Forensic Biology

Solving mysteries is a challenge many people enjoy. If they take a scientific

approach, they are likely to use forensic sciences to examine evidence and to
solve crimes. Students are commonly exposed to crime situations in the media,
both fictional and real, and are likely aware that forensic sciences are used to
solve crimes, as many current television programs and popular authors use the
science of forensics to develop their dramas.
A forensics team is a group of scientists who work together performing different
jobs to solve
crimes or to identify people. A forensics team may observe the crime scene and
gather evidence such as hair and fibre samples, fingerprints, and tissue samples.
An investigative team includes forensic scientists with varying areas of expertise,
including toxicology, forensic biology, forensic entomology, chemistry, forensic
psychology, forensic odontology, forensic anthropology, bloodstain pattern
analysis, and weapons specialists.The job of forensic investigators is to use
science and technology to perform tests on the evidence collected. The results
from these tests can then be used to support a theory of guilt or innocence.
Forensic scientists use the same instruments and techniques used by scientists
doing other types of research, including microscopes, computers, gas
chromatographs, and lasers. As science has advanced, so has the ability to
gather evidence and to solve crimes. At crime scenes, portable lasers provide
special lighting. Imaging technology lets a police officer instantly send a
photograph or fingerprint image to a central data bank for identification.
Computers can enhance pictures taken by a security camera at a crime scene.
New chemicals allow the visualization of otherwise unseen fingerprints. Lasers
can vaporize tiny portions of a paint specimen to determine the exact paint used
on a car in a hit-and-run case. A single cell can provide deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) that molecular biology techniques can match with a suspect.
Forensic biology is the application of biological analysis methods, particularly
serological methods, to legal investigations. Serology involves the investigation
of bodily fluids, particularly the likes of blood, semen, saliva, all of which are
commonly
found
at
certain
crime
scenes.
There are numerous types of bodily fluid that may be found at a crime scene or
on a victim, all of which have the potential to be analysed and used in the
identification and incrimination of the perpetrator. The examination of such
substances can not only provide clues as to the identity of the offender, but also
help investigators develop a detailed picture of the sequence of events which
occurred. The presence of certain bodily fluids can be excellent indicators of
what has occurred. For example, the presence of semen may suggest a recent
sexual encounter, whether consensual or otherwise. Perhaps more obviously,
blood at a crime scene is often indicative of some form of physical struggle,
assault, or even murder. The analysis of bodily fluids may also determine the
presence of quantities of certain substances in the body, such as alcohol or
toxins.
Bodily fluids can be divided into two categories: excreted fluids and secreted fluids.
Excreted fluids that may be found at a crime scene include faeces, vomit, bile, and sebum
(skin oil). Secreted fluids include blood, plasma, semen, saliva, female ejaculate, and urine.
When a potential bodily fluid is first discovered at a crime scene, actions may be required to

visualise the stain. Some biological samples are difficult to see with the naked eye, and
require particular light or chemical additions to reveal their presence. Presumptive tests may
be conducted to give some indication as to the identity of the substance, though these tests
are by no means conclusive, and further analysis will be essential. The sample must be then
collected and stored appropriately so as to preserve its integrity as best as possible. Wet
samples will often be swabbed, with the swab then being placed in a vial or other airtight
container. Individual samples should obviously all be stored separately to prevent
contamination. All biological samples are generally dried or frozen during transport and
storage. If the samples are to be dried, they should be left to dry by air without the addition
of heat, as heat can be damaging to such specimens. These extensive measures are taken
to not only protect the samples for analysis, but also protect the staff handling the samples
from biohazards, such as infection from a biological sample. The sample will then be
transported to a laboratory so that the analysis can be conducted.
The primary goal of this analysis will be to establish exactly what the sample is. Though the
answer may seem obvious from the appearance of the sample, conclusive tests should
always be conducted. Specific tests will be discussed in more detail later on. The substance
should also be subjected to species-specific tests, as the biological sample may belong to
another animal rather than a human. After the completion of such confirmatory tests, DNA
analysis may be conducted to attempt to identify the secretor of the sample.
A biological sample may not always contain sufficient DNA to obtain a DNA profile.
Individuals may be known as secretors or non-secretors. Secretors present aspects of their
bloods protein in other bodily fluids, whereas non-secretors will not have sufficient levels of
protein in their bodily fluid to establish a match between two samples. Fortunately, the
percentage of the population who are non-secretors is comparatively small.
Blood
One of the most common types of bodily fluid found at crime scenes, particularly the scenes
of violent crimes, is blood.
Blood is a tissue that is circulated within the body to assist other parts of the body. This
connective tissue has specialized cells that allow it to carry out its complex functions. For a
healthy person, approximately 8% of their total weight is blood. For a 70 kg (154 lb.)
individual, this equates to 5.6 L (12 US pints).
Biological considerations
Blood contains three components or blood cells that are suspended within plasma. The three
components are erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets.

Erythrocytes, also known as red blood cells, are transporters. The role of
erythrocytes is to transport oxygen. To do this, they contain great quantities of
hemoglobin, which carry oxygen molecules and give blood its distinct red colour. Blood
that has passed through the heart and been oxygenated (oxygenated blood travels
through the arteries) tends to have a brighter shade of red as opposed to blood that is
returning to the heart (in the veins). There are about 30 trillion erythrocytes circulating in
the human blood at any given time.

Leukocytes, also known as white blood cells, are the body's defenders. The role of
leukocytes is to defend against harmful bacteria, viruses and microorganisms. There are

five different types of leukocytes. They all have different sizes, shapes, structures, and
functions. Leukocytes fight infection and disease. There are about 430 billion leukocytes
circulating in the human blood at any given time (~1 per 700 erythrocytes). Pus is made
up of leukocytes left in an affected area during and after fighting harmful substances or
organisms that infect the body.

Platelets are formed in the bone marrow. These particular blood cells contain
cytoplasm and are enclosed by a membrane, but do not have a nucleus. They play a
major role in hemostasis (control of bleeding) by plugging up a breach in a vessel. They
are important for forming blood clots. If a person has an abnormally low platelet count, a
condition known as thrombocytopenia, blood clots more slowly.

Plasma is the yellowish fluid that carries the erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. It is
composed of water (92%), proteins (7%), and other materials such as salts, waste, and
hormones, among others. Many of these proteins are clotting factors, which are important
along with platelets for forming blood clots; clotting factor deficiencies can cause prolonged
and excessive bleeding, a condition called hemophilia. Plasma makes up about 55% of
blood. The remaining 45% is the blood cells. Because plasma is less dense than the blood
cells, it can be easily separated. Plasma does not separate from blood cells whilst circulating
in the bloodstream because it is in a constant state of agitation.
Chemical considerations
Upon exiting the body, bloodstains transit from bright red to dark brown, which is attributed to
oxidation of oxy-hemoglobin (HbO2) tomethemoglobin (met-Hb) and hemichrome (HC). The
fractions of HbO2, met-Hb and HC in a bloodstain can used for age determination of
bloodstains and can be measured by Reflectance Spectroscopy 1.

In vivo hemoglobin molecules are mainly present in two forms: one without oxygen,
de-oxyhemoglobin (Hb) and one saturated with oxygen, oxy-hemoglobin (HbO2), both
have iron in the Fe2+ state. HbO2 can auto-oxidize into met-Hb, which contains iron in the
Fe3+state. Met-Hb is incapable of binding oxygen. When met-Hb is formed in vivo it will
be reduced back to Hb by reductase protein cytochrome b5, resulting in a small part
(<1%) of met-Hb in a healthy in vivo situation.

Outside the body hemoglobin saturates completely with oxygen in the ambient
environment to HbO2. Due to a decreasing availability of cytochrome b5, necessary for
reduction of met-Hb, the transition of HbO2 into met-Hb will, in contrast to inside the
body, no longer be reversed. Once hemoglobin is autooxidized to met-Hb it will denature
to hemichrome (HC), which is formed by an internal conformation change to the heme
group.
Physical considerations
In physics there are two continuous physical states of matter, solid and fluid. Once blood has
left the body it behaves as a fluid and all physical laws apply.

Gravity acts on blood (without the body's influence) as soon as it exits the body.
Given the right circumstances blood can act according to ballistic theory.

Viscosity is the amount of internal friction in the fluid. It describes the resistance of a
liquid to flow.

Surface tension is the force that maintains the shape of a drop of liquid, such as
blood. When two fluids are in contact with each other (blood and air) there are forces
attracting all molecules to each other.

BLOOD ANALYSIS
Blood consists of a solid portion (red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets) suspended in a
watery plasma. Many chemicals are also suspended or dissolved in the plasma, including
proteins, sugars, fats, salts, enzymes, and gases.
One way in which blood may be characterized is by the presence or absence of molecules
located on the surfaces of the red blood cells. In the ABO blood typing group, there are two
types of chemical molecules or antigens found on the red blood cells: A and B.
If a red blood cell has only A antigens on it, it is type A.
If the red blood cell has only B antigens on it, it is type B.
If the red blood cell has both A and B antigens on it, it is type AB.
If neither A nor B antigens are on the surface, it is type O.
If two different blood types are mixed together, the blood cells may clump together in the
blood vessels, with potentially fatal results. Blood types must be matched before blood
transfusions take place.
Type A blood groups produce antibodies against B antigens and, hence, can accept only
type A or type O blood in a blood transfusion.
Type B blood groups produce antibodies against A antigens and, hence, can accept only
type B or type O blood in a blood transfusion.
Type AB blood groups produce neither anti-A nor anti-B antibodies and, hence, can
accept type AB, type A, type B, or type O blood in a blood transfusion.
Type O blood groups produce both anti-A and Anti-B antibodies and, hence, can accept
only type O blood in a blood transfusion.
Because of these patterns, a person with type O blood is said to be a universal donor. A
person with type AB blood is said to be a universal receiver. In general, however, it is still
best to mix blood of matching types and Rh factors. Rh (rhesus) factor refers to the presence
(Rh+) or absence (Rh-) of the D antigen on the surface of the blood cell.

Though the appearance of blood is often quite distinct, chemical tests are
essential to confirm its identity. Initially presumptive tests are used at the scene,
which will merely confirm that the substance in question is most likely blood,
though the species is not established at this point. Presumptive blood tests are
usually based on the colour change or chemiluminescence of a particular reagent
when
it
comes
into
contact
with
the
haemoglobin
in
blood.
Luminol is frequently used in initially identifying bloodstains, particularly if the
perpetrator has attempted to clean up the blood, thus rendering it invisible to
the naked eye. The presence of blood causes chemiluminescence, the emission
of light as a result of a particular chemical reaction, in this case of a blue-green
colour. However luminol has been known to react with other substances,
including bleach, saliva, and various animal and vegetable proteins.
The Kastle-Meyer or phenolphthalein test is another presumptive blood test. The
stain in question is collected with a cotton swab before drops of ethanol and
phenolphthalein indicator are added. If no colour change occurs, peroxide is then
added. This detects the presence of the enzyme peroxidase in the blood,
producing
a
pink
colouring
if
present.

Leucomalachite Green, or LMG, is similar to the Kastle-Meyer test, replacing the

phenolphthalein with leucomalachite green. When added to the substance, a
green
colour
will
be
produced
if
blood
is
present.
Hemastix are plastic strips originally used as a form of urine test. In the presence
of blood, the strip will take on a green colour. These strips are particularly
beneficial in that they are small and easily taken to crime scenes, allowing them
to
act
as
a
simple,
instant
presumptive
blood
test.
It is then necessary to confirm that the blood is of human origin, as animal blood
may be completely irrelevant to the crime under investigation. The precipitin test
is used to determine the species of the bloods origin. Blood contains different
proteins which vary between species, meaning that the proteins in the blood of
one animal may not be accepted by the blood of another species. If a foreign
protein is detected, antibodies are produced to protect the body from harm.
Serum for this precipitin test is commonly obtained from rabbits, as they have
produced antibodies to destroy a small amount of human blood injected into
them. This produced anti-human serum is added to the suspected bloodstain. If
the blood is of human origin, the serum will precipitate its proteins, which can be
visually
observed.
Samples of wet bloodstains will usually be collected using a swab, later sealed in
an airtight container. Dried bloodstains may be scraped onto a sheet of clean
paper or into an appropriate bag. Any bloodstained items that are collected
should be stored separately from one another to avoid contamination and
damage
to
the
stains.
Blood typing is one form of categorising blood, known as the ABO System. A, B, O
and AB are the primary blood groups, based on the presence of certain antigens
on the surface of the blood cells. Before DNA testing, blood groups were used as
a method of eliminating or incriminating suspects, though obviously not
exclusively. Though the use of blood groups cannot specifically identify the
individual from whom the blood originated from, they can narrow down the field
of search and eliminate particular groups. Rhesus antigens are also commonly
studied within the blood typing system. An individual whose cells do possess the
Rhesus antigens is known as being RH positive, likewise those without the
antigens are known as Rhesus negative. Most people, about 85%, do possess the
Rhesus
antigens.
The frequencies of certain genes within different blood groups may vary between
different races or groups of people, potentially narrowing the field of suspects
further. For example, Rhesus antigen V is present in around 40% of West African
Negroes, but only 0.5% of Caucasians. The blood type itself may at least suggest
the most likely race of the suspect or victim. Type A blood is most common
among Europeans, whilst type B is found ore commonly among Africans and
Asians. Similarly, type AB is most common amongst those of Japanese origin, and
the O type is frequently seen within the Latin American and Native American
groups.
There is also a more physical approach to the analysis of blood found at crime
scenes.
Bloodstain Pattern Analysis:

is the examination of the shapes,locations, and distribution of patterns of bloodstains, in

order to provide an interpretation of the physical events that gave rise to their origin.
The following Information may be obtained from a proper Bloodstain Pattern Analysis:
1. Distance from the blood source to the target
2. Direction of travel and impact angles
3. Nature of the force used to cause the bloodshed
4. The object used to cause the bloodshed
5. Sequencing of multiple bloodshed events
6.Interpretation of contact or transfer patterns
When properly documented, bloodstain patterns found at the crime scene, or on a particular
person's clothing, can be used to:
1.Confirm or refute the position of a victim, witness, suspect, or defendant
2. Determine if there is evidence of a struggle, or if the assault is "one sided"
3. Confirm or refute statements made by principles in the case:
IE: Are stain patterns on a particular person's clothing consistent with accounts given by the
victim, witness, or defendant?
Blood Flight Characteristics:
Blood will not break up unless it is acted upon by force. The force must be great enough to
overcome the surface tension of the blood
Blood forms a spherical shape (perfect circular shape) almost immediately upon separating
from the blood source. The spherical shape is caused by the surface tension of the blood.
Surface Tension causes the blood drop to pull itself in; both horizontally and vertically.
The blood drop will settle into a spherical shape, as a result of the surface tension.
The surface tension will maintain the sphere shape of the blood drop until it impacts with the
surface.
SPATTER VS TRANSFER: The simplest type of blood spatter analysis is determining
spatters from transfers.
Spatters are created when blood is acted upon by force, and travels through the air before
landing on a
target surface.
Transfers occur when a blood source comes in direct contact with a target surface area.
TARGET SURFACE TEXTURE:
Bloodstains can occur on a variety of surfaces. The type of surface that free falling blood
strikes affects the appearance of the resulting spatter.
Blood drops on a smooth surface will make a more uniform or regular circular shape.
Blood drops on a rough surface will make an irregular shaped stain with rough or jagged
edges.
LOW FORCE (VELOCITY) IMPACT SPATTER/PASSIVE DROPS:

Blood that falls at the speed or force of normal gravity

These spatters usually fall from an open wound, or from a surface that is saturated with
blood
The majority of the Low Force Impact Spatters are large, circular, spatters with diameters of
4mm or more
Low Force Impact Spatters will increase in size as the distance fallen increases, however,
the size of the spatters will remain constant after approx 4 feet
MEDIUM FORCE (VELOCITY) IMPACT SPATTER:
Produced with more energy or force than gravity
The force of the impact causes the blood to break into smaller size spatters relative to the
amount of force applied
This type of spatter is usually seen in blunt force, stabbings, and secondary spatters
Produced when the majority of larger drops of blood are broken into smaller spatters with
diameters of 2 4 mm
The force associated with this type of spatter is greater than 25 ft per second
HIGH FORCE (VELOCITY) IMPACT SPATTER:
Impact spatter that measures less than 2mm in diameter
The force necessary to produce this size spatter is greater than 100 ft per second
This type of spatter is usually associated with gunshots, explosions, and high speed
collisions
High Force Impact Spatter takes on a "mist like" appearance
It is important to note that the term "Velocity" does not measure the speed at which the
blood is traveling, but rather is used to describe or measure amount of force applied to the
blood, to cause it to spatter.
BACK SPATTER OR "BLOWBACK"
When a bullet strikes a target, some high force impact spatter may be directed back toward
the gun that fired the shot. This is known as "back spatter"
If the bullet exits its target, a larger
amount of high force impact spatter may be directed in the same direction as the bullet. This
is known as "forward spatter".
The amount of high force impact spatter created will depend upon the size or caliber of the
bullet fired, as well as the distance from the gun to the target. The larger the bullet, or
projectile, the greater
the spatter. The closer to the target that the gun is fired...the great the spatter.
For a complete list of bloodstain pattern terms, as recommended by the Internation
Association of Blood Stain Pattern Analysts. (IABPA), go to: http://www.iabpa.org/ These
terms should serve as a guide, for those who work and teach in the field of Blood Stain
Pattern Analysis. These terms are not meant to be all encompassing

Saliva
Saliva is the clear liquid produced in the mouth for various purposes, primarily to act as
lubrication for food and provide the enzyme amylase to begin the breakdown of this food.
Composed of water, enzymes, various electrolytes, mucus, and epithelial cells from the
inside of the cheeks, it is ideal for DNA profiling. As it contains the same proteins as blood
and urine, saliva can also be analysed to detect the presence of drugs and toxins.
Collecting a saliva sample from a suspect has become the most common method of
collection when carrying out DNA testing and comparison, as it is simpler and far less
intrusive than obtaining a blood sample. A cotton swab is rubbed along the inside of the
suspects cheek, collecting a sample of saliva and epithelial cells. Saliva will also be of great
significance if found at crime scenes, such as on the victim of a sexual assault, on the
cigarette end, or around the rim of a glass or bottle.
Due to the high levels of amylase present in saliva, testing for this enzyme is a presumptive
test for saliva. However this enzyme is also found in lower levels in other bodily fluids.
Various chromatography and spectroscopy methods are frequently used in the extensive
analysis of such samples.
Semen
Commonly found at the scene of a sexual assault or other sexually-motivated crime, semen
plays a crucial role in identifying the perpetrator and linking him to the scene. Semen is the
fluid expelled during male ejaculation, designed to carry and support spermatozoa, the
sperm cells. In a single ejaculate of semen it is estimated that there are on average a
quarter of a 250 million sperm cells, making semen ideal for DNA profiling.
In some cases the fluid may be difficult to see with the naked eye. As previously mentioned,
certain alternative light sources can often visualise latent evidence, particularly traces of
biological fluids. Ultraviolet light causes semen to fluoresce, indicating its location whilst not
damaging the evidence itself.
The acid phosphatase test is one of the most common methods used to detect the presence
of semen, due to the high levels of the enzyme in human semen. However acid phosphatase
is present elsewhere in the body, meaning the test may react positively with other bodily
fluids, therefore this should only be used as a presumptive test for semen.
Prostate-Specific Antigen, also known as SPA or p30, is a glycoprotein produced in the
prostate gland. This is equally useful in detecting the presence of semen, though is once
again only a presumptive test, as PSA is also found in urine.
The microscopic detection of sperm is a more confirmatory method of discovery. Using
microscopic equipment, it is often possible to view the sperm cells, proving their presence.
However the older a biological sample is, the further decomposition may have progressed,
therefore fresh and well-preserved samples are preferred.
Confirmatory Tests for semen:

1- The Christmas Tree Stain: The most reliable confirmation for the presence of semen is
the positive visual identification of sperm cells (or spermatozoa) using the Christmas tree
stain. Two main reagents are used consecutively to produce this distinctive stain:
Picroindigocarmine stains the neck and tail portions of the sperm in green and blue, while
Nuclear Fast Red (also known as Kernechtrot) gives the sperm heads a red color and the
tips of the heads, an area known as acrosomal cap, a pink color. Although this color pattern
seems quite unique and may render sperm cells easily distinguishable under a microscope,
sperm cells tend to deteriorate quickly after ejaculation.
The sperm tails are most susceptible to damage and will break down first. Therefore, the
analyst must be trained to make visual distinctions between sperm heads and other types of
cells in the mix, particularly mucosal or epithelial cells whose nuclei will also stain red. Once
ejected from the body, sperm survival will depend on the surrounding environment and type
of surface. It has been shown that intact sperm (sperm that retains the cap and tail sections)
can be recovered from a vaginal cavity for a period of time following intercourse. That time
will depend on many physiologic factors. Intact sperm can also be recovered from surfaces
and fabrics if the semen dried up quickly before natural breakdown occurs.
2- RSID-Semen Strip Test: The RSID-Semen test provides sensitivity as well as specificity
to human semen. Similar in format to a pregnancy test strip, the RSID-semen test identifies
the presence of the seminal vesicle-specific antigen, or semenogelin.
This antigen is unique to semen, and therefore, there is no cross reactivity with other bodily
fluids in males and females or with semen from other mammals. This test can also identify
semen even if the stain was stored under less favorable conditions which have been shown
to affect other tests such as the Acid Phosphatase test.
Presumptive tests for semen:
1- Visual and Alternate Light Tests: If the area to be examined and analyzed for
semen is larger than an individual swab, forensic scientists resort to visual
identification first. Clothing, undergarments, and bedding can be quickly surveyed for
potential semen stains using the naked eye. Dried semen stains are often off-white to
faint yellow in color. Semen can also be visualized using blue light, ultraviolet light
(also known as Woods Lamp), or a modern light source such as CrimeScope that is
properly configured with optimum wavelength filters. Under those specialized lights,
semen will fluorescence due to the presence of molecules such as Flavin and
Choline-conjugated proteins. The color of this fluorescence will vary from blue to
yellow, depending on the light equipment used. There are many molecules (natural
and artificial) that will fluoresce in a similar way as semen, and therefore, this
detection technique is highly presumptive. Furthermore, not all semen stains will
fluoresce under such specialized lights. Exposure of the sample to factors such as
heat, humidity, oxidizing agents, and microorganisms such as bacteria and mold can
affect this fluorescent activity. Semen fluorescence can also be masked by certain
types of fabrics and fabric treatments.
2- 2- Acid Phosphatase test: The male prostate gland produces and secrets into
semen a high amount of the enzyme acid phosphatase (AP). Using a standard
chemical reaction, a forensic laboratory can analyze a given stain for the presence of
this enzyme. In the presence of Alpha-Naphthyl acid phosphate and Brentamine Fast
Blue, AP will produce a dark purple color in less than a minute (test is also known as
the Brentamine spot test). The shade of this purple color will depend on the activity of
the enzyme, which can be negatively impacted by the age of the stain and the
storage conditions. The test for AP remains highly presumptive due to the fact that
vaginal secretions and other bodily fluids contain detectable levels of this enzyme.

Non-semen AP enzyme reactivity is markedly slower when using the above mentioned spot
test, owing to the fact that not all AP enzymes in the body are equal in their activity level. AP
activity has been detected in dried samples years after the stain was deposited. However,
moisture and heat will result in the breakdown of AP in a matter of days.
3- Prostate Specific Antigen: Another presumptive test for semen is the detection of
prostate specific antigen (PSA) or the P30 molecule. Forensic labs utilize a test
known as ABAcard or P30 test to screen for PSA. (This test was previously used by
the SBI lab, but is no longer used). PSA is produced in high amounts by the male
prostate gland.
However, this antigen can also be found in very small amounts in fecal material and sweat.
Studies have shown PSA can also exist in female urine and breast milk. A recent
study identified that the majority of women have a glandular structure surrounding the
urethra that is similar to the male prostate gland. This structure was shown to produce PSA
in detectable amounts. While the PSA test remains a strong test for the presence of male
semen, caution is always urged when interpreting positive PSA results which are not
confirmed by the actual presence of sperm.
PHYSICAL EVIDENCEFIBRE, STAIN, AND HAIR ANALYSIS
The Importance of Hair and Fibre
Hair and fibre are two of the most important resources in Forensic Science and are often
responsible for providing valuable clues as to the identity of an assailant or attacker.
The discovery of hair on the body of a victim or on the clothes of someone who has been the
victim of an assault can often be used to determine race and sex. It can also be used to
extrapolate DNA for comparison.
Although hair is classified as benign dead matter it still contains DNA even though the hair
itself is not actually a living organism but is merely pushed through the follicles of the scalp,
arms, legs or any other part of the anatomy where hair is found.
Fibres too are an important discovery and can go some way to determining what an attacker
or killer was wearing at the time of the incident. Many forensic scientists use fibres as a
means of determining the nature of the item worn and in some instances can be as precise
as to identify the make of the garment and thus the manufacturer. In some instances this
technique is so successful that garments that are rare or indeed specially made can be
identified and thus a list of possible suspects drawn up simply by the number of units sold.
Collecting Evidence
Hair and fibre are collected at varying points throughout the forensic science process but
most notably at the scene of the crime and at the autopsy stage.
At the scene of crime hair and fibre samples are collected from the surrounding area and
this can be for the purposes of eliminating individuals from police enquiries as well as to help
narrow down the list of suspects. These samples are collected through meticulous and
painstaking processes, which are carried out by Scenes of Crime Officers (SOCO) who
themselves are dressed in protective clothing so that their own clothing and hair do not
contaminate any evidence which may pre-exist.
These samples are collected in varying vials, tubes and grip seal bags so that cross
contamination may not occur between the time of collection and the time of proper analysis.

The victim's clothing may be examined for trace elements of bodily fluid such as blood,
semen or saliva and whilst this is being done the clothes are also checked for hairs that do
not match those of the victim and likewise fibres that are not correspondent to the items of
clothing they are wearing. It is also possible at this point to collect animal hair and soil
samples.
The second stage of collecting hair and fibres is at the autopsy when the pathologist will
scrape the underside of the victim's fingernails for any hair, skin, fibres or material that might
have gathered there. This is a useful technique as often during a violent struggle the victim
with attempt to defend him or herself by lashing out in a defensive posture, possibly
scratching or biting their attacker in the process.
These materials are then collected and stored in the same manner so that further
examination and comparison may take place at a later stage. Take a look at what's involved
in the Pathologist's rolein relation to forensics.
Forensic Science Hair & Fibres
In any struggle between victim and attacker hairs and fibres from one are inevitably
transferred to the other. The importance of hair in criminal investigation was realised at an
early stage in the development of forensic science, and one of the first scientific papers on
the subject was published in France in 1857. By the early 1900s microscopic examination of
hair was well established, and in 1931 Professor John Glaister published his Hairs of
Mammalia from the Medico-legal Aspect, which became a standard reference work.
Hair can provide crime investigators with important clues. Apart from burning, hair is virtually
indestructible. It remains identifiable even on bodies in an advanced state of decomposition
or attached to objects after a crime has been committed.
The forensic scientist using a microscope can make even a single head hair yield
information about the race, sex an age of its owner, and while hair does not have the same
individual character as a fingerprint it can provide vital evidence. For example, in August
1951, a womans body was found in a rural sport near Nottingham. The victim, Mable
Tattershaw, a 48 year old housewife, had been strangled. Minute inspection of her clothing
revealed some hairs which were immediately sent to the forensic laboratory, where
microscope examination showed them to be identical with the head hair of Leonard Mills, an
18 year old clerk and the chief suspect. Together with other damning evidence, these hairs
helped to take a murderer to the scaffold.
Cloth fibres are often found at the scene of the crime or on a suspect. In some cases, a
small piece of cloth may be found. The police may even find a matching piece of cloth whose
torn edge will fit the torn edge of the first piece. Such a match is called a jigsaw fit. Most
cloth is made of fibres woven or intertwined in some way. The kind of fibre and the way in
which it is intertwined determine the character of the resulting cloth.
More often, the police have only tiny fibres with which to work. It is surprising how often such
fibres are left behind, or picked up, by the criminal. A sweater will shed its own fibres easily
and hold foreign fibres deposited by contact. Even a closely woven garment, rubbing against
a door jamb will leave a few fibre fragments. A car striking a pedestrian is likely to pick up
tiny fragments of the victims clothing, even if only a smooth part of the car comes into
contact with the person. These fibres can be removed from the car by applying sticking tape
to the surface, pulling the tape away, and the removing the fibres from the tape with liquid.

What is hair used for?

Unless it is burnt, hair is extremely durable. It remains identifiable on bodies in an advanced
state of decomposition or attached to a murder weapon long after the crime is committed.
Hair is composed of protein substances, chiefly keratin, and head hair grows at an average
weekly rate of about 2.5mm, the beard growing faster and body hair more slowly. Growth
ceases at death, but as the skin shrinks the hair, especially the beard, becomes more
prominent, giving rise to the murder myth that hair grows after death. The absorbent property
of hair makes its examination important in cases of arsenic poisoning. Hair picks up the
poisons from the bloodstream, and it is possible to work out the approximate strength and
frequency of the dosage by analysis.
Hair can be used in helping to reconstruct events. Collection of hair and fibres can indicating
contact with surfaces or individuals and so where individuals have been. Examination of the
root structure can indicate whether hair has fallen out or been forcefully removed, indicating
a struggle.
These days hair can also be used to assist identification through DNA analysis. If some root
structure is present standard DNA profiling can be used. Even if you only have the shaft,
mitochondrial DNA testing can be tried.
What are Fibres?
Fibres are the basic unit of raw material in textile production having suitable length, pliability,
and strength for conversion into yarns and fabrics. A fibre of extreme length is a filament.
Fibres can occur naturally or can be produced artificially. Fibres also cover some structural
materials as in asbestos fibres (rare these days) and glass fibres.
Not long ago, most fabrics were made of wool, cotton, linen or silk. It was easy to identify
them just be feeling and looking. Today a wide variety of synthetic fibers has appeared on
the market, and manufacturers have learn how to combine many fibers in making a single
fabric, making it difficult to analyse completely or identify all fabrics. However, there are
some simple tests which help greatly in distinguishing fabrics, the most common being the
burning test and chemical tests.

Cotton

Viscose

Wool

Triacetate
Fibres and Hair

Examination of hair and fibres from a crime scene or suspect can yield a wealth of
information.
Hair and fibres can be used in helping to reconstruct events. Collection of hair and fibres can
indicating contact with surfaces or individuals and so where individuals have been.
Examination of the root structure of hair can indicate whether hair has fallen out or been
forcefully removed, indicating a struggle. All these indicators can be used to corroborate or
refute a persons version of events or act as the silent witness to a crime. These days hair
may be used to help identify individuals through DNA analysis. However traditional methods
of hair examination are still used for identification as DNA analysis will not always yield
results.

Collecting Hair and Fibres Generally carried out by applying clear tape to a surface
and seeing what comes off. An item to be examined will be worked over
systematically in a grid fashion. Examiners will use tape of various stickiness
depending upon the surface being examined. Stickier tapes are more efficient at
recovering fibres but may also bury target fibres in a dense mass of background
fibres from the surface.Identifying Fibres
The first step in identifying a fibre is to determine its type. Not long ago, most fabrics were
made of wool, cotton, linen or silk. It was easy to identify them just be feeling and looking.
Today a wide variety of synthetic fibres has appeared on the market, and manufacturers
have learn how to combine many fibres in making a single fabric, making it difficult to
analyse completely or identify all fabrics.

Cotton

Wool

Linen

Nylon

Silk

Rayon

Most natural fibres such as wool, cotton, and linen, have distinctive appearances that can be
detected under the microscope. Wool, for example, being an animal hair, has a pattern of
surface scales (although wool that is re-used may have lost there surface scales in the
processing). Silk and most synthetic fibres, which are produced by the drawing out and
solidifying of a liquid, have smooth surfaces. This characteristics makes them difficult to
distinguish one from another merely by looking at them through the microscope in normal
light.
A synthetic fibre that cannot easily be identified with the microscope can be subjected to a
newer technique, called infrared spectrophotometry. This process takes advantage of the
fact that all compounds absorb characteristic wavelengths of radiation. For example (to
consider only visible radiation), a leaf looks green because it contains chlorophyll, a
chemical that absorbs light mainly from the red and blue end of the visible spectrum, but
reflects light mainly in the yellow and green wavelengths.

A scientist can identify a substance, or find our what compounds it contains, by looking at the
way it absorbs light. If a beam of light containing all wavelengths is passed through the
substance, and the emerging light is spectrum will appear dim and in other places bright.

This variation indicates parts of the spectrum that suffer the most absorption that is those
that are the dimmest are called the substances absorption bands. For a specific chemical
substance, the pattern of absorption bands is, in some cases, unique. It serves as a kind of
signature for that substance. This signature can be detected and recorded by a machine
called a spectrophotometer.

Besides absorbing visible light, compounds will also absorb invisible wavelengths, such as
ultraviolet or infrared rays. These are the wavelengths just beyond the blue and the red ends
(respectively) of the visible spectrum. Because the infrared band extends over a much wider
range of wavelengths that does the ultraviolet or the visible band, it will provide a more
complete signature for the substance.
When analysing a substance by infrared spectrophotometry, the forensic scientist first mixes
it with dry salt (sodium chloride) and forms it into a disk. Salt is used because it is
transparent to infrared rays. He then focuses infrared light onto the disk. The light emerges
from the disk minus those wavelengths that have been absorbed by chemicals present in the
sample. The emerging rays are broken into a spectrum by a prism of rock salt. The light
intensities in this spectrum are then measured and plotted electronically by the
spectrophotometer. The machine produces a graph of peaks and troughs. The pattern of the
graph corresponds to the pattern of absorption bands. By referring to known signatures for
various compounds and comparing these with the signature produced by the sample, the
scientist can tell which compounds the sample contains. He can also tell from the graph how
much of a compound is contained in the sample and can thus identify, for example, the origin
of fibres.
If a sample of fabric is available a
forensic scientist might look at the
construction of the fabric to help trace it
back to a particular type of clothing or
particular weave patterns in the fabric
might help in the search for evidence.
Some common weaving patterns are
shown at the right.
The edges and shape of a piece of cloth
might also be examined to help in
making a physical fit with clothing or
fabric from a crime scene, victim or
suspect.
There are also some simple tests which
help greatly in distinguishing fabrics, the
most common being the burning test
and chemical tests.
Clues from Hair
These days hair may be used to help identify individuals through DNA analysis. Traditional
methods of hair analysis are still used as hair evidence will not always allow DNA analysis or
the DNA analysis may be inconclusive or even not useful.

Some preliminary examination of the hair may also help in determining the value and
direction of the DNA analysis. If physical analysis tells you the hair has no root material
attached than DNA analysis will probably not be helpful. If it tells you have dog hair it is no
use testing a suspect, though it might be worth testing his dog!