic acids in the cells. These are;
(i) Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA)
(ii) Ribonucleic acid (RNA)
Organelles with DNA
a)
b)
c)
d)
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Chloroplasts
Mitochondria
Organelles with RNA only
a) RER
b) Ribosomes
Organelles with DNA and RNA
a)
b)
c)
d)
Nucleus
Nucleolus
Chloroplasts
Mitochondria
89
Mononucleotide /Nucleotide
Organic
nitrogen bases
NB
The nitrogenous base combines with pentose sugar using a covalent bond to form a nucleoside that then
joins to the phosphate group using phosphoester bond/covalent bond to form a nucleotide or a
mononucleotide.
Pentose sugars in the nucleic acid
These are 5 carbon sugars
They are monosaccharides
They are divided into two;
(i)
Ribose sugar in RNA
(ii)
Deoxyribose sugar in DNA
The difference between ribose and deoxyribose is that ribose has 5 oxygen atoms while deoxyribose has 4
oxygen atoms i.e. carbon atom two does not have an oxygen atom on it.
Ribose sugar
90
Deoxyribose sugar
Both DNA and RNA have the same types of purines i.e. Adenine and Guanine
Pyrimidines
They have a single ring structure. They are;
a) Cytosine (C)
b) Thymine (T) in DNA
c) Uracil (U) in RNA
The structure of pyrimidine is as follows;
3 to 5 end.
5 to 3 means that the 5th carbon atom of the pentose sugar is nearest to the end on one side, and the 3 end
means that the carbon atom 3 of the pentose sugar is nearest to the end on the other side of the chain.
93
CG
AT
TA
Question
In a DNA sample, the percentage mass of Adenine is 18%. What is the percentage mass of Guanine?
Adenine = 18%
Thymine = 18%
Total = 36%
Unlike DNA molecules that is of one type there are 3 types of RNA in the cells:
(i)
messenger RNA (mRNA)
(ii)
transfer RNA (tRNA)
(iii)
Ribosomal RNA (tRNA)
1. Messenger RNA (mRNA)
It is synthesized by the antisense DNA strand in the nucleus through complementary base pairs.
Its role is to carry genetic information from the antisense DNA strand in the form of codons (triplet of bases) to
the surface of ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
The mRNA molecules are linear (straight chains) to ensure that the codons are exposed for reading and
translation of the codons into a sequence of amino acids.
During transcription (synthesis of the mRNA by the antisense DNA (5-3) strand through complementary base
pairing in the nucleus), enzymes known as DNA helicase and RNA polymerase are used.
2. Transfer RNA (tRNA)
It is synthesized by the DNA through transcription in the nucleus and then passes out to the cytoplasm.
The tRNA molecule is clover leaf shaped. When stretched out, it has 80 bases and it runs from 5 to 3 end.
At the 3 end there is a free OH group which acts as a binding site for the amino acids.
The tRNA molecule also has anti codon loop which consist of an anti-codon.
An anti-codon is a triplet of bases on tRNA which is complementary to the codon on mRNA.
95
Its function is to carry a specific amino acid from the cytoplasm to the ribosome and to attach to the
mRNA so that the amino acids are aligned correctly to form polypeptide.
RNA
Has one polynucleotide chain
molecular mass
5. One type
molecular mass
Three types: mRNA, tRNA and rRNA
The tRNA
Clover leaf shaped (folded)
Fixed length (80 bases)
Usually a short chain
Has hydrogen bonds
SEMI CONSERVATIVE REPLICATION OF DNA
DNA helicase breaks the hydrogen bonds between base pairs to separate the 2 strands of DNA and expose bases.
The two DNA strands act as templates to synthesize new DNA molecules.
Mononucleotides bind to complementary mononucleotides of the DNA template strands.
DNA polymerase and DNA ligase catalyze the synthesis of phosphodiester bonds between these
mononucleotides from 5 to 3 and 3to 5, respectively, forming a leading strand and a lagging stand,
respectively.
Each new DNA molecule has one old parental DNA strand and one new DNA strand hence semi conservative
replication of DNA.
96
NB
DNA polymerase cannot catalyze the formation of phosphodiester bonds in the 3 to 5 direction and
therefore the 3 to 5 end is replicated in short sections, known as akazaki fragments. This is a lagging
strand because its synthesis is slow.
These fragments or sections are joined by the enzyme DNA ligase to form a continuous polynucleotide
chain.
They grew the remaining bacteria in a medium containing light nitrogen (14N) for several generations.
(i)
In the 1st generation (1st replication)
They grew the remaining bacteria in a medium containing light nitrogen (14N) for one generation.
After this first generation, they took the same known mass of a sample of these bacteria, isolated DNA
through centrifuging and put it in a separating solution, caesium chloride.
The DNA band occupied the middle position indicating that all the strands of DNA had heavy and light
strands, hence proving semi conservative replication of DNA.
(ii)
In the 2nd generation
They grew the remaining bacteria in a medium containing light nitrogen (14N) to get 2nd generation
After this 2nd generation, they took the same known mass of a sample of these bacteria, isolated DNA
through centrifuging and put it in a separating solution, caesium chloride.
The DNA had two bands in the separating solution with equal thickness i.e. a hybrid band of DNA in the
middle position and a light band of DNA near the top.
(iii)
In the 3rd generation
They grew the remaining bacteria in a medium containing light nitrogen (14N) to get 3nd generation
After this 3nd generation, they took the same known mass of a sample of these bacteria, isolated DNA
through centrifuging and put it in a separating solution, caesium chloride.
The DNA had two bands in the separating solution i.e. a hybrid band of DNA in the middle position whose
thickness was a third and a light band of DNA near the top whose thickness was two thirds. The ratio of
the light to hybrid band was 6:2 i.e. 3:1
Q.
Explain how Meselson and Stahls classic experiment supported the theory of semi-conservative
NB
However, in all replications, a parental strand ( 15N) will always be there, further giving evidence of semi
conservative replication of DNA
Questions
The bacteria in the medium absorbed
15
(iii)
for.
So, the genetic code is triplet in nature
The start triplet of bases (start signal) on the DNA strand is TAC
The stop triplets of bases (stop signals) on the DNA strand are ATT, ACT and ATC
The importance of triplet code
Allows for all the 20 different types of amino acids, start and stop signals to be coded for.
Gene
98
-A gene is a sequence of bases on one strand of DNA which codes for a polypeptide (sequence of amino acids), or it
is also a small section of DNA that codes for a polypeptide chain (chain of amino acids)
-Gene locus is the region on the chromosome where a gene is located.
PROTEIN SYNTHESIS
-This is the making of new proteins
-It takes place on the surface of ribosomes in the cytoplasm.
-However, proteins synthesis (joining of amino acids by peptide bonds on the surface of ribosomes) is controlled by
the DNA in the nucleus.
-So, there is a messenger that carries the genetic information from the DNA to the surface of ribosomes.
-The messenger is called mRNA. This mRNA is synthesized by the antisense DNA strand in the nucleus in a process
called transcription.
-The DNA cannot leave the nucleus because;
a) It is too large to pass through the nuclear pores
b) It is a master copy that should remain in the nucleus
c) Ribosomes are not in the nucleus.
-The protein synthesis has the following stages;
1. Transcription
2. Post transcription modification
3. Amino acid activation
4. Translation
Transcription in the eukaryotic cells.
a. Definition- This is the synthesis of mRNA by the antisense DNA strand in the nucleus through
complementary base pairs. Antisense DNA strand acts as a template to make mRNA
b. Process DNA helicase breaks down hydrogen bonds between the two strands of the DNA and separate them to
expose their bases.
The antisense DNA strand acts as a template to synthesis mRNA
Nucleotides bind to complementary nucleotides of the antisense DNA strand by hydrogen bonds
RNA polymerase catalysis the formation of phosphodiester bonds between the nucleotides, forming
mRNA.
The mRNA detaches from the antisense DNA strand
Post transcription modification
-
The mRNA (in eukaryotic cells) has sections called introns that do not code for amino acids, and others called
exons which code for amino acids. Introns are removed and exons joined by ligase enzyme to form a
Amino acid activation is the binding of amino acids to specific tRNA molecules at the end of 3
This binding requires;
1. An enzyme called amino acyl tRNA synthetase
2. Energy from ATP
Translation
Definition
This is the conversion of the sequence of codons (triplet of bases) on the mRNA into a sequence of amino
acids (polypeptide chain), on the surface of ribosomes.The mRNA acts as a template during translation.
The amino acids are joined by peptide bonds. These amino acids are carried to the surface of ribosomes by
specific tRNA molecules.
Role of molecules during protein synthesis
1. Antisense DNA strand
Acts as a template to synthesize mRNA molecule in the nucleus of a eukaryotic cell.
2. mRNA
- This is a copy of the antisense DNA strand formed by transcription in the nucleus.
- Carries genetic message in form of codons.
- It moves out of the nucleus to the ribosomes.
- On the surface of ribosomes, it acts as a template for translation.
3. tRNA
- It binds to a specific amino acid.
-It carries this amino acid to the mRNA on the surface of ribosome for translation.
- It therefore ensures correct sequence of amino acids.
4. Ribosomes- it holds together the enzymes, mRNA and tRNA during translation.
Description of terms during protein synthesis;
1. Cistron- The sequence of triplets on a section of DNA used to form a strand of pre-mRNA
2. Codon- this is a triplet of bases on the mRNA
3. Anti-codon- this is a triplet of bases on the tRNA, that is complementary to the codon on the mRNA.
Transcription
RNA polymerase catalyzes
3. A pair with T
4. Whole DNA molecule replicated
Note
Template strand or anti-sense strand is the DNA strand that synthesizes mRNA during transcription.
100
Sense strand /DNA strand that does not synthesize mRNA and is complementary to the template strand or anti
sense strand. However it is an exact copy of the m RNA, the difference being only Adenine and uracil hence it
is called sense strand.
GENE MUTATIONS
-A gene mutation is the change in a base sequence (nucleotide sequence) on the DNA and this gives rise to a change
in amino acid sequence in the protein.
-If mutations occur in reproductive cells, in ovaries and testes, then the gametes (sperm and egg cells) formed from
these reproductive cells will have mutations and can be inherited.
-If mutations occur in other cells they are not inheritable
Substances that can cause mutations are called mutagens and include;
1. Harmful chemicals e.g. nitrous acid
2. Ionizing radiations e.g. gamma rays
Organisms with mutations are called mutants
Types of gene (point) mutations
1. Frame shift gene mutations
This is when there is a change in the entire sequence of the codes/triplet of bases from the region of point of
mutation as a result of insertion or deletion of nucleotides.
Frame shift mutations have severe effects on polypeptide chains while non-frame shift mutations have mild
101
CF is caused by many different types of mutations and so any designed DNA tests
will detect few mutations and leave out others and therefore the person maybe
declared negative for CF, but it is a false negative.
A couple is declared negative for CF. However, they gave birth to a child who is a genetic
carrier for CF. Suggest reasons for this.
False negative. This is because the designed DNA tests did not detect other gene
mutations, hence a false negative result.
Mutation may have occurred in the egg or sperm cell, after the test was done.
Mutation occurs in the zygote.
CF analysis is done in the body cells (diploid cells) and not in the gametes (haploid cells).
Suggest reasons for this.
It is easier to obtain body cells.
Body cells are genetically similar.
Diploid cells have full no. of chromosomes and this allows mutations to be detected
from all the chromosomes; gametes, haploid cells, have half the no. of chromosomes.
List 3 human systems affected by CF.
Reproductive
Respiratory
Digestive
List 3 effects of respiratory CF.
Accumulation of mucus in the airways hence reduced airflow.
Reduced gas exchange between the alveoli and the capillaries surrounding
them.
Lack of energy that causes fatigue
Bacterial infection. This is because the mucus containing bacteria cannot
be removed from the airways because cilia have become functionless.
Breathing difficulties
Suggest reasons why heart and lung transplant maybe prescribed as a treatment for CF
Due to less oxygen reaching the heart, the heart becomes weak and may trigger
heart attack.
The lungs get infections and may affect breathing and gas exchange.
Explain why a CF patient has saltier sweat.
In a normal person, the chloride channel proteins in the epithelial cells of the sweat
duct in the sweat gland cause Cl ions to diffuse from the sweat in the sweat duct into
the sweat gland. This causes sodium ions and water to move in the same way
leaving behind little sweat with less Na and Cl.
In the CF patient, Cl ion channel is non-functional, causing accumulation of Cl ions in
the sweat in the sweat duct that also attract Na ions and water, so that there is more
sweat with a lot of salts.
103
104
(ii) Describe one possible advantage and one possible disadvantage of using gene therapy
to treat CF.
advantage
treats cause not symptoms ;
no, physiotherapy/antibiotics/etc, needed ;
less time consuming than others treatments ;
disadvantage
effects only last for a few days (at present)/low uptake by target cells ;
only target lung cells (at present) ;
side effects ;
THE EFFECT OF CF
1. Gas exchange (How CF affects the lungs)
thick/sticky/dehydrated,
mucus not moved effectively by cilia/mucus accumulates
reduced gaseous exchange/longer diffusion pathway
difficulty in breathing
infections/(mucus) traps bacteria
lungs are scarred
2. Digestion
-Mucus blocks the pancreatic duct ion the pancreas, so digestive enzymes cant reach the duodenum (small
intestine) and food is not properly digested. This leads to tiredness and difficulty in gaining weight this is due
to malnutrition
-Enzymes trapped within the pancreas cause fibrosed cysts (swellings) and damage to insulin producing cells ( cells), leading to diabetes.
3. Reproduction
-In women, mucus can block the cervix preventing entry of sperm hence infertility
-In men, the vas deferens (sperm ducts) is blocked with mucus so sperm cannot leave the epididymis
105
Questions
1. Make a take to show which tubes are blocked and what problems this leads to
Tube blocked
1. Bronchioles
2. Pancreatic duct
Problem
Less fresh air gets to alveoli leading to shortness of breath
Digestive enzymes (amylose, trypsin, and lipase) dont get into
duodenum. This leads to inefficient food digestion hence
3. Cervix
4. Vas deferens
infertility
Sperm cannot move to urethra, leading to infertility
What does CFTR not do properly when it is a product of a mutated allele and why does this make mucus
sticky? It does not allow Cl- ions out of the epithelial cells and it does not inhibit the Na + channels. Both of these
mean that the osmotic gradient is into the cell rather than out so, water is withdrawn from the mucus outside the
cell making it too sticky.
Make a table to show the effects of CF and how they are brought about
Effect of CF sufferer
1. Breathing problems
2. Lung infection
3. Poor weigh gain
Origin of effect
- Bronchioles blocked with sticky mucus stopping
-
infection
Blocked pancreatic duct prevent digestive enzymes
getting into smaller intestines hence inefficient food
4. Diabetes
5. Infertility in woman
6. Infertility is men
digestion
Due to blocked pancreatic duct, enzymes destroy
- cells that produce insulin
Mucus blocks cervix hence no passage of sperm
Sperm duct blocked by mucus
106
GENETICS
-This is the study of heredity and variation
-It deals with the transmission of genes from parents to offspring.
-The terms used are:
1. Gene
-Small section of DNA that codes for a polypeptide or sequence of bases on the DNA strand that codes for a
polypeptide (sequence of amino acids)
-It occupies a region on the chromosome called gene locus
-Usually a gene has two forms /alleles
2. Allele
-One of the alternative forms of a gene/different forms of a gene
-In a diploid cell, there are usually 2 alleles of any 1gene (1 from each parent which occupy a gene locus)
3. Phenotype
-This is the outward expression of the organism
-It is determined by the inherited alleles, environment, or interactions of the two.
-It is always expressed in words e.g. tall, short, green, black
4. Genotype
-This is the alleles of an organism i.e. it is the genetic composition of an organism
-It is expressed in both words and letters
Word
Homozygous dominant for height
Heterozygous for height
Homozygous recessive for height
Letters
TT
Tt
tt
5. Recessive
-This is an allele of a gene that does not express itself in presence of a dominant allele and only expresses itself in
homozygous state e.g tt, bb, dd
6. Dominant
-This is an allele of a gene that always expresses itself in both heterozygous and homozygous condition
TT
Tt
Tall
7. Homozygous
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Monohybrid crosses
1. Pea height dwarfnes is recessive to tallness
Parental phenotypes
Tall x dwarf
Parental Genotypes
TT x tt
Parental Gametes
(T) (T)
F1 genotypes
Tt Tt Tt Tt
F1 phenotypes
(t) (t)
F1 x F1
Parental phenotypes
Tall x Tall
Parental Genotype
Tt x Tt
Parental Gametes
(T) (t)
F2 genotypes
TT
F2 phenotypes
F2 Phenotypic ratio
3:1
(T) (t)
Tt Tt
tt
round x wrinkled
Parental Genotype
RR x rr
Parental Gametes
(R) (R)
(r) (r)
F1 genotypes
Rr
Rr Rr
F1 phenotypes
Rr
F1 x F1
Parental phenotypes
Round x Round
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Parental Genotype
Rr x
Rr
Parental Gametes
(R) (r)
(R) (r)
F2 genotypes
RR
F2 phenotypes
F2 phenotypes
ratio
3:
Rr
Rr
rr
3. In human genetics, it is not ethically accepted to set up crosses like in plants. The inheritance of characteristics
in humans is studied by looking at natural crosses and the production of offspring using genetic pedigree diagrams.
Genetic pedigree (family tree) is a diagram of family relationships that uses symbols to represent people and lines
to represent genetic relationships. Pedigrees are usually used to determine the mode of inheritance (dominant,
recessive etc) of genetic diseases
In a pedigree
(i)
(ii)
(iii)
(iv)
a) Cystic fibrosis
The disorder is caused by a recessive allele
Parental phenotypes
normal x normal
Parental Genotype
Ff x Ff
Parental Gametes
(F) (f)
F1 genotypes
FF Ff
F1 phenotypes
(F) (f)
Ff
ff
NB
The parents are genetic carriers. A carrier is an individual with a recessive allele for the condition and so does not
show the condition but can pass on the allele to the next generation.
From the above, the heterozygous parents for CF, have 25% chance of having a child with CF
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b) Albinism
-This condition is caused by a recessive allele
-Natural melanin pigment of the skin, eyes and hair does not form
-A mutant recessive allele prevents the formation of a normal tyrosinase in melanocytes (pigment forming cells)
hence no formation of melanin
-2 normal parents give birth to an albino. Show this is a genetic diagram.
Parental phenotypes
Normal x Normal
Parental Genotypes
Aa x Aa
Parental Gametes
(A) (a)
F1 genotypes
AA Aa Aa aa
F1 phenotypes
3 normal : 1 albino
F1 Phenotypic ratio
3:1
(A) (a)
Question
1. Is albinism caused by recessive/dominant allele?
-It is caused by recessive allele
-Because parent 1 and 2 do not show the disorder yet they have a child (4) with the condition
-If it was a dominant allele, the parents would show it
2. Using A and a for 2 alleles, write genotypes for all these people
1. Aa
2. Aa
3. AA or Aa
4. aa
5. Aa
6. aa
7. Aa
8. Aa
9. aa
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a) Give the name of a female who is homozygous for the C.F gene
b) Is CF caused by a dominant allele /recessive allele? Explain
it is a recessive allele this is because the parents do not show a disorder (Jane and Peter) hence not dominant. In
addition they have a child with CF (priya)
c) Give the name of a more who is heterozygous for a CF gene
Peter and Samir
d) If Fiona and samir had a 3rd child, state the probability that the 3rd child could have Cf
Parental genotype
Ff x Ff
Parental Gametes
F1 genotype
FF Ff Ff ff
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f) Suggest how an individual with the heterozygous genotype for this disorder could be identified.
1. Gene probe
2. Identification of base sequences of a gene /allele
c) Thelassaemia
-Caused by recessive allele
-Is an inherited autosomal recessive blood disease that prevents the formation of either or hemoglobin chains.
-This cause the formation of abnormal haemoglobin molecule causing symptoms of anaemia fatigue and lack of
energy due to insufficient oxygen in the blood (sickle cell anameia *qualitative) is not the same as the
thalassaemia (quantitative)
-So there are two types of thalassaemia:(i)
(ii)
Carries for this condition have protection against malaria, hence the condition contains a selective survival
possible
There is a range of treatments that combat different symptoms:
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1. Physiotherapy
It loosens and removes the thick, sticky mucus from the lungs so that:
a) There is improved flow of air into and out of the lungs.
b) There is more surface area available for gaseous exchange (alveoli).
c) There is less risk of infection because sticky mucus has bacteria.
Devices for physiotherapy include:
a) Flutter
b) Positive Expiratory Pressure (PEP) Valve
c) ThAIRapy bronchial drainage system
2. Diet
o
o
o
o
o
3. Digestive enzymes
To help overcome the effect of the blocked pancreatic duct, people with CF may take enzymes when they
have a meal. These enzymes include the trypsin, amylase and lipase, and help to replace the missing
pancreatic enzymes so that more of the food can be digested.
Combination of drugs needed for CF varies from person to person and overtime for an individual. These drugs
include:
A. Antibiotics: aerosols (inhalers) are used to breathe them deep into the lungs to destroy bacteria.
B. Vaccines: two vaccines are very important to prevent the patients against:
Flu Virus
Pneumonia
Flu and pneumonia add mucus hence worsening the condition.
C. Mucolytics: these are drugs to make the mucus more runny and so easier to move. i.e. dilate the airways
and make the mucus more liquid.
D. Asthma drugs: e.g. Salbutamol and steroids: these are used to dilate the airways and also reduce
inflammation in the lungs.
E. DNAase enzymes: infection of the lungs leads to the accumulation of white blood cells in the mucus. The
breakdown of these white blood cells release DNA which adds to the stickiness of the mucus. DNAase
enzymes can be inhaled using a nebulizer to breakdown the DNA so the mucus is thinner and easier to
clear from the lungs through coughing.
F. Insulin: If CF leads to diabetes, insulin is taken to control the blood sugar concentration.
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Due to severe damage of these organs, lungs and heart transplant remains the option.
However, after transplant immunosuppressant drugs should be taken throughout the rest of the life to
prevent rejection of the new tissue by the body. This suppresses the immune system, making it harder to
fight infection.
However, people with CF who have transplants, usually do very well.
6. Infertility treatment
Women can get children through fertility treatment as In vitro Fertilisation (IVF).
For men, sperm are taken from their testes and fertilize eggs in vitro (outside the body). The resulting
embryos are then returned to the mothers uterus to develop normally.
7. Gene therapy- This is the transfer of a normal gene/allele to a target cell so that it is expressed to produce a
functional protein.
GENE THERAPY
Why is gene therapy possible in treating CF
Cystic fibrosis is caused by a recessive allele of a single gene, hence a good
candidate
for gene therapy.
RESTRICTION ENZYMES
They have 2 functions where they cut DNA at restricted sites of specific bases.
1. They cut out the normal gene from the DNA in a staggered manner to get sticky ends which have
complementary bases to the bases of sticky ends of the vector.
2. They cut open a vector in a staggered manner to expose sticky ends that have bases complementary to
those of the sticky ends of the gene.
DNA LIGASE
It catalyses the formation of Hydrogen bonds between the complementary bases of the sticky ends of both
the gene and the vector, forming a recombinant DNA (rDNA).
VECTORS
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These are molecules that carry normal genes to the target cells.
There are 3 types of vectors:1. Viral DNA It is the best to transfer the normal gene to the animal target cells. The genes that cause
disease in this DNA are removed before it is used as a vector. However, its use as a vector has side
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
2.
3. Liposomes These are vesicles that consist of phospholipid bilayer. This layer is compatible with the
animal phopholipid bilayer of the plasma membrane, hence they can easily fuse.
THE PROCESS OF GENE THERAPY
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As genetic disorders have no cure, potential parents have the following options:(a) Avoid having a child with such a condition
(b) Start treatment immediately after birth which improves health in later years.
These options involve Genetic Screening/ Testing
GENETIC SCREENING
This is the identification of genetic carriers by the identification of a faulty allele in the DNA of any cells.
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A genetic carrier is an individual with a recessive allele for the condition and thus does not express the
condition but can pass on this allele to the offspring.
Examples of Genetic Screening are:1. Genetic Screening of new born babies
2. Genetic screening of adults
3. Pre-natal Genetic Screening
4. Pre-implantation Genetic Diagnosis (PIGD)
These new born babies are tested for defective alleles for genetic disorders such as CF.
The blood sample is taken and the defective genes identified.
This will help in the introduction of early treatment, in case they are sick, in terms medicine and nutrition
which improves health in later years.
This falls into 3 categories:a) If one member of a family is born with CF, the other members of the family need genetic screening.
b) If one partner in a couple has been detected to be a carrier then the other partner needs genetic
screening because in case of CF which is caused by a recessive allele, there is a quarter chance that the
child will have the disease. So genetic screening helps the couple to make informed decisions.
c) A person can go for genetic screening irrespective of the above two reasons.
(b) Explain why it is necessary to test for several different recessive alleles in the
screening for cystic fibrosis.
Cystic fibrosis results from one of a number of different gene mutations.
So, testing for only one will miss other recessive alleles.
(c) In the risk analysis shown, if neither partner is a carrier then it is considered
that the chance of having a child with cystic fibrosis is low. Explain why the
probability of having a child with cystic fibrosis is low and not zero.
False negatives
Screening programme does not test for all possible mutations that can cause CF
Mutation may occur in the formation of gametes
Mutation may occur after fertilisation.
(d) In the risk analysis shown, if one of the partners is found to be a carrier then screening for cystic fibrosis may
be offered to other family members. Explain why this screening is offered to other family members.
This involves genetic testing of embryos or foetuses. Its divided into two:
a) Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS)
b) Amniocentesis
Placental tissue is removed from the uterus of the mother within 8 10 weeks of pregnancy using a
syringe.
Fetal cells are present in the placental tissue.
DNA is analyzed in those fetal cells through Karyotyping DNA analysis to detect defective genes.
ADVANTAGES OF CVS
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1. If termination of pregnancy is needed its less traumatic for the mother as this method is carried out early in
the pregnancy.
2. Results are available immediately compared to amniocentesis.
DISADVANTAGES OF CVS
1. Risk of miscarriage due to procedure.
2. Risk of harm to foetus due to procedure.
3. Defective X chromosomes cant be detected at this early stage as X chromosomes are inactive in fetal
placental cells.
4. False positives
5. False negatives.
HOW AMNIOCENTESIS CAN BE USED TO DETECT CF
About 20cm3 of amniotic fluid is removed from the amniotic sac of the mother using a syringe within 14
16 weeks of pregnancy.
This amniotic fluid has fetal cells that are needed.
These cells are cultured for 2 3 weeks.
DNA is analysed through Karyotyping DNA analysis to detect defective genes.
ADVANTAGES OF AMNIOCENTESIS
1. Less risk of miscarriage compared to CVS.
2. Defects in X chromosomes can be detected.
DISADVANTAGES OF AMNIOCENTESIS
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
If someone does not realise that they are pregnant till later.
Risk of genetic disease is not recognised till later into the pregnancy.
Low levels of miscarriage.
Can detect defective genes in X chromosome.
4.
5.
6.
7.
False negatives.
Risk of miscarriage whether the foetus is healthy or not.
The cost of bringing up a baby with the condition.
Mental and emotional issues surrounding the birth of a child with the condition.
Peace of mind.
Preparation for treatment.
Gives information about abnormalities in foetus.
To make informed decisions, i.e. whether to terminate the baby or not.
This is genetic screening of embryos created through IVF to see if they carry faulty alleles so that the
embryo that does not have faulty alleles is implanted into the woman.
After cell division through IVF, when the embryo is 8 16 cells, a single cell is removed without harming
the embryo for DNA analysis to find out if there is a faulty/defective allele. The embryo that does not have
faulty allele is implanted into the woman.
ADVANTAGES OF PIGD
1. Can take place before woman is pregnant hence no miscarriage or termination of pregnancy.
2. Involves IVF hence one is sure that the baby is free of disease not even a carrier.
DISADVANTAGES OF PIGD
1. Very expensive.
2. Quite unreliable.
3. False positives Hence embryo destroyed. Some people consider it as a potential human being. So, it is
4.
5.
6.
7.
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