Q. 5.1. Define condensation?

Ans. When a vapour is in contact with the surface whose temperature t5 is lower than the
saturation temperature that corresponding to the vapour pressure then the gaseous or vapour
phase changes to liquid state with the liberation of heat from the vapour. This process is called
condensation and the heat flow during condensation process takes place from vapour to the
surface.

Q. 5.2. Differentiate between film condensation and. Drop wise condensation.

Ans. Film condensation : Occurs when a vapour relatively tree from un purifies is
allowed to condensate on a clean surface. The liquid condensate wets the solid surface read out
and form a continuous film over the entire surface. The liquid flows down cooling surface under
the action of gravity and the layer continuously grows in thickness because of newly condensing
vapours. The film offers thermal resistance k at transfer between vapour and surface so
consequently coefficient of heat transfer kr film condensation is less.
Drop wise condensation: It occurs on highly polished surfaces or on surfaces contaminated with
impurities like fatty acids and organic compounds. The liquid condensate collects in droplets and
does not wet the solid cooling surface. The droplets generally develop in cracks and pits on the
surface, grow in size, break away from the surface, knock off other droplets and eventually run
off the, surface without forming a film. Since there is no barrier to heat flow, the dropwise
condensation gives coefficient of heat transfer five to ten times larger than the film condensation
and of the order of 750 kw/m2.

Q. 5.3. What are promoters?

Ans. Drop wise condensation may be provoked artificially by surface coatings that are either
applied to heat transfer surface or introduced into the vapour and these surface coatings called

promoters inhibit wetting and promote drop wise condensation. Common examples of promoters
areSilicons, Teflons, waxes and fatty acids.

Q. 5.4. Prove that average heat transfer coefficient is 4 / 3 times the local heat transfer
coefficient at trailing edge of plate during laminar film condensation on tl vertical
plate/Based on Nusselt theory of laminar film condensation on vertical plate prove that
average heat transfer coefficient = 4 / 3 times local heat transfer coefficient at trailing edge.
State assumptions made in the above derivation.
Ans. Assumptions
1. Liquid film is in good thermal contact with the cooling surface and therefore temperature at
the inside of the film is taken equal to the surface temperature
The condensate film is so thin that a linear temperature variation exit between the plate surface
and vapour conditions.
2. Further temperature at the outer surface of the film is taken equal to the saturation temperature
3. The physical parameters like thermal conductivity k density p dynamic viscosity of the
condensate film are independent of temperature.
4. The condensing vapour is entirely clean and free from gases.
5. Radiation between vapour and liquid film is neglected.
6. Horizontal component of velocity at any point in liquid film and the curvature of film is
neglected
7. Inertia forces appearing in the condensate film are neglected.

* Velocity distribution : An equation for the velocity distribution u as a function of distance y

from the wall surface can be set up by considering the equilibrium between the gravity and
viscous forces on an elementary volume (bd x, dy) of the liquid film.
Gravitational force on the element = pg (b dx dy)
Viscous shearing stress on the element face at y =

change in shearing stress in distance dy =

Equating the gravity force to the net shear focce.

Upon simplification,

Integrating twice

The relevant boundary condition are

These conditions determine that

Therefore the velocity distribution through the film is prescribed by the following
parabolic relationship

The mean flow the velocity V of the liquid film at a distance x from the top edge
can be determined from the expression.

* Mass flow rate

The downward flow of the liquid at any elevation x (i.e. over the layer of thickness 6) is
mass flow rate mean flow velocity x flow area x density

The mass flow is thus a function of x; this is so because the film thickness 6 is
essentially dependent upon x.
An increase in the mass flow rate of condensation during downward flow of condensate from x
to x + dx can be worked out by differentiating equation IV with
respect to x or d.

Heat flux : The heat rate into the film, dQ, equal the rate of energy release due to
condensation at the surface. Thus,

where h f g is the latent heat of condensation.

Nusselt presumed that the heat released during condensation flows only by
conduction through the film.

Combining equations (VI) and (VII), we get:

Integration yields an expression for the thickness of condensate layer

Substitution of the boundary condition 6 = 0 at x = 0 yields c = 0

Evidently the film thickness increases as the fourth root of distance down the surfaces; the
increase is rather rapid at the upper end of tt vertical surface and slow there after.
Film heat transfer coefficient: Nusselt had presumed that heat flow from the vapour to the
surface is by conduction through the liquid film, i.e.,

The heat flow can also be expressed as

Where Ii is the local heat transfer coefficient. It follows from these experiment that

Thus at a definite point on the heat transfer surface, the film coefficient h is directly proportional
to thermal conductivity k and inversely proportional to thickness of film 6 at that point.
Substituting the value of film thickness 6 from equation (VIII)

Local heat transfer coefficient at the lower edge at plate, i.e., at x = 1

Undoubtedly the rate of condensation heat transfer is higher at the upper end of the plate than at
the lower end.
By integrating the local value of conductance (equation X) over the entire length l of the plate,
we get the average heat transfer coefficient;

where h1 is the local heat transfer coefficient at the lower edge of the plate.
Then it follows from equation (IX) that

where 6(l) is the film thickness at the lower end of the plate. Obviously the average

heat transfer coefficient is 4/3 times the local heat transfer coefficient at the trailing
edge of the plate.
Equation (XII) is usually written in the form,

The Nusselt solution derived above is an approximate one because of the assumptions admitted
in the statement of the problem. Experimental results have shown that the Nusselt equation is
conservative, it yields results which are approximately 20% lower than the measured values.
Accordingly, use of a value of 1.13 in place of the coefficient 0.943 has been recommended by
Mc. Adams.

Q. 5.5. Write a short note on:

(a) Turbulent film condensation,
(b) Condensation in banks of horizontal tubes.
Ans. The character of condensate film range from laminar to highly turbulent. The liquid flows
in laminar film at upper end of plate and then becomes undulating in the middle section and
finally flows in a turbulent state.
The parameter indicating the commencement of turbulent flow is the Reynold Number.
Conventionally, Re
where deq is the equivalent diameter given
by;
For vertical plate A = b and welted perimeter p of solid plate is simply the width b of the
plate.

Since mass flow rate (m) = pAV

The transition from laminar to turbulent flow occurs at a critical Reynold no of 1800. When
turbulence sets in, the condensate film nv longer offers high thermal resistance and so it results in
increased convective coefficients. Kirkbride suggested the following correlation for the average
heat transfer coefficient:

In the turbulent region, the average film coefficient increases with distance 1 because of the
eddies which promote convection.
For Re > 1800

(ii) Banks of horizontal tubes: For a vertical tier of n-horizontal tubes, the average convection
coefficient for film condensation is

where the equivalent tube diameter D, of the tube bank is the sum of outside-tube
diameter in a vertical column of the tube bank pattern.

For n-tubes in a vertical column of the tube bank pattern, De = nD where I) is the
diameter of a single tube in the bank.
A reduction in the film coefficient with increasing n may be attributed to an irrease in the average
film thickness for each successive tube due to accumuIatioi of drip from the upper tubes.
Obviously it is advantageous to stagger the tubes (Fig. 5) as the accumulation of drip from the
upper rows is at least partially offset by the splashing effects, i.e., by the agitation caused by the
drip as it falls from o tube to another.

Q. 5.6. Define boiling? Explain briefly different applications of boiling

Ans. Boiling is the convective heat transfer process that involves a phase change from liquid to
vapour state. Boiling is achieved when the temperature of the surface over which liquid flows is
maintained at a temperature above the saturation temperature of the liquid Applications of
boiling process
1. Production of steam in nuclear and steam power plants for generation and for industrial
processes and space heating.
2. Absorption of heat in refrigeration and air conditioning system.
3. Distillation and refining of liquids.
4. Dehydration and drying of foods and materials.

Q. 5.7. Explain different types of boiling.

Ans. Different types of boiling are
1. Pool Boiling: It occurs in steam boilers employing natural convection. Pool boiling is due to
natural convection and mixing induced by bubble growth and detachment.
2. Forced Convection Boiling : Convectional currents are set up by external means like pumps,
fans etc. in forced convection. Heat transfer rate is more in forced convection than free
convection and, bubble induced mixing also contribute, towards fluid motion.
3. Subcooled or local Boiling: The temperature of the liquid is below the saturation temperature
and boiling takes place only in the vicinity of heated surface. The bubbles travel a short distance
and then condenses in the bulk of liquid which is at a temperature less than the boiling point.
4. Subcooled Boiling : The temperature of the liquid exceeds the saturation temperature. The
vapour bubbles generated at solid surface is transported through the liquid by buoyancy effects
and eventually escape for liquid-vapour interface and the actual evaporation process then sets in.

Q. 5.8. Describe the different boiling regimes in case of pool boiling?

Ans. There are 3 definite regimes of boiling corresponding to pool boiling:
1. Evaporation process with no bubble formation (Interface evaporation) : Interface boiling
takes place in thin layer of liquid adjoining the heated surface. The liquid in the vicinity of the
wall becomes superheated i.e., temperature of the liquid exceeds the saturation temperature at
given pressure. The superheated liquid rises to liquid vapour interface when evaporation takes
place and heat transfer rate increases but gradually with -growth in temperature excess.
2. Nucleate boiling: When the liquid is overheated with respect to the satiration temperature
bubbles are formed at certain favourable spots like surface irregularities, dust particles called
nucleation or active sites. Depending on temperature excess, the nucleate boiling consists of the
following stages.
(a) Bubbles form and collapse on the surface itself. -

(b) Bubbles forms on heated surface but gets condensed in the liquid after detatching from the
surface.
(c) Bubbles form, break away from the heated surface and do not condense in the liquid surface.
These bubbles rise to liquid surface and are directly expelled to vapour space and that helps rapid
evaporation.
The nucleation boiling is thus characterised by formation of bubbles at the nucleation sites and
the bubble agitation induces considerable fluid mixing and that promotes substantial increase in
heat flux and the boiling heat transfer coefficient
3. Film boiling : The bubble formation is very rapid leading to the formation of blanket over the
heating surface thereby preventing the incoming fresh liquid from taking their place. The bubbles
eventually coalesce to form a vapour film which covers the surface completely. Insulating effect
of the vapour film (due to its low thermal conductivity) overshadows the beneficial effect of
liquid agitation and consequently the heat flux drops with growth in temperature excess. With in
the temperature range 50 <At < 150, conditions oscillate between nucleate and film boiling and
this phase is referred to as unstable film boiling or partial film boiling. Eventually the
temperature difference (t t) becomes so large that radiant heat flux becomes significant and
heat flux curve begins to rise upward with increasing temperature excess. That marks the region
of stable film boiling. The phenomena of stable film boiling is referred to as Leidenfrost effect.

Q. 5.9. Explain briefly the phenomenWmechanism of bubble formation.

Ans. The mechanism/cycle of bubble formation is as follows:
1. Liquid next to heated surface becomes superheated and vapour nucleus of sufficient size is
formed to initiate bubble formation.

2. Bubble grows in size and pushes the layer of superheated liquid away from the heated surface.
3. Top of the bubble comes in contact with the cooler liquid which has the tendency to arrest the
bubble growth.
4. Bubble grows to a size where it looses more heat to cooler liquid than it gains by conduction
from the heated surface and so it begins to collapse.
5. As the bubble collapses, the cooler liquid gains velocity to fill in the bubble volume.
6. Bubble suffers a total collapse and the inertia of cooler liquid bring it into contact with 11w
heating surface.
7. Eventually the cooler liquid gets heated above the saturation temperature and another cycle of
bubble form formation and collapse begins.

Q. 5.10. What is Burnout point and critical heat flux?

Ans.

The burnout point corresponds to the point of maximum heat flux on the boiling curve
and the transition from nucleate to film boiling occurs at burnout point.
The maximum heat flux corresponding to burnout point is called critical heat flux and the
corresponding temperature excess is termed as critical temperature difference.

For water evaporating at atmospheric pressure, the burnout occurs at a temperature

excess of slightly above 55 K and has the heat flux of the order of 1.58 x 106 W/m2.

The boiling process remains in unstable state beyond the burnout point.

With increase in temperature excess the heat That decreases and this process is continued
until a point is reached where boiling conditions gets stabilized and is in equilibrium, but
at that point temperature excess is so high that surface temperature exceeds the
temperature limit of wall material and burnout (structural damage and failure) fo wall
occurs.

Q. 5.11. Derive the equilibrium relationship between the bubble radius and amount of
super heat.
Ans. Consider a spherical bubble with various forces acting on it.

Let
= vapour pressure inside the bubble
= liquid pressure surrounding the bubble
= Temperature of vapour corresponding to vapour pressure
= Temperature of liquid surrounding the bubble
= Saturation temperature of vapour inside the bubble
= Effective gas constant for vapour
= Latent heat of vaporisation.
Various forces acting on the spherical bubble are:

(ii) The surface tension a of the vapour liquid interface acts on the interface length 2rr and the
surface tension force equals 2irru.
Under equilibrium conditions, the pressure force is balanced by the surface tension
force. Thus

The vapour may be approximated as a perfect gas for which the Clayperon equation
is:

Considering a non-condenseble gas inside the bubble exerting a pressure Pgi then

Equation (I) then takes the form

This is the equilibrium relationship between the bubble radius and the amount of
Water heat.
The bubble diameter Db at the time of detachment from the surface can be worked
mat from the relation proposed by Fritz:

where fi is the angle of contact and the empirical coastant Cd has the value 0.0148
water bubbles.

Example 5.1. A condensation experiment for steam on plate type vertical

Man denser has been setup for a particular fluid with a given temperature difftrent. The
same setup was subsequently used with another fluid with thmo-physical properties given
as:

If temperature difference is reduced to 80 percent, make calculations fo

percentage change in the convection coefficient.
Solution. The average heat transfer coefficient for vapour condensation on vertical plate is given
by

Substituting

= h1 x 1.152
i.e., there is an increase of 15.2% in the convection coefficient.

Example 5.2. (a) A plate condenser was designed to be kept vertical. How would the
condensatioe coefficient be effected if due to site constraints, it has to be kept at 600 to the
horizontal?
(b) A plate condenser of dimensions 1 x b has been designed to be kept with side 1 in the
vertical position. However due to oversight during erection and installation, it was fixed
with side b vertical. How would this affect the heat transfer ? Assume laminar conditions
and same thermo-physical properties in both cases and take b = 1/2.
(c) Determine the length of a 25 cm outer diameter tube if the condensate formed on the
surface of the tube is to be same whether it is kept vertical horizontal.

Solution. (a) For a vertical flat plate

For inclined flat surfaces, the gravity acceleration g is replaced by g sin 6 where 8
is the inclination angle with the horizontal. Then

This implies 3.53% reduction in condensation coefficient

(b) With side 1 vertical:

With side b vertical.:

Comments : The condensation coefficient and accordingly heat flow increases when the shorter
side is kept vertical. For better condensation, the condensers should be installed with shorter side
vertical.
(c) For laminar film, condensation on a vertical tube

From expression (1) and (ii),

For equal amount of condensation, the heat transfer rate and accordingly
condensation coefficient should be same for the horizontal and vertical orientations. In that case

L = 2.86 d = 2.86 x 25 = 71.5 m Ans.

Example 5.3. (a) For condensing conditions, compare the condensation rate
when a 6.5 cm diameter and 1.25 m long pipe is kept (1) horizontally and (ii) vertically.
Assume that other conditions remain same.
(b) For condensing conditions, compare the values of convective heat transfer coefficients
over a pipe of diameter with that of two pipes having the same total circumference when (i)
both pipes are horizontal and parallel and (ii) the pipes lie one over the other. Assume that
other conditions remain same.
Solution. (a) For vertical position

and for horizontal position

From identities (1) and (ii)

Obviously horizontal positioning provides 61% more heat transfer. This may be
attributed to larger film thickness with increase in length. Accordingly condensers are generally
of horizontal type.
(b) The average heat transfer coefficient for vapour condensation on a horizontal tube is given by

Case (i) : With same total circumference rD = 2 x d and therefore d = D/ 2. When

diameter is reduced to half the value the convective coefficient becomes (2)0.25 = 1.189.
Example 5.4. A vertical cooling fin, approximating a flat plate 40 cm in height is
exposed to steam at atmospheric pressure. If surface of the fin is held at 800 C, make
calculations for the following parameters:
(i) Film thickness at the bottom edge of the fin,
(ii) Overall heat transfer coefficient,
(iii) Heat transfer rate and the condensate mass flow rate.
Assume unit width of the fin and check the flow Reynolds number for the assumption of
laminar flow conditions.
(b) Estimate the minimum height of the plate necessary for condensate to become just
turbulent.
Solution. For saturated vapour at atmospheric pressure ; the saturation temperature
and the latent heat of vaporisation
= 2257 x J/kg.
For saturated water at the mean film temperature,
the relevant fluid properties are

1. The film thickness at a distance x from the top edge is,

At the bottom edge of the fin x = 0.4 m,

= 100C

(ii) Overall heat transfer coefficient,

Applying Mc Adams correction for steam condensation on flat vertical plates,

(iii) Heat transfer rate Q = hA

= 10879.2 x (0.4 xl) x (100 80) = 43588.8 W
Steam condensation rate,

Checking the film Reynolds number, we get

Thus the assumption of laminar flow has been correct

(b) From the correlations

in the laminar regime

= 571.55cm = 5.72 m .

Example 5.5 Saturated steam at atmospheric pressure condenses on the outer surface of a
vertical tube of lngth 1 m and outer diameter 75 mm. The tube wall is maintained at a
uniform surface temperature of 40 C by the flow of cooling water inside the tube. Estimate
the steam condensation rate and the heat transfer rate to the tube. What water flow rate

will result in 0.5C temperature difference of water between the outlet and inlet of pipe ?
Also calculate the flow Reynolds number to check the assumption of laminar flow
conditions.
Solution. For saturated vapour at atmospheric pressure,

For saturated water at the mean film temperature

the relevant fluid properties are;

The film thickness at the bottom edge of the tube is,

Inserting heat transfer coefficient is,

= 2.354 x m = 0.2354 mm
The average heat transfer coefficient is,

Applying Mc Adams correction for steam condensing on vertical plates or

cylinders.

i.

Heat transfer,

and the steam condensation rate is

Checking the flow Reynolds number, we get

Apparently the film flow is laminar in character.

(ii) The heat released during condensation is picked up by water flowhig the be. Therefore,

.. Flow rate of water

ans

Example 5.6. A 0.5 m square plate is exposed to dry saturated steam at 0.08 bar. If surface
of the plate is to be maintained at 18.5 C, make calculation for the (a) film thickness, local
heat transfer coefficient and mean flow velocity of condensate at 25 cm from the top of
plate, (b) average heat transfer coefficient for the entire plate and (c) total steam
condensate rate and the total heat transfer rate to the plate.
What change, if any, would result in the average heat transfer coefficient if the
plate is inclined at 60C to the vertical plane?
Solution. For saturated vapour at 0.08 bar

For saturated water at the mean film temperature

relevant fluid properties are:

The film thickness at a distance x from the top edge is,

2 = 30C the

Inserting tt appo1iate values in consistent units,

(a)At x=0.25m from the top edge

Mean condensate flow velocity,

(b) At the bottom of the plate, x = 0.5 m

Average heat transfer coefficient

Applying Mc Adams correction factor

= 1.2 x 20068 24082 kJ/ni.hr-deg

= 24082 x (0.5 xO.5) x (41.5 - 18.5)

= 138471.5kJ/hr
Steam condensation rate is;

Hence the film remains laminar in character