(Chapter 12)
Neural Tissue
-3% of body mass
-cellular, ~20% extracellular space
-two categories of cells:
1. Neurons: conduct nervous impulses
2. Neuroglia / glial cells: nerve glue,
supporting cells
Lecture Materials
for
Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D.
Suffolk County Community College
Eastern Campus
Primary Sources for figures and content:
Marieb, E. N. Human Anatomy & Physiology 6th ed. San Francisco: Pearson Benjamin
Cummings, 2004.
Martini, F. H. Fundamentals of Anatomy & Physiology 6th ed. San Francisco: Pearson
Benjamin Cummings, 2004.
2. Motor/Efferent Division
-CNS ! effectors
A. Somatic Nervous System
-voluntary nervous system
-to skeletal muscles
B. Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)
-involuntary nervous system
-to smooth & cardiac muscle, glands
1. Sympathetic Division
- fight or flight
2. Parasympathetic Division
- rest and digest
(tend to be antagonistic to each other)
Histology of Nervous System
Neuron / Nerve cell
-function:conduct nervous impulses (message)
-characteristics:
1. Extreme longevity
2. Amitotic (exceptions: hippocampus,
olfactory receptors)
3. High metabolic rate: need O2 and glucose
Divisions of PNS:
1. Sensory/Afferent Division
-sensory receptors ! CNS
A. Somatic afferent division
-from skin, skeletal muscles, joints
B. Visceral afferent division
-from internal organs
Structure:
1. Dendrites:
-receive info
-carry a graded potential toward soma
-contain same organelles as soma
-short, branched
-end in dendritic spines
2. Axon:
-single, long
-carry an action potential away from soma
-release neurotransmitters at end to signal
next cell
-long ones = nerve fibers
-contains:
-neurofibrils & neurotubules (abundant)
-vesicles of neurotransmitter
-lysosomes, mitochondria, enzymes
-no Nissl bodies, no Golgi (no protein
synthesis in axon)
-connects to soma at axon hillock
-covered in axolemma (membrane)
-may branch: axon collaterals
-end in synaptic terminals or knobs
-may have myelin sheath: protein+lipid
-protection
-insulation
-increase speed of impulse
CNS: myelin from oligodendrocytes
PNS: myelin from Schwann cells
Axoplasmic transport
-move materials between soma and terminal
-along neurotubules on kinesins
-Anterograde transport = soma ! terminal
(neurotransmitters from soma)
-Retrograde transport = terminal ! soma
(recycle breakdown products from used
neurotransmitters)
Some viruses use retrograde transport to
gain access to CNS (Polio, Herpes,
Rabies)
Synapse
-site where neuron
communicates with
another cell:
neuron or effector
3. Unipolar neurons:
-1 long axon, dendrites at one
end, soma off side (T shape)
-most sensory neurons
4. Multipolar neurons:
-2 or more dendrites
-1 long axon
-99% all neurons
-most CNS
1. Ependymal cells
-line central canal of spinal
cord and ventricles of brain
-secrete cerebrospinal fluid
(CSF)
-have cilia to circulate CSF
-CSF: cushion brain, nutrient & gas exchange
3. Oligodendrocytes
-wide flat processes wrap
local axons = myelin
sheath
-1 cell contributes myelin to many
neighboring axons
-lipid in membrane insulates axon for faster
action potential conductance
-gaps on axon between processes/myelin =
Nodes of Ranvier, necessary to conduct
impulse
-white, myelinated axons = white matter
2. Astrocytes
-most abundant CNS
neuroglia
-varying functions:
a. blood brain barrier:
processes wrap capillaries, control
chemical exchange between blood and
interstitial fluid of brain
b. framework of CNS
c. repair damaged neural tissue
d. guide neuron development in embryo
e. control interstitial environment: regulate
conc. ions, gasses, nutrients, neurotransmitters
4. Microglia
-phagocytic
-wander CNS
-engulf debris, pathogens
-important CNS defense
(no immune cells or antibodies)
Neuroglia in PNS
1. Satellite cells
-surround somas in ganglia
-isolate PNS cells
-regulate interstitial environment of ganglia
2. Schwann cells
-myelinate axons in PNS
-whole cells wraps axon,
many layers
-Neurilemma: bulge of schwann cell,
contains organelles
-Nodes of Ranvier between cells
Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D.
Neurophysiology
Neurons: conduct electrical impulse
-requires transmembrane potential = electrical
difference across cell membrane
-cells: positive charge outside (pump cations
out) and negative charge inside (proteins)
+ + + +
+ +
+ +
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+ +
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+ + + + + +
- - - - - - --- -- - - - -
2. Active channels
-open/close in response to signal
A. Chemically regulated/ Ligand-gated
-open in response to chemical binding
-located on any cell membrane
(dendrites, soma)
Sodium-Potassium Pump:
-uses ATP to move 3 Na+ out 2 K+ in
(70% of neuron ATP for this)
The Generation of
an Action Potential
-55 mV
(Handout)
1. Depolarization to threshold:
- a graded potential depolarizes local
membrane and flows toward the axon
- if threshold is met (-55mV) at the hillock, an
action potential will be triggered
2. Activation of sodium channels and rapid
depolarization:
- at threshold (-55mV), voltage-regulated
sodium channels on the excitable
membrane open
- Na+ flows into the cell depolarizing it
- the transmembrane potential rapidly changes
from -55mV to +30mV
3. Inactivation of sodium channels and
activation of potassium channels:
- at +30mV Na+ channels close and K+
channels open
- K+ flows out of the cell repolarizing it
4. Return to normal permeability:
- at -70mV K+ channels begin to close
- the cell hyperpolarizes to -90mV until all
channels finish closing
- leak channels restore the resting membrane
potential to -70mV
Saltatory Propagation
Continuous Propagation
B. Saltatory propagation
-myelinated axons
-depolarization only on exposed
membrane at nodes
-myelin insulates covered membrane
from ion flow
-action potential jumps from node to
node: faster and requires less
energy to reset
Myelination:
-requires space, metabolically expensive
-only important fibers large and myelinated
-occurs in early childhood
-results in improved coordination
Multiple Sclerosis = genetic disorder, myelin
on neurons in PNS destroyed !
numbness, paralysis
2. Axon diameter
-larger axon ! less resistance ! easier ion
flow ! faster action potential
A. Type A Fibers
- 4-20m diameter
- myelinated (saltatory propagation)
- action potentials 140m/sec
- carry somatic motor and somatic
sensory info
B. Type B Fibers
- 2-4m diameter
- myelinated (saltatory propagation)
- action potentials 18m/sec
- carry autonomic motor and visceral
sensory info
C. Type C Fibers
- < 2m diameter
- unmyelinated (continuous propagation)
- action potentials 1m/sec
- carry autonomic motor and visceral
sensory info
Amy Warenda Czura, Ph.D.
Events at a Synapse:
e.g.Cholinergic Synapse
(Acetylcholine as neurotransmitter)
(Handout)
2. Spatial summation
-multiple synapses fire simultaneously
-collective depolarization reaches threshold
3. Dopamine
-excititory or inhibitory
-second messengers
-many brain synapses
-cocaine: inhibits removal = high
-Parkinsons disease: damage neurons =
ticks, jitters
4. Serotonin
-inhibitory
-direct or second messenger
-brain stem for emotion
-anti-depression/ anti-anxiety drugs
block uptake
5. Gamma aminobytyric acid (GABA)
-inhibitory
-direct effect
-brain: anxiety control, motor coordination
-alcohol: augments effects = loss of
coordination