BHOPAL GAS DISASTER

Judicial failure
V. VENKATESAN
Twenty-five years after the disaster, the principle of absolute liability, the cornerstone of
litigation, faces the risk of being diluted.

A MAN ARRIVES for a memorial service for the 1984 gas disaster victims on the 25th
anniversary of the world's worst industrial accident, near the old Union Carbide factory
in Bhopal on December 3.

THE 25th anniversary of the Bhopal gas disaster has justifiably attracted considerable
attention not only to the plight of the survivors but to the failure to secure justice for
them. How prepared the country is to meet disasters of a similar scale and force their
perpetrators to compensate the victims adequately is an equally important issue to
consider during the anniversary.
For long, the Indian judiciarys attitude towards mass disasters was governed by the rule
laid down in the English case Rylands vs Fletcher (1866). According to this rule, there are
certain industrial activities which, though lawful, are so fraught with the possibility of
harm to others that the law has to treat them as allowable only on the term of insuring the
public against injury. The rule is also called the principle of strict liability.
The facts in that case were that the defendant, who owned a mill, constructed a reservoir
to supply water to the mill. This reservoir was constructed over old coal mines, and the
mill owner had no reason to suspect that these old diggings led to an operating colliery.
The water in the reservoir ran down the old shafts and flooded the colliery. The mill
owner was made liable for the damages resulting from the flooding.

There are many activities that are so hazardous that they may constitute a danger to the
person or property of another. The principle of strict liability states that the undertakers of
these activities have to compensate for the damage caused by them irrespective of any
fault on their part. Permission to conduct such activity is in effect made conditional on its
absorbing the cost of the accidents it causes as an appropriate item of its overheads. Over
the years, this principle got severely diluted in England, and several exceptions to the rule
were recognised by English courts. Such exceptions included natural disasters, the act of
a third party (sabotage), the plaintiffs own fault or consent, and the natural use of land by
the defendant or a statutory authority.
Traditionally, the principle of strict liability allowed for the growth of hazardous
industries while ensuring that such enterprises would bear the burden of the damage they
caused when a hazardous substance escaped. The Supreme Court of India got the first
opportunity to review this rule in 1985, soon after the Bhopal tragedy. This was the
Shriram gas leak case, which was decided by the Supreme Court in December 1986. In
this case, the petitioner M.C. Mehta, an environment lawyer, sought the courts directions
to close and relocate the caustic chlorine and sulphuric acid plants of the company
Shriram, which were located in a thickly populated part of Delhi. Shortly after Mehta
filed the petition, on December 4, 1985, oleum leaked from Shrirams sulphuric acid
plant, causing widespread panic in the surrounding community. The ongoing Bhopal
litigation influenced the courts decision in this case considerably.
In the wake of the Bhopal gas leak disaster, Union Carbide Corporation (UCC), the
parent company of Union Carbide India Limited (UCIL), which ran the pesticide unit,
presented a sabotage theory to shield itself from the claims of the victims. UCC alleged
that a disgruntled employee working in the factory had triggered the escape of the gas.
Such a theory afforded a defence under the rule of strict liability.
The Supreme Court rejected the rule of strict liability, and in its place applied its new
doctrine of absolute liability. According to this, where an enterprise is engaged in a
hazardous or inherently dangerous activity and an accident in such an operation results in
the escape of a toxic gas, the enterprise is strictly and absolutely liable to compensate all
those who are affected by the accident, and such liability is not subject to any of the
exceptions under the rule of strict liability.
The Madhya Pradesh High Court first applied the absolute liability theory to support its
award of interim compensation to the victims, on April 4, 1988. The High Courts view
was that after the no-exception standard of Shriram, UCCs liability was
unquestionable. However, this judgment was never implemented in view of the final
settlement reached under the auspices of the Supreme Court in 1989.
In 1992, however, the Supreme Court, while hearing a petition from UCC to review the
final settlement, recognised the corporations right to raise and urge defences, thus
questioning the validity of its own without exception absolute liability principle. This
ruling of the Bhopal Review Bench was a setback to the courts enunciation of the
absolute liability principle in the Shriram case.

GAS LEAK SURVIVORS demonstrating with an effigy of former Union Carbide

chairman Warren Anderson after the Chief Judicial Magistrate, Bhopal, issued an arrest
warrant against him.
Fortunately, the court, in 1996, accepted the validity of the absolute liability principle in
the Bichhri case. In this case, units located in an industrial complex in Bichhri, Rajasthan,
devastated the environment by discharging untreated toxic chemicals and sludge. The
court found that all the regulatory agencies, including the Central government, had failed
to force the polluter to pay. The court disagreed with the finding of the Bhopal Review
Bench that the absolute liability principle laid down in the Shriram case was obiter
dictum. It held that it was bound by the principle. In another case, involving pollution
caused by the discharge of untreated effluent by industries in Tamil Nadu (Vellore
Citizens Welfare Forum vs Union of India, 1996), the Supreme Court applied the
principle of absolute liability to even non-toxic pollution cases.
The court explained that the polluter pays principle required the polluter not only to
compensate the victims of the pollution but also to pay remedial costs to restore the
damaged ecology. It also held that once the activity carried on was hazardous, or
inherently dangerous, the person carrying on such activity was liable to make good the
loss caused to any other person by his activity, irrespective of the fact whether he/she
took reasonable care while carrying on his/her activity. The principle stems from the logic
that the enterprise alone and not the person affected has the resource to discover and
guard against hazards or dangers. The person affected cannot do so because of the
practical difficulty in establishing that reasonable care was absent or that the damage to
him was foreseeable by the enterprise.
In January 1991, Parliament enacted the Public Liability Insurance Act (PLIA), giving
statutory recognition to no-fault liability. Under this Act, victims of a hazardous industrial
accident are entitled to compensation at prescribed levels, without providing any proof of
negligence. The maximum compensation under the Act, however, is limited to a measly
Rs.25,000 although the right of a victim to claim larger damages under any other law is

expressly reserved. To ensure prompt payment of compensation to victims, the Act

requires all hazardous enterprises to obtain sufficient insurance cover and provides for an
independent machinery administered by the District Collector for the filing for and
adjudication of claims. The rules framed under the PLIA limit the liability of an insurer to
Rs.5 crore for every accident.
With only a few cases reported under the Act, it has not been found to be of any help to
ensure timely payment of adequate compensation to the victims of accidents involving
hazardous industries. Poor enforcement of the Act by the authorities has meant that its
laudable objectives are out of sync with reality.
The National Environment Tribunal Act (NETA), 1995, extended the application of
absolute liability without limitation to all cases where death or injury to a person (other
than a workman) or damage to any property or the environment resulted from an accident
involving a hazardous substance. The owner, who is defined as a person who owns or
has control over the handling of any hazardous substance at the time of the accident, is
liable to compensate the victims on a no-fault basis. Application for compensation may
be made to the tribunal established under the Act. The Act is not in force as the
government has not yet notified it, allegedly under pressure from business houses dealing
with hazardous substances.
The law was enacted in pursuance of decisions taken at the United Nations Conference
on Environment and Development (in which India participated) held in Rio de Janeiro in
June 1992. The statement of objectives of the Bill stated that it was considered expedient
to implement the decisions of the aforesaid conference so far as they related to the
protection of the environment and the payment of compensation for damage to persons,
property and the environment while handling hazardous substances. The enactment of
NETA and its subsequent non-notification is seen as representing symbolic
compliance with the decisions taken at the international conference, just in order to
hoodwink the international community, rather than any genuine interest in the protection
of the environment.
NON-NOTIFICATION OF NETA
Meanwhile, in order to skirt uncomfortable questions regarding the non-notification of
NETA, the government has come out with another Bill, the National Green Tribunal Bill,
2009, to replace the 1995 Act. In terms of relief to victims of environmental disasters, the
new Bill, according to the environmental lawyer Ritwig Dutta, is worse than the 1995
Act. It limits the locus standi of the complainant before the tribunal, making it impossible
for human rights organisations to intervene on behalf of the victims. Activists are also
aggrieved over the Bills time limit for entertaining applications. It stipulates that no
application for the adjudication of a dispute shall be entertained six months after the
occurrence of the alleged cause of action.

Similarly, the Bill says no application for grant of compensation will be entertained
unless it is made within five years of the occurrence of the alleged cause of action. Both
these deadlines are extendable by 60 days if the tribunal condones the delay. It is pointed
out that this is no relief at all as in many cases, the environmental impact of disasters is
felt long after the occurrence of the disaster. The drafting of the Bill without any
consultation with the stakeholders has disappointed environmental activists.
While the executives concern for absolute liability standards is dubious, the judiciary
appears to be wavering on its decade-long commitment to the principle. The quest of the
survivors of the gas tragedy for just compensation and the Supreme Courts reluctance to
grant it in line with its past commitments form a sad chapter in the history of disaster
litigation in India.
On July 19, 2004, the Supreme Court directed the Welfare Commissioner of Bhopal to
disburse the unspent amount of Rs.1,503 crore in the Settlement Fund on a pro-rata basis
to all the (5,70,000-odd) victims who had been awarded compensation for death and
injury. The court also allowed the petitioners, the Bhopal Gas Peedith Mahila Udyog
Sanghathan (BGPMUS) and the Bhopal Gas Peedith Sangharsh Sahayog Samiti
(BGPSSS), the option of filing an application for augmentation of the compensation
amount in proportion to the magnitude of the disaster (which turned out to be five times
greater than what was assessed at the time of the settlement). But the court dismissed on
May 4, 2007, an application they filed seeking enhancement of the compensation by a
factor of five, stating that the task of determination of facts was that of the Welfare
Commissioner, Bhopal. Both the Welfare Commissioner and the Madhya Pradesh High
Court later rejected their plea on flimsy technical grounds.
The petitioners before the Supreme Court had argued that only slightly over half of the
$470 million of the Settlement Fund (Rs.713 crore at the then prevailing exchange rate)
had been utilised to settle five times more claims than those estimated in 1989. The
Supreme Court, on May 4, 1989, directed that 84 per cent of the amount be disbursed as
compensation in 3,000 cases of death and 1,02,000 cases under four different categories
of injuries, ranging from simple ones to those of utmost severity, and 16 per cent be set
aside to compensate those who had lost property and livestock. Thus, out of the Rs.713
crore, Rs.113 crore was set aside for those who had lost property and livestock and for
specialised medical treatment and Rs.600 crore was to be disbursed among the assumed
number of 1,05,000 gas victims as compensation at an average of Rs.57,143 a victim at
the 1989 value of the rupee.
However, as per the report of the Office of the Welfare Commissioner, as on December
31, 2008, not less than 5,74,367 gas victims were actually awarded compensation, which
works out to an average of Rs.12,410 a victim at the 1989 value of the rupee. In the order
dated May 4, 1989, the Supreme Court had assured the victim groups that if the total
number of dead and injured turned out to be more than the number on which the
settlement was based, the settlement was liable to be reopened. The Supreme Court did
not expect the number of claimants to rise by five times and had asked the Centre rather
than UCC to meet the shortfall in the compensation amount, if any. However, the genetic

damage caused by the disaster meant that the children of the victims and their
descendants also medically suffered the impact of the tragedy in one way or the other and
would add to the number of claimants substantially. The gas victims were also denied
interest for the period of undue delay in the adjudication and award of compensation a
process that stretched from 1992 to 2004.
These developments in the Bhopal compensation saga have led observers to question
whether the executive and the judiciary are indeed keen to follow, as they seemingly
claim, the absolute liability principle in letter and spirit.