Environmental Sciences, 12, 3 (2005) 121131

MYU Tokyo

Parikesit et al.

121

ES587

Multi-Source Water Pollution in the Upper Citarum

Watershed, Indonesia, with Special Reference
to Its Spatiotemporal Variation
Parikesit*, H. Salim, E. Triharyanto, B. Gunawan1,
Sunardi, O.S. Abdoellah1 and R. Ohtsuka2
The Institute of Ecology and Department of Biology, Padjadjaran University,
Jl. Sekeloa No. 1, Bandung 40132, Indonesia
1
The Institute of Ecology and Department of Anthropology, Padjadjaran University,
Jl. Sekeloa No. 1, Bandung 40132, Indonesia
2
National Institute for Environmental Studies, 16-2 Onogawa, Tsukuba 305-0053, Japan
(Received February 7, 2005; accepted March 2, 2005)
Key words:

landscape, land use, mitigation, pesticide, industrial waste

The Citarum River in West Java is the largest water supplier to the Saguling Dam, which
plays a major role in electric power generation for the entire Java Island and is used for the
aquaculture of marketed fish. To elucidate the extent of degradation in water quality and its
causes in the Upper Citarum watershed, physical, chemical and biological parameters for
water samples collected from various sites were analyzed. The results demonstrate large
site-to-site variations in water qualities and pollutant loads derived from various human
activities such as agriculture, cattle raising and the textile industry. To halt worsening
conditions of the Citarum watershed, integrated mitigation efforts should be made, taking
biophysical pollution mechanisms and local socioeconomic conditions into account.

1.

Introduction

In densely populated Java Island in Indonesia, more than half of the electric power is
generated at power plants, using water reserved in three large dams located in West Java (Fig.
1). Of these dams, the uppermost one, called Saguling, has been seriously damaged due to
sedimentation and water pollution. The amount of sedimentation was estimated at about 4
million m3 over a period of one year in 2000, or about 55 million m3 over a 15-year period
since its construction. Regarding the water pollution, there are two major problems. First,
the inhabitants in relatively flat terrain around the Saguling Lake (dam) are unable to lay
water pipes from the surrounding hills and thus they have used the lake water for drinking
*

E-mail: pampang@melsa.net.id

121

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Fig. 1. Map of the study area, showing the location of 11 sites for water sampling.

and cooking. Second, the lake aquaculture relied upon by many fishermen has been
damaged due to the death of fish, common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in particular. Also
problematic are health effects on the people around the lake and in a wider area of West Java
who consume the cultured fish. The polluted situation was evident in the recent reports; for
instance, Salim and Pandi(1) revealed that concentrations of heavy metals such as cadmium
(Cd), copper (Cu), nickel (Ni) and lead (Pb) were high in two indigenous fish species,
Oreochromis nilotica and Hampala macrolepidota.
The segmentation and water pollution of the Saguling Dam have been primarily caused
by human activities in the watershed area. Water flowing into this dam is supplied primarily
from four rivers running from the south. Of them, the Citarum River, which is about 350 km
in length from its source, is the largest supplier. To assess water quality in this watershed
and the sources of pollution, the authors have examined physical, chemical and biological
water quality and the pollutant loads at various sites along the Citarum and other rivers as
well as the Saguling Dam in the wet and dry seasons. Using the data for samples collected
at 11 sites in the Upper Citarum watershed, this paper aims to clarify the situation in relation
to occupational activities, such as agriculture, cattle raising and textile industry, as well as
to domestic wastes.

Environmental Sciences, 12, 3 (2005) 121131

2.

Materials and Methods

2.1

The study area

Parikesit et al.

123

The Upper Citarum watershed denotes the area from the source of the river around Mt.
Wayang to the town Majalaya located about 25 km away from the Saguling Dam (Fig. 1).
Topographically, steep slopes dominate the uppermost area, below which undulating slopes
extend downward, and then flat terrain predominates. The annual rainfall reaches 1,500
2,500 mm with seasonal differences; monthly amounts are from 183 mm (April) to 564 mm
(February) in the wet season and from 10 mm (September) to 55 mm (May) in the dry season.
The mean daily minimum and maximum temperatures are about 25C and 30C throughout
the year.
In the Upper Citarum watershed, natural vegetation has almost disappeared because of
various human activities long ago and with an accelerated pace in the recent decades. The
present landscape consists of several components, most of which are man-made. Secondary
forest reserves, less than 500 ha, in the high-altitude area around Mt. Wayang are managed
by the states forestry company, called Perhutani. In the same zone, logging forest, in which
pine trees (Pinus merkusii) are mainly planted, covers approximately 1,100 ha. Other types
of land use in the uppermost part are tea plantations and dryland fields for vegetables as well
as village settlements. As the elevation decreases, the number of irrigated paddy fields
increases. In the flat zone in the lower part, textile industries have been developed; in 1998,
there were 845 factories. This watershed is characterized by high population density,
particularly in the lower area.

2.2

Water sampling and analysis

Water sampling was carried out at 11 sites within the Upper Citarum watershed, 4 from
the main stream, 6 from the mouths of its tributaries and 1 from a creek, both in the wet and
dry seasons (Fig. 1, Table 1); at site 8, the sampling was not done in the rainy season due to
extremely rapid flow. Before sampling, the amount of water discharge (flow) was measured
to calculate the amount of pollutant load per day, taking the width and the depth of river/creek
into account: pollutant load (kg/day) = discharge (L/sec) concentration (mg/L or g/L)
86400/106 (or 109). The pollutant loads are largely affected by the size of river/creek; only
comparisons of those at sites 5, 8 and 11, located in the main stream, are worthy of
consideration.
Five-liter water samples were collected, using a Kemmerer water sampler. At the
sampling, water temperature, turbidity (total suspended solid, TSS, and total dissolved solid,
TDS), conductivity and acidity (pH) were measured. Then, the sample was mixed with
highly concentrated NO3 and HCl and kept until analysis: chemical and physical analyses
for pesticides and metals with the methods proposed by the American Public Health
Association,(2) and biological analyses for bacteria and planktons with microscopic methods.
The main human activities causing pollution were categorized into agriculture (pesticides
and fertilizers), cattle raising (mostly dung), textile industry (chemicals) and domestic life
(mostly feces). The parameters examined totaled 23, 17 of which are treated in this paper:
nitrate, nitrite, phosphate, parathion, lindane, DDT, methoxychlor (organochlorine group of
pesticides), TSS and TDS by agriculture; dissolved oxygen (DO), chemical oxygen demand

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Table 1
Basic characteristics of the 11 water sampling sites.
Site Location

Major pollutant sources*

Remarks

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11

D-R agriculture, Tea plantation, Domestic

D-R agriculture, Cattle raising, Domestic
D-R agriculture, Cattle raising, Domestic
D-R agriculture, Domestic
Combined
W-R agriculture, D-R agriculture#, Domestic
W-R agriculture, Domestic
Combined, Sand mining
W-R agriculture, Domestic
Textile industry
Combined

Main stream
Tributary
Tributary
Tributary
Main stream
Tributary
Tributary
Main stream
Tributary
Creek
Main stream

Only in the dry season

Samples in dry season only

High population density
High population density

*D-R agriculture: dryland agriculture of vegetables, W-R agriculture: wetland agriculture of paddy.

(COD), biochemical oxygen demand (BOD), Cu, zinc (Zn) and surfactants from industry;
and COD, BOD, Escherichia coli and coliform from cattle raising and domestic wastes.

2.3

Interview survey

A survey by interview, in association with direct observation, was conducted with the
local farmers and tea plantation laborers to clarify the agricultural activities in the dry and
wet seasons, focusing on the input and output of pollutants in each season.

3.

Results and Discussion

3.1

Human activities and pollutants

Human activities vary in association with the heterogeneous landscape in the Upper
Citarum watershed. In the uppermost part over 1,000 m above sea level, there is a large tea
plantation (slightly above site 1) owned by a foreign company. As reported by Gunawan et
al.,3) however, the vast remaining land has been used as forest reserves, logging forests,
agroforestry lands (called tumpang sari system) and dryland fields. Cash cropping of
vegetables such as carrot, cabbage, spring onion, red pepper and Irish potato has been
thriving for three decades. According to the survey, approximately 2,980 ha of previous
forestland, which corresponds to 15.8% of the total area of the uppermost part, has been used
for this purpose; nowadays, illegal use of forestland for cash cropping is quite common.
Along with intensification of agricultural practices, the amounts of chemical fertilizers and
pesticides used have markedly increased. This study recorded 42 pesticide brands classified
into three groups, i.e. carbamates, organophosphates and organochlorines. Fungicides are
also used commonly to prevent plant diseases, particularly in the wet season when vegetable
growing is intense. Surprisingly, DDT, which has been banned by the law, is still used.
Raising dairy cattle in a shed near a dwelling has become another main income generating
activity in this area with support of the government to cope with the land shortage. Thus,
a large number of cows are kept in a narrow space. In contrast to the uppermost area,

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125

agricultural activities in the lower part are dominated by monoculture of paddies in irrigated
fields, although dryland agriculture has recently been conducted to some extent.
In the lowest part of the Upper Citarum watershed in and around Majalaya, the textile
industry has long history; in this study period, more than 800 textile factories were under
operation. When a relatively small number of workers in sand milling and brick-making,
using sand and soil from the water bed, are added, about 222,200 persons are engaged in nonagricultural activities. Regarding water pollution, various kinds of chemicals thrown away
from the textile factories cause serious pollution, although their amounts were not captured
in this study.

3.2

Spatiotemporal variation in water quality and pollutant loads

The spatial differences in water quality and pollutant loads were basically attributable to
occupational activities conducted around each site; in addition, population density was
related to the amount of domestic waste, particularly because human excreta entered the
water due to the lack of a sewage system. The temporal differences were basically caused
by agricultural cycles, including intense vegetable growing in the wet season, for concentrations of agriculture-derived pollutants and by seasonal changes in rainfall for pollutant
loads.
Since there were large site-to-site variations in human activities, water quality and
pollutant loads are delineated here for each site or two to three adjacent sites with a similar
pollution pattern: concentrations of the parameters in Table 2, their differences from those
at the lowest site 11 in Fig. 2, and their pollutant loads in Table 3.
Site 1
At this site, very close to the spring as the headwater of Citarum, many
parameters showed high levels. Particularly high were nitrate, nitrite and methoxychlor in
the wet season and E. coli, coliform, COD and BOD in the dry season. The former pollutants
were due to agricultural chemicals used in not only dryland fields but also tea plantations.
According to the authors survey, the average amounts of pesticides (consisting of urea,
triple superphosphate, and muriate of potash) and fertilizers sprayed per 0.1 ha were,
respectively, 83 and 0.8 kg in cabbage gardens and 32 and 1.2 kg in carrot gardens; for
cultivation of potato, larger amounts of chemicals may have been used, though this crop was
not grown during the investigation period. The latter pollutants, i.e. E. coli, coliform, COD
and BOD, were judged to come from cattle raising and domestic waste because there was
no industrial factory, as ascertained by low levels of typical industrially produced pollutants
such as DO and surfactants. The field observation revealed that waste, especially cattle dung
from dairy farms, was dumped into nearby water and that the latrines of more than half of
the households were built along the riverbank. However, it has been questioned why the two
kinds of bacterial concentrations were high in the dry season only.
Sites 24 Despite their short distance from site 1, these sites showed markedly different
pollution patterns. All parameters with high concentrations at site 1, except methoxychlor,
had lower values. Parathion, phosphate and lindane levels were high in the wet season, with
considerable site-to-site variations due to different agricultural patterns. Also noted was
high concentration of DDT, which has long been banned in Indonesia; further systematic
investigation is needed for this pesticide. These sites were also characterized by low levels
of any parameters affected by animal and human waste simply because cattle raising was less
popular and village settlements were located below the water sampling sites.

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Table 2
Concentrations of 17 selected parameters at sites 1 to 11 in the wet and dry seasons.
A. Wet season

TDS (mg/L)
TSS (mg/L)
Nitrate (mg/L)
Nitrite (mg/L)
Phosphate (mg/L)
Lindane (g/L)
Parathion (g/L)
Methoxychlor (g/L)
DDT (g/L)
DO (mg/L)
COD (mg/L)
BOD (mg/L)
Surfactant (mg/L)
Zinc (mg/L)
Copper (mg/L)
E. coli (JPT/mL)*
Coliform (JPT/mL)*

126
10
3.41
0.40
0.08
0.47
0.23
4.12
nd
3.46
45.7
22.2
0.02
0.03
0.0l
3
3

92
9
3.00
0.01
0.43
0.91
1.68
4.75
0.65
8.19
1.9
1.2
0.03
0.02
0.01
0
0

1
162
12
1.34
0.31
0.13
0.05
nd
nd
0.04
5.67
70.8
28.2
0.03
0.04
0.01
24000
46000

78
52
78
12
18
19
1.14 1.48 1.01
0.15 0.06 0.03
0.37 0.42 0.40
0.74 0.62 0.54
1.65 1.45 1.59
0.28 3.26 0.96
0.36 0.35 0.08
7.56 7.87 7.71
17.1
7.6 15.3
8.2
4.6
6.8
0.01 0.03 0.01
0.02 0.03 0.02
0.00 0.01 0.00
230 240 460
430 2400 1100

56
30
1.21
0.01
0.42
0.65
1.97
1.02
0.32
7.95
7.6
4.2
0.07
0.02
0.00
32
93

71
22
1.55
0.02
0.43
0.54
1.24
0.92
0.26
8.03
17.1
8.6
0.08
0.03
0.01
43
240

96
18
0.56
0.01
0.20
0.50
nd
nd
0.09
7.29
12.3
8.4
0.01
0.02
0.01
240
240

98
40
1.01
0.34
0.02
0.93
nd
nd
0.05
7.29
38.0
18.2
0.04
0.03
0.01
230
230

104
47
0.77
0.01
0.20
0.09
2.90
nd
0.05
8.91
8.2
4.6
0.05
0.05
0.01
230
460

96
80
0.89
0.01
0.16
nd
4.64
nd
0.09
7.61
45.1
21.2
0.06
0.02
0.01
400
460

10

11

84 422
40
40
40 120
1.48 3.34 9.42
0.24 0.06 0.17
0.27 1.02 0.95
0.52 0.46 0.59
0.93 0.64 0.98
0.59 2.66 2.52
0.27 0.75 0.18
6.85 12.89 6.93
35.2 162.9 149.9
18.2 40.6 38.2
0.03 0.13 0.06
0.03 0.04 0.07
0.01 0.01 0.04
460 460 240
2400 2400 1100

Note: No data at site 8.

B. Dry season

TDS (mg/L)
TSS (mg/L)
Nitrate (mg/L)
Nitrite (mg/L)
Phosphate (mg/L)
Lindane (g/L)
Parathion (g/L)
Methoxychlor (g/L)
DDT (g/L)
DO (mg/L)
COD (mg/L)
BOD (mg/L)
Surfactant (mg/L)
Zinc (mg/L)
Copper (mg/L)
E. coli (JPT/mL)*
Coliform (JPT/mL)*

* The most probable number (MPN).

96 260
31
60
0.68 1.63
0.02 0.02
0.17 0.19
0.24 0.09
4.67 4.60
nd
nd
0.04
nd
8.07 8.04
6.2 19.5
3.6 10.2
0.06 0.07
0.02 0.02
0.01 0.01
90 11000
110 11000

8
88
110
0.85
0.01
0.20
nd
0.01
nd
nd
8.23
23.6
11.2
0.04
0.03
0.00
230
460

10

11

106
610
138
91
42
61
1.96
4.34 1.42
0.02
0.07 0.30
0.38
0.03 0.26
0.38
0.05 0.32
7.40
5.68 8.56
nd
nd
nd
0.11
nd
nd
7.93
8.10 5.82
36.9 137.4 18.5
18.2
60.2
8.2
0.03
0.12 0.08
0.03
0.03 0.07
0.02
0.02 0.04
930 21000 24000
930 46000 46000

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127

Fig. 2. Percent concentration of each parameter at the 10 sites relative to that at site 11. White bar:
wet season, Black bar: dry season.

Site 5
This site is located in the main Citarum River, at the lowest part of the
uppermost area. Thus, the pollutants at this site reflected the combined pollutions in the
upper watershed, including those at the four sites mentioned above. Because of natural
purification mechanisms, the concentrations of most parameters were lower than those at
sites 14; the pollutant loads at this site are discussed later in relation to those at site 8.
Sites 6 and 7
These two sites are located at the mouths of the tributaries, and most
inhabitants in this area are engaged in wetland paddy agriculture, though dryland agriculture

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Table 3
Discharge (L/sec) and pollutant loads (kg/day) of 15 selected parameters at sites 1 to 11 in the wet and
dry seasons.
A. Wet season
1

Discharge

300

110

446

336

2967

649

753

TDS
TSS
Nitrate
Nitrite
Phosphate

3266
264
88
10
2

874
82
28
0
4

Lindane
Parathion
Methoxychlor
DDT
DO
COD
BOD
Surfactant
Zinc
Copper

12
6
107
nd
90
1185
575
0.6
0.8
0.2

9
16
45
6
78
18
11
0.3
0.2
0.1

3021 1510 19995 3140 4619

478 528 4768 1693 1457
44
43
258
68 101
6
2
7
1
1
14
12
102
24
28
29
64
11
14
291
661
316
0.5
0.9
0.2

18
42
95
10
228
221
134
0.8
1
0.1

137
408
247
22
1977
3914
1743
2
4
1.0

36
35
111
81
57
60
18
17
446 522
427 1115
236 560
4
5
1
2
0.2
0.7

10

89

173

15870

11

646 6308
311 604
11
50
2
1
2
15

54843
164804
12920
236
1305

4
7
7
10
5
40
2
11
53 193
271 2434
140 607
0.2
2
0.2
0.6
0.1
0.2

806
1344
3456
244
9496
205553
52375
82
97
49

Note: No data at site 8.

B. Dry season

Discharge
TDS
TSS
Nitrate
Nitrite
Phosphate
Lindane
Parathion
Methoxychlor
DDT
DO
COD
BOD
Surfactant
Zinc
Copper

60

47

348

840
63
7
2
0.7
0.3
nd
nd
0.2
29
367
146
0.2
0.2
0

390 2947
75 1215
2
30
0.1
10
0.8
0.5
2
28
nd
nd
nd
nd
0.4
2
30 219
50 1141
34 547
0
1
0.1
1
0
0.2

2480

330

228

270

30

5571 20570
2507 17185
41
190
0.7
2
11
35
5
nd
155
994
nd
nd
3
19
477 1631
440 9670
246 4543
3
14
3
5
0.4
1

1597
861
35
0.4
12
19
56
29
9
227
217
120
2
0.6
0.1

62

5122 2953
1190 2571
32
20
0.5
0.2
4
5
2
nd
91
0.2
nd
nd
nd
nd
158 192
384 550
201 261
1
0.9
0.4
0.7
0.1
0

10
52

11
935

275 2741 11148

235 190 4912
5
20
115
0.1
0.3
24
1
0.1
21
1
0.2
24
19
26
692
nd
nd
nd
0.3
nd
nd
21
36
470
96 618 1490
47 270
662
0.1
0.5
6
0.1
0.1
6
0
0.1
3

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129

has also been conducted in recent years. Concentrations of many parameters affected by
agriculture, cattle raising, domestic life and industrial activities showed low levels in general
compared to other sites. A major exception was the highest parathion level in the wet season
at site 6, although it did not markedly differ from the levels at sites 24. The pollutant loads
of some agriculture-derived parameters were high, but, as mentioned previously, these loads
were affected by the size of water stream, and the amounts of discharge were relatively larger
in these sites. In summary, low concentrations of many parameters at these sites indicate less
harmful effects of wetland agriculture than dryland agriculture.
Site 8
This site is located in the Citarum main river. The concentrations and
pollutant loads can be compared to those at site 5, though the sampling was done only in the
dry season. In general, all indicators showed similar levels between the two sites, suggesting
that the water quality does not markedly differ throughout the main stream up to site 8. The
highest level of TSS in the dry season at this site is considered to have come from the sand
mining activities conducted in this area.
Site 9
This site is located in a tributary but close to a densely populated village and
rice fields. Comparison with other sites revealed that many agriculture-derived parameters
were higher at this site in the dry season, although their absolute levels were mostly higher
in the wet season. It is therefore considered that high concentrations of these parameters
were not primarily caused by agricultural chemicals. Also characteristic of this site were
higher levels of E. coli and coliform, particularly in the wet season, reflecting high
population density.
Site 10
This site, located at a small creek near textile industries and along a densely
populated settlement, showed a markedly different pattern of pollution. Except for lindane,
almost all parameters had higher levels at this site than at sites 19. It is therefore clear that
the chemicals thrown away from textile industries and domestic waste from the settlements
played major roles in pollution, even though this study failed to fully clarify the reasons why
some agriculture-derived parameters were so high at this site.
Site 11
This site, located at the main river just below Majalaya town, represents the
entire pollution of the Upper Citarum watershed, and its water quality is basically identical
with that in the Saguling Dam. Concentrations of many parameters were, in general, similar
between this site and site 10, indicating that degradation of water quality in the Upper
Citarum watershed is mostly caused by industrial and other human activities in Majalaya
town. In this regard, it should be noted that water discharge was much smaller at site 10 than
this site, but many small creeks and rivers flow into the main stream of the Citarum around
Majalaya.

3.3

Impacts of worsening water quality

Impacts of the worsened water quality of the Citarum River are broadly classified into
health effects and environmental degradation. It is less likely to cause direct health damage
to the local inhabitants simply because river water is not used for drinking and cooking. As
pointed out by Wilson and Tisdell,(4) however, there is a high probability that industrial
pesticides damage human health through the atmosphere; in fact, concentrations of many
pollutants in this area exceeded the threshold levels.
In contrast, environmental degradation is manifest. Algal bloom has been very common

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in the reservoirs, rice fields and fishponds, where water is stagnant. In several parts, algae
belonging to such genera as Microcystis, Anabaena, Schenedesmus and Oscillatoria form
an extensive mat on the water surface. Similar mats are also formed by some macrophytes
such as Eichornia crassipes, Salvinia spp. and Hydrilla spp. Water beneath the macrophyte
mats becomes anaerobic, enhancing ammonia formation, damaging the biotic communities,
and perhaps increasing evapotranspiration from water.
This study suggests that organic matter degrades faster than inorganic matter due to
relatively large amounts of oxygen dissolved in water. Morphology of the upper part of the
river basin causes high water turbulence, which, in turn, could increase oxygen concentration. Nevertheless, a large amount of oxygen use for decomposing organic matter decreases
dissolved oxygen (DO). This condition is not favorable for fish communities. Salim et al.(5)
revealed that the diversity of fish species was strikingly reduced in low-DO water in this
river, to allow survival of only a few species such as Liposarcus pardalis. Histological
damage by heavy metals such as Cd, Ni, Cu, Pb and chromium (Cr) on fish organs was also
revealed for two species, Oreochromis nilotica and Hampala macrolepidota, commonly
found in this watershed;(1) similar harmful effects of heavy metals on aquatic ecosystems
have been reported from other areas.(6,7) Furthermore, Salim and van der Putte(8) argued that
water turbulence in the reservoirs in the Citarum area could dilute suspended heavy metals
and that they enter the food chain where biomagnification processes occur.

4.

Conceptual Framework for Mitigation

This study has revealed that the water quality of the Citarum watershed has been
degraded by various human activities, with large spatial variations and seasonal differences.
The overall pollution level was largely determined by industrial activities in the lower part,
although the extent of pollution even in the upper part, where household-based agricultural
and cattle raising activities and tea plantations are predominant, exceeded the threshold
levels within which natural purification mechanisms function.
To consider mitigations in the upper parts, focus should be on the farmers activities. It
is clear that traditional wetland cultivation of paddy is based on a closed and circulatory flow
system of materials much more than dryland cultivation of vegetables as cash crops. In this
regard, however, it is necessary to recognize that most farmers are small-holders and
scarcely take into account the impact of their agricultural activities on the environment, as
has been emphasized by Swallow et al.(9) The present authors observations and interviews
disclosed that the farmers have developed their agricultural strategies to cope with high
population density and poor economic situations. To reduce the amounts of harmful
pesticides in particular and to improve waste management, technological innovations in, for
instance, vegetable growing with small amounts of pesticides and financial support from the
outside, especially the government, for empowerment of the local people are needed.
In contrast, textile industries in the lower part have been performing on a much large scale
with large amounts of investment, mostly from overseas countries. However, the current
environmental regulation policy for the industrial sector has been less effective for
environmental preservation. Although the manufacturing processes, including use and
discharge of chemicals, have not yet been grasped, the pollutant concentrations revealed in

Environmental Sciences, 12, 3 (2005) 121131

Parikesit et al.

131

this study suggest a high possibility that the regulation system is far behind the standards
approved internationally or in most developed countries. Thus, the polluter payment
principle and some other environmentally sound policies should be launched.
Apart from mitigation plans specific to each sector, an integrated approach should be
considered, taking into account not only biophysical aspects but also social, economic and
technological aspects of environment use. Particularly important is to avoid conflicts among
different parties, each of which has responsibilities for degradation of water quality. An
effective approach seems to inform all parties what kinds of environmental degradation have
been taking place and what their major causes are. For this purpose, Gustafson et al.(10)
emphasized the roles of effective tools for water quality management, paying special
attention to the perspectives of watershed. For instance, creation of a comprehensive
watershed database, using the geographical information system (GIS), in tandem with
development of environmental education, will contribute to understanding the situation and
enhancing incentives to change behavioral and management patterns.

Acknowledgments
This study was financially supported by the Kurita Water and Environment Foundation.
The authors thank Dendi, Mulyadi, Yayan, Irna and Abdul for assistance during the work.

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