Life on Earth

1. Analysis of the oldest sedimentary rocks provides

evidence for the origin of life.
1.2.1. Identify the relationship between the conditions on early Earth
and the origin of organic molecules
How old is the Earth?

4.6 Billion Years Old

Earth formed about 4600mya.

Age is based on age of mineral crystals.
WA = oldest crystals, 4400mya.
Some of our most primitive meteorites are remnants of t his time.
Life thought to have originated 3500-4000mya.

How Did the Earth Form?

Big bang theory = an explosive event marked beginning of universe,

about 20,000mya, throwing compacted material outward and producing
the expanded universe as it is today.
Thought that solar system formed from a cloud of dust and gases (solar
nebula) which collapsed and condensed over time (1 mil yrs).
Once there was significant mass in centre, nuclear reactions (fusion
reactions which release a great deal of energy) were finally triggered that
ignited proto-sun.
Surrounding gases condensed to form planets
Collision and mass aggregation of the gases over time resulted in
formation of early earth.
Solar nebula = remnant of an earlier star that has completed its life and
exploded e.g. supernova
Fusion = combining of nuclei of light element (H) into those of a heavier
element i.e. HE. The resultant loss of mass is converted into energy (stars
and thermo-nuclear weapons use this kind of reaction).

Conditions on the Early Earth

For first 500myrs of earths existence, earth was frequently bombarded by

asteroids, comets and other fragments left over from the formation of the
planets of the solar system.
Earths surface was hot and was exposed to destructive shortwave UV
from sun, no ozone as there was no gaseous oxygen.
Volcanic eruption and violent electrical storms also occurred
No seas, lakes, rivers and water lifeless

The First Atmosphere

leftover stardust (H, He lightweight gases that could not be retained by

earths gravitational pull and gradually escaped into space)

The Secondary Atmosphere

Permanent secondary atmosphere developed several hundred myas.

Believed to have originated from emission of volcanic gases: volcanic
outgassing
Atmosphere consists of: H2O vapour, CO2, N2; smaller amts methane (CH4),
ammonia (NH3), sulfurous gases (corrosive sulphur dioxide (SO 2) and
hydrogen sulfide (HS) )
NO FREE OXYGEN (ANOXIC) bound to other elements water (H 2O), carbon
monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO2), SiO2 quartz)

Rain

Earths secondary atmosphere initially thin with low air pressure

As more gases were added from volcanic activity, air pressure increased.
Because temp range was suitable, this increase in air pressure caused
water vapour to condense as liquid water. Rain, eventually forming seas
& oceans.
Presence of liquid water essential condition for evolution of life on earth
Sedimentary rock (sandstone, mudstone) 3800mya evidence that water
cycle existed as composed of particles eroded from pre-existing rocks
deposited under water and compacted into rock.
Other evidence = ripple marks on ancient rocks

The Impact of Water on CO2 (Disappearance of CO2)

Early earths atmosphere originally had high concentration of CO 2 but

today its low (0.03%). It turned into rock.
CO2 readily dissolves into water. When water cycle was established on
earth, CO2 gas flushed out of atmosphere into seas by rain.CO2 reacts with
water to form carbonic acid, H2CO3.

H2CO3 reacted with dissolved mineral ions in seas such as Ca and

produced insoluble calcium carbonate- CaCO 3 that was deposited on sea
floor.
Sediments later compressed to form rocks (chalk)
After removal of CO2 principal gas remaining in atmosphere was N

Key Phases in the Origins of the Earth

Gases and dust condensed (4.5 billion yrs ago)
Early Earth (Hot, Volatile, Lightweight gases)
Secondary Atmosphere (Outgassing, heavier gases, rain)
The Water Cycle
Reduced Carbon Dioxide

1.2.2 Discuss the implications of the existence of organic molecules in

the cosmos for the origin of life on earth
What are Organic Molecules?

Carbon based molecules

Carbon- forms strong bonds with itself and can form complex molecular
structures- long chains, branching chains and rings.

The Beginning of Life on Earth- When and How?

Hadeon eon 4600-3900mya earth apparently lifeless

Archaean eon 3900-2500mya first evidence of life (rocks)
3500-4000mya earth had right conditions for life to exist several theories
about origin

What we know:

Living organisms require liquid water became available once water cycle
established (at least 3800mya).
Living organisms require an energy source for functioning & reproduction
(energy sources on early earth were chemical and UV radiation)
Living organisms consist of organic (carbon based) molecules
Life needs protection from harmful UV radiation coming from sun.

Chemicals for Life (ORGANIC MOLECULES) none present on early

earth

Water
H, O
Carbohydrates
C, H, O
Lipids
C, H, O
Proteins (20 amino acids) C, H, O, N, S, P
Nucleic Acids (DNA/RNA) C, H, O, N, P

1.2.3 Describe two scientific theories relating to the evolution of the

chemicals of life and discuss their significance in understanding the
origin of life
What is Necessary for Life?

Essential components for the emergence of life on Earth included the

presence of the following:
Liquid water provides medium where reactions necessary for life
occur, essential solvent for many materials
A useable energy source functioning and reproduction; chemical
energy and sunlight
Organic molecules proteins, carbohydrates, lipids, nucleic acids:
NONE PRESENT ON EARLY EARTH

From where did the first organic molecules come?

Two hypothesises:
a) Organic molecules were carried here from outer space
b) Organic molecules were produced on the early earth under the
conditions that existed at that time.
Theory 1

Organic molecules that are building blocks of life could have been
transported to the earths surface from space, carried here on meteorites.
Meteorite: fragment of solar system that has fallen to the earths surface.
They can be fragments of asteroids, comets or blasted from the surface of
planets- Mars.
Organic molecules are NOT living organisms (not saying life itself travelled
from outer space). Panspermia hypothesis.
Certain types meteorites (carbonaceous chrondrites) found to contain
organic molecules including amino acids, some of which same as found on
earth and some completely different.

Murchison meteorite

1969 meteorite piece landed on farmland near Murichson, central

Victoria

Murichson farm contained 92 amino acids, 19 similar to those found on

earth, the rest unlike anything found on earth
Pieces collected on same day and handled carefully to avoid
contamination
Analysis revealed many amino acids (protein)
Amino acids on earth consist exclusively of L-form, meteorite = D and Lforms not due to contamination by organisms from earth
Provided evidence that organic molecules can be formed extraterrestrial &
gave support to hypothesis that some of the organic molecules on early
earth might have come from space.

Theory 2

Correct conditions existed on earth for creation of complex organic

molecules
Energy from UV radiation or lightening strikes

Experimental evidence

January 2001 NASA experiment results published = organic molecules can

be made in space
Scientists duplicated conditions existing in interstellar clouds in space
This is what they did:
1. Mix water with inorganic chemicals that exist in interstellar cloudsammonia, carbon monoxide, carbon dioxide and methanol.
2. Freeze mixture in a vacuum at temp close to absolute zero (-263deg) to
form space ice.
3. Zap resulting ice with shortwave UV radiation.
Experiment showed that the organic molecules that are building blocks of
life can be produced in space.
Conclusion: results of Miller and Urey experiment and related experiments
show that organic molecules could have been produced on early earth.
Other findings indicate that these organic molecules could have come
from outer space. The origin of the organic molecules on early earth
remains unresolved.

Summary of theories
1. Spiritual forces
2. Outer space
3. Reactions of chemicals on Earth

1.2.4 Discuss the significance of the Miller and Urey experiment in the
debate on the composition of the primitive atmosphere
Miller-Urey experiment: organic from inorganic

In 1950s, Stanley Miller and Harold Urey conducted an experiment

(carried at uni of Chicago 1953) that they believed demonstrated that
several organic compounds, including amino acids could be formed
spontaneously by simulating the conditions of Earths early atmosphere.
Starting material = inorganic matter, water vapour and other gases that
Urey believed were present in early atmosphere of earth.
Electric discharge was like lightening.

Evacuate air from a sterilised glass

apparatus. Makes an anoxic environment.
1. Add equal proportions of methane
(CH4), ammonia (NH3) and hydrogen
(H2).
2. Add one cup of water
3. Heat the water to boiling so that the
apparatus becomes filled with steam
(H2O vapour)
4. Activate the electrodes so that
repeated electric discharges are
applied to the steam
5. After some days, cool the apparatus
so that the steam condenses to
water that collects in the trap.

What did they find?

Condensed water in apparatus went from colourless to dark.

Organic molecules found including many amino acids (buildings blocks of
protein).
Miller and Urey success at converting carbon in methane and nitrogen in
ammonia into many different kinds of organic molecules including amino
acids.
Oparin (1894-1980) and Haldane (1892-1964) hypothesised that organic
molecules required for development for life were synthesised on early
earth by natural chemical processes.
Miller & Urey provided first experimental evidence that under conditions
that may have existed on early earth, inorganic substances could be
converted to organic molecules.
modifications to experiment (by other scientists):
started w different mixtures of inorganic molecules that probably
existed in atmosphere of early earth
used various energy sources
produced range of inorganic molecules, including all 20 amino acids
(protein), sugars (DNA/RNA), some lipids

organic molecules needed for life could have been formed on early
earth from simple inorganic molecules present in anoxic
atmosphere and an energy source (UV, lightning, heat etc)

1.2.5 Identify changes in technology that have assisted in the

development of an increased understanding of the origin of life and
evolution of living things

Atmosphere of early earth = CH4, H2, CO2, NH3 floating above bodies of
warm water
Energy source diffuses in, causes chemical reactions primitive soup of
amino acids, nucleotides, sugars
Living chemicals living cells in which all chemicals cooperatively
function to maintain life cells divide, new organisms form

Examples of changing in technology that enabled scientists to

accumulate evidence take measurements and do experiments to
develop and increase understanding of origin of life:

Deep sea equipment that enabled exploration of remote env. E.g. ocean
trenches
X- ray crystallography
Chemical analysis
Chromatography
Radiometric dating of rocks - uses known decay rates of radio-active
isotopes
Microscopy especially the electron microscope
Biochemical analysis- especially DNA- enable comparison of organisms at
genetic level, to see change and hence possible evolutionary pathways

Early technologies- experimental techniques improved over time

Humans proposed hypotheses to explain origin of life

Scientists independently developing new technologies enabling
hypotheses to be tested
cooperation of scientists and technologists in all branches of science
REDI few glass jars and some cotton material
maggots in decaying meat came from eggs laid by flies
SPALLANZANIS FLASKS
showed that the microorganisms in broth came from air
SWAN-NECKED FLASKS designed by Louis Pasteur
demonstrated that spontaneous generation didnt occur
LIGHT MICROSCOPES Leeuwenhoek discovered in 1676

 discover organisms not seen w naked eye

More recent technologies

The sequence of past events on earth had been determined before

absolute dates could be assigned to them.
Because the technology of radiometric dating had not been developed.

Plate tectonics and continental drift

Develop knowledge of structure of earth:

Seismology: study of pressure/shock waves from earthquakes
Seismograph: record wave patterns from earthquakes
Studied changes in earths magnetic field and composition of
meteorites/volcanoes
Changing structure in surface layers of earth influenced
origin/evolution of life
Beginning 17C English philosopher Francis Bacon east coast
America/west coast Africa FIT TOGETHER
Supported by scientists study of fossil remains, identical species
plants/animals
1912 WEGENER (German geologist) suggested land mass broke up and
continents drifted apart
1965 J. TUZO WILSON (Canadian geophysicist) supported continental
drift idea and introduced concept of sea floor spreading (ridges in sea floor
produced new material and spread apart)
Based on evidence from magnetic surveys of ocean ridges e.g. Mid
Atlantic/East Pacific ridges
Ships measured magnetic field direction in rocks either side ridge
sample drilling on ocean floor, ultrasound depth sounding
Rock age increased farther away from ridge on either side
Plate tectonics: earths crust composed of 6 major plates 40km thick
which move over partially molten layers of mantle below. As they move
the plates bump into each other, move apart/slide past each other
carrying oceans and continents w them (continental drift) major impact on
theories relating to evolution on life

Radiometric Dating

Principle of superposition: the lower the strata, the older the stratum
Developed chronology of geologic time periods/some forms of life
As rocks form the older rocks were buried by newer rocks so the
lower levels or strata became the oldest
Organisms in deeper layers were older than shallow areas
Stratigraphic correlation: correlation (relate together in order) of the
strata from different locations of being of the same or different ages
Similar fossils found in widely different locations were found to be
same age

Radioactivity: emission of alpha, beta, gamma rays from unstable

isotopes of some elements
each isotope decays emits radiation and forms another element
at its own constant rate
As rocks/living matter form, radioactive isotopes are incorporated into
them in proportion to the isotopes abundance in environment. When
dead, level of radioactive isotope decreases as no further matter exchange
w environment
Measurement of radioactive to stable isotope in the sample can indicate
its age (each isotopes decay acts as radiometric clock)
U-238 common radioisotope used by geochemists to measure rock ages
long half life, decays into lead
By measuring amt U-238 still present in rock compared w amt lead,
rock age = 95% accuracy
Isotopes w long half lives can be used to date old formations (C-14
half life of 5500yrs, commonly used)
Radiometric dating: established age of earth as 4.5b years older than
previously estimated

Other technologies

Simulation of conditions in early earth testing feasibility of hypotheses

(depend on construction of equipment modern laboratory
technology)
Electron microscopy microorganism remains/mineral nature of early
rocks can be studied under electron microscope
Nature of minerals gives clues to environment; structure of organisms
reflects possible survival in environment
Modern techniques in biochemical analysis enable comparisons
between ancient organic material/biological compounds
Gas/liquid chromatography
Radioactive tracing
Spectrophotometry
Amino acid and nucleoid sequencing
3 major sources of knowledge/understanding about earths past/origin of
life
1. Earths geological history
2. Fossil record
3. Studies of biochemistry/metabolism of modern organisms

1.3.1 Gather information from secondary sources to describe the

experiments of Urey and Miller and use the available evidence to
analyse:
Reason for their experiments
To verify whether it was possible for organic molecules to have formed in a
reducing and energy rich environment similar to that of early earth.

Result of their experiments

Numerous organic molecules were produced in the simulated conditions. (Amino
acids, sugars, lipids and building blocks for nucleic acids)
Importance of their experiments in illustrating the nature and practice
of science
Scientists have proposed a model and through experimentation it was
demonstrated that the model could have been correct. Urey and Miller
demonstrated usefulness of modelling showing that it was possible that organic
molecules were formed on early earth from inorganic.
Contribution to hypothesis about the origin of life
Support for Haldane and Oparins theories about how the first organic molecules
could have formed. These scientists believed that the first organic molecules
could have evolved in the conditions of early earth.

2. The fossil record provides information about the

subsequent evolution of living things
2.2.1 Identify the major stages in the evolution of living things,
including the formation of organic molecules, membranes, procariotic
cells, eukaryotic cells, endosymbiosis and various orgamisms
Organic Molecules

As primitive biological concentration increased, reacted w each other to

form more complex molecules
Most stable survived - natural selection
Once chemical compounds had evolved, they began to react w each other
first metabolism
Earliest microfossils found in Australia dated at 3.5by; south Africa at
3.4by
Aggregation of organic chemicals to form first cells must have
occurred following first billion years of earth

Membranes

Chemical compounds separated from surroundings metabolise

effectively (e.g. valuable products not lost)
Membranes formed around chemicals, producing first primitive cells
Hydrophobic molecules cluster together form boundary between them
and surrounding aqueous solution
E.g. oil drops in water. Lipids and many large proteins have hydrophobic
parts and could have separated themselves from surrounding water.
Microspheres (small drops) of chemicals can form when certain chemicals
are mixed together, simple chemical reactions can take place inside them.
Theyre not cells but precursors.
Microspheres contents separated from external environment by primitive
liquid membranes
Some compounds could have assumed role of enzymes (biological
catalyst) directed metabolism inside cells
Eventually material similar to RNA could have begun to replicate and set in
action first cellular reproduction

Prokaryotic cells

Cell wall, cell membrane, cytoplasm- organic chemicals; one organelleribosome- synthesises proteins.
Dominated earth for about 2b years before eukaryotic cells evolved
smaller than eukaryotic
Two major groups are:
Bacteria (heterotrophic)
Cyanobacteria (autotrophic)

Heterotrophic and autotrophic prokaryotes (3.5 1.5bya)

Heterotroph: use chemicals from outside sources for energy/synthesis of

molecules
Autotroph: make own compounds from simple molecules/light energy
Early cells heterotrophic, eventually used up all
biological molecules in environment
Environmental pressure favouring autotrophs (make
own molecules from environment)
Heterotrophs continued to exist but depended on autotrophs for nutrients

Eukaryotic cells

Development of compartments (organelles) w/in cells to separate some

metabolic reactions from others
Cells with these compartments (organelles) were at advantage. First
eukaryotic cells.
Loose cooperative associations between cells = colonial organisms
Permanent associations between cells = multicellular organisms
Eukaryotic cells emerged during Precambrian period in environment
dominated by prokaryotic cells 2-1bya

The Endosymbiotic symbiosis How did the eukaryotic cell emerge?

Endosymbiotic hypothesis: the eukaryotic cell is the result of the symbiotic

relationship between small groups of prokaryotic cells.
Primitive prokaryotic cells became organelles inside eukaryotic cells
Organelles (except ribosomes) not been found in primitive prokaryotic
cells
O2 accumulated in atmosphere 2.5-2bya evolutionary pressure placed on
organisms for survival
Organisms that could use O2 were favoured prokaryotic organisms
present at time adopted various strategies:
1. Occupied anaerobic environments (marshes, swamps, sea
floor); evolved into modern bacteria (decomposers)
2. Species that could use O2 evolved into modern forms of
aerobic bacteria
3. Some associated symbiotically to form eukaryotic cells
Smaller prokaryotes lived inside larger prokaryotes first eukaryotic cells
symbiotic cells were possible forerunners of eukaryotic cell
Smaller cells = nutrients/protection, larger cells = new material/energy
Mitochondria in eukaryotic cells believed to be descended from specialised
bacteria
Mitochondria and chloroplasts contain their own DNA (probably own cell
once).

Mitochondria & chloroplasts contain small ribosomes like bacteria.

Mitochondria- membranes contain enzymes like those in bacterial
membranes
Believed symbiotic relationships established at different sites great
diversity eukaryotic cells
Endosymbiotic hypothesis also accounts for fact that complex or simple
organelles (apart from ribosomes) have not been found in primitive
prokaryotic cells.
A small number of modern cells live symbiotically w/in larger cells
(feasible) Australian termite digest wood because Endosymbiotic protist
present in gut

Unicellular to Multicellular 1.5-0.5bya

Sexual reproduction in eukaryotic cells = 1.5-0.5bya

First eukaryotic
organisms from Protista kingdom
Three groups of protists;
1. Algae photosynthetic, some multicellular
Chlorophyta (green algae) believed precursors of plants
2. Slime moulds resemble fungi in some ways Independent evolution
3. Protozoa/unicellular heterotrophs that are animal like

Colonial organisms
Individual cells subjected to certain environmental pressures associated
together into colonies
Cells connected by cytoplasm strands that integrate colony still maintain
degree of independence
modern green algae, colonial; Volvox
likely some cells become permanently attached to each other in some
colonies function more efficiently than as independent colonial cells
Multi-cellular organisms
functions of different cells became specialised
another method by which unicellular organisms could have changed =
repeated cell divisions w/out cytoplasmic division one large cell, many
nuclei

2.2.2 Describe some of the paleontological and geological evidence that

suggests when life originated on earth

study of rocks/fossils = evidence of early life forms and activities

oldest sedimentary rocks about 3800my

Paleontological evidence

microfossils similar to present day single celled anaerobic prokaryotic

organisms
Fossilised chains bacteria like cells found in rocks in Marble bar
region in WA earliest direct evidence life on earth
occur in rocks dated 3500my first living cells appeared on earth
at least 3465mya

microbe/microscopic organism
Recently some scientists have challenged validity of Marble Bar
fossils and argued that these particular structures were produced by
geochemical not biological action.
Stromatolites layered mats photosynthetic prokaryotic cells
(cyanobacteria) modern descendants WA
3500myo Aus Stromatolites (cyanobacteria aggregation) fossils
OLDEST EVIDENCE
hundreds Stromatolites locations throughout WA: 3460my to
present
Stromatolites formed when filaments photosynthetic bacteria grow
towards light during day; trap sediment
sediment accumulates on/w/in layers microbial filaments at bottom
shallow seas/lakes
filaments lay flat at night and bind sediment fine layered
structure
Stromatolites 2800-3000my Fig Tree Group of rocks in South Africa
Stromatolites 2000my Gunflint Chert rock found in shores of Lake
Superior in Nth America
microfossil/Stromatolites 3400-3500my rocks, Warrawoona Group in WA

Geological evidence

First microbes heterotrophic obtained energy by consuming other

organic compounds
by product O2
Carbon isotopes in rocks
NOVEMBER 1996 chemical evidence (not fossilized microbes)
tiny carbon particles found in 3850my old rock
carbon atoms can exist in different forms- isotopes
living organisms use lighter C-12 isotope during chemical reactions
(C-13 heavier)
substances made by biological processes = higher ratio lighter
to heavier stable isotopes compared w substances made by
geochemical processes
SHRIMP instrument higher ratio isotopes. Scientists measured
ratio of isotopes in the carbon particles from the rock.
carbon inclusions had biological origin and provided indirect
evidence that life existed on earth 3850mya

Banded iron formations (BIFs)

Generally believed O2 in chemical reaction w ferrous (Fe2+) ions
present in solution in sea water
4Fe + 3O2 2Fe2O3
Insoluble ferric oxide deposited on sea floor deposition stopped
from time to time, other material deposited (silica). This may have
been because the pop of microbes died out at end of season.
In time, the microbial pop recovered and the deposition of ferric
oxide recommended and so on.
Cyclic process produced rocks w dark layers ferric oxide
interspersed w lighter coloured layers other material
BIFs provide evidence for when
1. The first photosynthetic microbes appeared on earth
2. The first free O2 released into atmosphere
BIFs produced in small amounts from 3400mya first
photosynthetic microbes had evolved by that time
Major production of BIFs occurred from 2500-2000mya O 2
production by photosynthesis on global scale

2.2.3 Explain why the change from an anoxic to an oxic atmosphere was
significant in the evolution of living thing
How life changed the earths environment

Earths atmosphere changed over time originally no free O 2 but now 21%
atmosphere (produced by new types of microbes that used sunlight as an
energy source - LIFE)
First primitive cells were heterotrophic- obtained energy by consuming
other organic compounds
cells containing pigments developed photosynthesized

Oxygen in the atmosphere

2000mya BIF stopped when all dissolved ferrous iron in sea oxidised O2
produced by photosynthetic microbes accumulated as free O 2 (anoxic to
oxic)
Some of atmospheric O2 reacted w mineral deposits on land esp. ferrous
iron oxidised surfaces to produce red-beds (formed 2000mya 800mya
earth had fully rusted)
some O2 tolerant microbes evolved ability to use in energy-releasing
activities
*aerobic respiration

Oxygen from sunlight-trapping microbes

3500-2700mya some microbes evolved ability to photosynthesise

Possibly like present-day cyanobacteria that forms green slime on
water

Sunlight, H2O, CO2 readily available to use waste O2 produced eventually

changed atmosphere (anoxic to oxic)
Evolution of photosynthesis had dramatic effect on earths environment
explosion in abundance photosynthetic organisms (multiplication in
numbers)
used up CO2 gradually reduced levels present in atmosphere
O2 produced originally taken up by rocks oxidized rocks ancient
banded iron/red bed rock formations
Once rocks absorbed all O2 they could or became saturated, O2 became to
build up as a gas.
UV radiation from sun reacted with some of free O 2 gas to form ozone.
Eventually ozone formed round earth high in atmosphere- act as a shield
absorbing UV radiation so less reach surface of earth.

The ozone Layer

Sunlight acted on O2 MOLECULES in stratosphere (upper atmosphere)

Split to form O2 atoms reacted w molecular O2 to form ozone (O3)
O2 O + O
O + O 2 O3
Resulting ozone layer in stratosphere absorbs short wavelength UV (UVC
and some UVB) radiation harmful to life
Formation of ozone layer eventually helped organisms to colonise land
surfaces and unshaded surfaces of water
O2 levels rose, photosynthetic organisms = more abundant (more),
growth/metabolism anaerobic organisms declined
Significance of change from anoxic to oxic atmosphere is that anaerobic
organisms declined.
today anaerobic organisms survive only in very low O 2 concentration
mud in swamps/bogs, deep underground etc
As O2 levels rose, living systems developed ways to use O2 directly to
produce chemical energy.
Aerobic organisms evolved and they could produce energy more efficiently
via respiration.
greater metabolic activity became possible organisms more active
increase in size/complexity (eukaryotic cells evolved also multicellular
plants and animals)
O2 presence inhibits formation of complex organic molecules (amino acids)

2.2.4 Discuss the ways in which developments in scientific knowledge

may conflict with the ideas about the origins of life developed by
different cultures

Some believe all creatures created when earth formed none

descended/evolved from any other
Biblical creationism- created by god on first 6 days

2.3.1 Process and analyse information to construct a timeline of the main events
that occurred during the evolution of life on earth

2.3.2 Gather first-hand or secondary information to make observations of a range

of plant and animal fossils

Stromatolites: They are formed from cyanobacteria

whose filamentous gel like form trapped sediments in
shallow, salty oceans.

Footprints: They are formed when an organism leaves an

impression on a surface which is later filled in with other
materials.

Mould: They are formed when an

impression or mould which is
materials.

Cast: They are formed when an

organism leaves an impression
or
mould which is later filled in with other materials or
the original organic material has been replaced by
inorganic minerals in a process known as petrifaction.

Bones: They are formed when an organism dies and its

squishy bits rot out and so all thats left is bones. The bone then
decays and is slowly replaced by rock like minerals.

Fossil preserved in amber: They are formed when an

organism gets preserved in amber (tree sap).

organism leaves an
later filled in with other

Actual preserved organism (e.g. in ice, peat, bog,

etc): They are formed when an animal is
buried rapidly by either ice or sediment. The decay of the
organism must be prevented or reduced to allow fossilisation to
occur.

Coprolite (fossilised animal excreta): They are formed

from animals droppings. They are rapidly buried and
the organic material is replaced with sediment, etc.

2.3.3 Identify data sources, gather, and process, analyse and present information
from secondary sources to evaluate the impact of increased understanding of the
fossil record on the development of ideas about the history of life on earth

Always been debates about when fossils were first recognised to be

remains of living things.

Some early European scholars claimed that fossils were accidents of

nature
Christians say that fossils can be a result of Noahs flood.
Extinction believed to be a result of divine intervention or extreme natural
catastrophe.
Eventually Darwin and Lamarck suggested that extinction was natural part
of evolution.
Over last 150 years people are now accepting scientific explanation for the
evolution of living things and the expanding fossil record has been a factor
in this.
Technology has greatly improved our understanding. E.g. mass
spectrometers, remote sensing and imaging to locate fossil beds, use of
computer modelling or biomechanics to produce realistic models of
ancient organisms, CAT scans.

3. Further developments in our knowledge of present-day organisms

and the discovery of new organisms allows for better understanding of
the origins of life and the processes involved in the evolution of living
things

3.2.1 Describe technological advances that have increased knowledge of

prokaryotic organisms

ELECTRON MICROSCOPY
Fine details e.g. structure of cells
BIOCHEMISTRY
Study of metabolic pathways = similarities/differences unknown
before
MOLECULEAR BIOLOGY
Comparative sequencing of amino acids in proteins
Nucleotide sequencing of RNA/DNA along lengths of chromosomes
The more similar the sequences, the more closely related the
organisms are considered to be clues to evolutionary relationships
of organisms
Allows to determine common ancestors of certain organisms
CARL WOESE discovered 2 fundamentally different types
prokaryotic cells comparative sequencing

3.2.2 Describe the main features of the environment occupied by one of the
following and identify the role of this organism in its ecosystem

Archaea (means ancient) - group includes 3 sub-groups which all live in extreme
hostile environments
1. Methanogens
Environment- bogs, deep soils, marine and fresh water
sediments, intestinal tracts of herbivores and in sewage
treatment works.
Anaerobic (obligate anaerobes)
Use H2 as energy source, CO2 as carbon source and produce
methane as by-product.
Role in ecosystem- recycling of carbon, important
decomposers.
Methane released in air is part of carbon cycle
Form symbiotic relationships with other organisms e.g. when
found in get of cattle or termites
Role: assist in break-down of cellulose- aids digestion in host.
2. Halophiles (halobacteria)
Environment- very high salt concentrations e.g. Dead sea in
Middle East, Great Salt lake, USA, and evaporating ponds of
saline water
Aerobic but have a second system for producing energy using
photosynthesis which involves pink pigment,
bacteriorhodopsin (so they can also produce energy without
using O2).
Pink tinge in salt flats may be detected and photographed by
satellites.
Role in ecosystem- part of food chain, consumed by filter
feeders. Little known about role.

3. Thermopiles (or thermoacidophiles)

Environment- requires high temps for growth (80-105deg), can live
in highly acidic environments and can use sulphur as an energy
source.
Found in hot springs, geysers, hydrothermal vents (areas of
volcanic activity) which are often highly acidic and in cracks of
ocean floor.
Sometimes called deep-sea bacteria.
Some die if temp reaches as low as 55deg.
Role in ecosystem- oxidise sulphur to produce energy, therefore
primary producers (chemo-autotrophs, as opposed to photoautotrophs)
Ones live in deep sea are part of deep-sea floor web.

Some organisms feed on them directly and others form a

symbiotic relationship with them with bacteria providing nutrients
and the organism providing shelter.
E.g. giant tube worm which lives in hydrothermal vents, grows to
over 1m in length, has now mouth, gut or anus and derives all its
nutrition from the sulphur bacteria living in a special organ inside it
called a trophosome.

3.3.1 Use the available evidence to outline similarities in the environments past
and present for one of the following:

Archaea (Methanogens)

Past environment: Thought to have dominated the anoxic environment of

early earth.
Present environment: Anaerobic conditions in swamps, the digestive
system of ruminants. Some are found below the top layers of marine
sediments. Also found in hot springs and hydrothermal vents. Have been
found under kms of ice in Greenland and in the hot, dry soils of deserts.

3.3.2 Analyse information from secondary sources to discuss the diverse

environments that living things occupy today and use available
evidence to describe possible alternative environments in which life
may have originated

Today living organisms exist in most places on earth from oceanic depths
(even round Arctic and Antarctica) to high mountains (11300).
Also found in extreme env such as volcanic vents, deep ocean trenches,
hot springs, salty lakes, acidic and alkaline conditions, underground, under
high pressure and many cold places.
Idea of Haldane and Oparin: origins of life = warm, shallow seas.
Since then other suggestions of origins have been made as result of
discovering life in places that are thought to be lifeless.
E.g. deep sea bacteria in hydrothermal vents
Alternative env where life could have originated are warm ponds, ocean
beaches, water under frozen ice sheets, kms below earths surface and
thermal springs.
Also possibly Mars or elsewhere in space brought here by comets or
asteroids.

4. The study of present-day organisms increases our understanding of

past organisms and environments

4.2.1 Explain the need for scientists to classify organisms

Makes it easier to describe and study the enormous diversity of living

organisms

enable easier communication between scientists

understand relationships

large number organisms- 1.8mil of different organisms

reveal trends, identify new organisms

conservations

taxonomy science of classifying organisms

all scientists must agree

4.2.2 Describe the selection criteria used in different classification systems and
discuss the advantages and disadvantages of each system

Biologists do not always agree on criteria that should be used to group

organisms. Even highest of classification theres more than one system: (3
kingdoms- Monera, plants and animals) or (5 kingdoms - Monera, Protista, Fungi,
plants and animals).
Criteria often used for determining similarities and differences in organisms are:

Anatomy (structure) - morphology

Most practical- its easily observed in living, dead and fossilised organisms.
usually remains constant over life of organism doesnt change according
to season, age etc

Physiology (functioning)

Plants grouped according to both structure and method of production

where classification of animals is largely based on structure.

Behaviour

Can be observed first hand and is most common criteria for biologists

Biochemistry (functioning at a molecular level)

when cannot be easily identified by morphology alone

Genetics and molecular structure

identify evolutionary relationships

DNA (mutate at a predictable and constant rate. Used to date events e.g.
when organism diverges from a common ancestor) and protein analyse
used to reveal relationships that cant be viewed in any other way.

4.2.3 Explain how levels of organisation in a hierarchical system assist

classification

Provides framework that reflects level of similarity or difference between

organisms in a systematic way.
Determine what stage they diverged
Hierarchy allows us to retrieve and store info

Classification over time

18th cent: Carolus Linnaeus divided world into animal (life, sensation &
locomotion), vegetable (life) and mineral (concrete bodies without life,
etc). Included non-living things. Also devised binomial system for naming
organisms at genus and species level.
1866: Ernst Haekel- 3 kingdom system- Animalia, Plantae (also fungi) and
Protista (everything else).

1950s: electron microscope- prokaryotic cells placed in separate

kingdom- Monera.
1967: R.H. Whittaker- fungi as separate eukaryotic kingdom. Also proposed
5 kingdoms. Eukaryotes organised into Animalia, Plantae, fungi and
Protista.
1977: Woese- radical new scheme- used molecular characteristics instead
of morphology for classification of living things.

5 kingdoms are:

ANIMALIA
Unicellular/multicellular organisms do not contain
chlorophyll/make own food (heterotrophic)
Eukaryotic cells, no cell wall
PLANTAE
Contain chlorophyll/other pigment can make own food
(photosynthetic autotrophs)
Eukaryotic cells, rigid cell wall containing cellulose
FUNGI
Eukaryotic cells, cell wall containing chitin, do not contain
chlorophyll (heterotrophic)
Some unicellular (yeasts), others multicellular
Typically form from a spore produced by one parent
PROTISTA
Multicellular/unicellular eukaryotic organisms (protozoans, some
algae)
Can be photosynthetic autotrophs or heterotrophic
MONERA
Single celled, prokaryotic organisms (bacteria, cyanobacteria)
Some may form chains of cells
Reproduce by binary fission (one cell splits in two)
Can be autotrophic (photo/chemosynthetic) or heterotrophic

Kingdo
m

Animalia

Class

Chordate,
vertebrate/invertebrate
Mammal

Order

Primate

Phylum

Heterotroph

King

Backbone

Phillip

Hair/suckle young
Forward eyes/opposable
thumbs

Comes
Over

Family
Genus
Species

Hominid
Homo
Sapien

No tail
Upright walk
Large forebrain

For
Good
Sex

4.2.4 Discuss, using examples, the impact of changes in technology on the

development and revision of biological classification systems

Light microscope living cells made up of cells

Electron microscope internal structure of cells in more detail, study
difference between eukaryotic/prokaryotic cells
Can now make comparisons at molecular level
Biochemical techniques identify amino acid sequences in proteins/bases in
DNA
Sequence data held in databases accessible to scientists worldwide now
used as tools in classification/help to accurately chart evolutionary
relationships

Examples:

DNA sequencing has revealed tree shrews not related to primates. They
have been reclassified as the only member of a new group, Scandentia.
Woeses discovery of 2 major groups within Monera are based on
molecular rather than anatomical structure
1988: new classification of flowering plants proposed by international
group of botanists- using traditional morphological features as well as
gene sequences revealed by new techniques. This new system suggested
some evolutionary relationships previously unknown. E.g. AUS plant family
Proteaceae (includes grevilleas, banksias and waratahs) was shown to be
related to northern hemisphere family Platanaceae (plane trees). Also
family Epacridaceae (AUS native heaths) should be placed in the family
Ericaceae (includes azaleas, rhododendrons and Scottish heather).

4.2.5 Describe the main features of the binomial system in naming organisms
and relate these to the concepts of genus and species

The binomial aspect of this system means that each organism is given two
names- a generic name (genus) and a specific name (species).
Binomial system= binary nomenclature
This system allows scientists to speak the same language when referring
to living things and avoids confusion of multiple common names that may
differ based on religion, culture or native language.
Scientific name (in italics)

Genus is capitalised and species name is in lower case. Homo sapiens

(humans)

1. GENUS (pl genera) generic

Taxonomic classification lower than family and higher than species.
So more general.
2. SPECIES specific epithet
second part of scientific name
refers to one species within a genus
species: group organisms w similar anatomical characteristics;
successfully interbreed viable offspring
A mule isnt because its an infertile hybrid of a male donkey and
female horse.

4.2.6 Identify and discuss the difficulties experienced in classifying extinct

organisms

difficult to classify extinct organisms becoming impossible to study

biochemistry/fine cell structure
studying modern organisms not always guarantee of similar ancestors

4.2.7 Explain how classification of organisms can assist in developing an

understanding of present and past life on Earth

On discovering unknown organisms, researchers begin classification by:

1. looking for anatomical features that appear to have same function as
those found on other species
2. determining whether or not similarities are due to an independent
evolutionary development or descent from common ancestor then two
species probably closely related and should be classified into same/near
biological categories

Homology: anatomical features of different organisms w similar

appearance/function common ancestor
bear, bird, human same functional types of bones as common
reptilian ancestor homologous structures

 Homoplasies: non homologous structural similarities between species

independent development. The common ancestor did not have the
same anatomical structures as its descendants. Homoplastic structures
can be the result of parallelism, convergence, analogies or mere
chance.

Parallelism/parallel evolution: similar evolutionary development in

different species lines after divergence from common ancestor that did not
have characteristic but did have initial anatomical feature that led to it.

Convergence/convergent evolution: the development of a similar

anatomical feature in distinct species lines after divergence from a
common ancestor that did not have the initial trait that led to it. Common
ancestor= more distant in time.
There are a number of Australian marsupials that are striking
examples of convergent evolution with placental mammals
elsewhere.
Both parallelism and convergence are thought to be due to separate
species lines experiencing the same kinds of natural selection
pressures.

Analogy: anatomical features that have the same form/function in

different species that have no known common ancestor.
E.g. wings of butterflys and birds are analogous structure because
theyre superficially similar in shape and function. Although wings
are quite different on inside- birds have bones where butterflys had
no bones at all and are kept rigid mostly through flying pressure.
Analogies may be due to homologies or Homoplasies but the
common ancestor if any is unknown.

Problems in classifying Organisms

The listing system makes it appear that the species characteristics are
fixed forever but thats not the case because evolution has always been
happening and always will change.
Within a species, each organism is genetically and physically diverse.
Determining specific characteristics that actually distinguish from all other
types of organisms. Not obvious what most important traits are.
Splitter approach: defines new species based on minor differences
between organisms.
Lumber approach: ignores minor differences and emphasises major
similarities. Results in fewer species being defined.
Breeding experiments if 2 organisms can mate and produce fertile
offspring theyre members of same species. Although must be careful
because members of closely related species can reproduce together and
small fraction may be fertile. E.g. mules about 1 out of 10,000 are
fertile.
Breeding experiments: rarely undertaken because of practical difficultiestime consuming and wild animals do not always cooperate.
Comparisons of DNA sequences- commonly used as aid of distinguishing
species. It tells us that they might be closely related but not if theyre the
same species. Therefore were left with morphological characteristics as
most commonly used criteria for identifying species differences.
Linnaean scheme for classification of living things lumps organisms
together based on presumed homologies. Assumption: the more
homologies 2 organisms share the closer they must be in evolutionary
distance.
Hierarchical system highest category consists of all living things and
lowest is a single species. Species- has heaps of sub categories.
Cladistics they make a distinction between derived and primitive traits
when they evaluate importance of homologies for determining placement
of organisms within the Linnaean classification system. Derived traits are
those that have changed from the ancestral form and/or function. E.g. the
foot of a modern horse. Its distant early mammal ancestor had 5 digits.
The bones of these digits have been largely fused together in horses
giving them essentially only one toe with a hoof. In contrast, primates
have retained the primitive characteristic of having 5 digits on the ends of
their hands and feet. Animals sharing a great many homologies that were

recently derived, rather than only ancestral, are more likely to have a
recent common ancestor. This assumption is the basis of the approach to
classifying known as cladistics.

4.3.1 Perform a first-hand investigation and gather information to construct and

use simple dichotomous keys and show how they can be used to identify a
range of plants and animals using live and preserved specimens,
photographs or diagrams of plants and animals

A dichotomous key can be used to help identify plants and animals. It offers 2
possibilities at each step (dichotomy). With a dichotomous key:

An organism can be keyed out or identified using the key

An organism can be described by working backwards through the key

When constructing the following ideas need to be followed:

The features used to separate organisms must be clear and accurate e.g.
use 3 pairs of legs rather than many legs
Features need to be observable (structural usually)
Features cannot change. Some trees have juvenile leaves which are
different from adult
Useful to have labelled diagram of observable features with key